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96-468: Following his ascension to the throne of Kingdom of Pontus , Mithridates VI of Pontus focused on expanding his kingdom. Mithridates' neighbors, however, were Roman client states, and expansion at their expense would inevitably lead him to conflict with Rome. After successfully incorporating most of the coast around the Black Sea into his kingdom, he turned his attention towards Asia Minor (in particular,

192-538: A Pontic delegation was sent to Rome, and the marshalling of the armies in Anatolia must have taken up the remainder of the year. The Pontic embassy dates to the autumn and early winter 89 BC. The details of the beginning of the war show that the precipitate action was taken by Aquillius himself, who was clearly keen to begin the war before the Pontic legation returned (even though its chances of success were slim following

288-785: A belief that the Mariandyni were a branch of the Bithynians, a belief which cannot be well reconciled with the statement of Herodotus , who clearly distinguishes the Mariandyni from the Thracians or Thyni in Asia Minor . Elsewhere, Strabo states that Mariandyni are Paphlagonians . The descriptions provided by Herodotus suggest that in the Persian army they appeared quite distinct from the Bithyni, and their armor resembled that of

384-656: A charge against the Armenian horses and won a great victory at the Battle of Tigranocerta . Tigranes fled north while Lucullus destroyed his new capital city and dismantled his holdings in the south by granting independence to Sophene and returning Syria to the Seleucid king Antiochus XIII Asiaticus . In 68   BC Lucullus invaded northern Armenia, ravaging the country and capturing Nisibis , but Tigranes avoided battle. Meanwhile, Mithridates invaded Pontus, and in 67 he defeated

480-505: A corps of 120,000 troops armed "in the Roman fashion" and "drilled in the Roman phalanx formation". These units imitated Roman legions , although it is disputed to what degree they achieved this. The navy was organized in a similar fashion as the army. While the kingdom itself provided the main contingent of ships, a small portion represented the Greek cities. The crewmen either came from

576-457: A large Roman force near Zela . Lucullus, now in command of tired and discontented troops, withdrew to Pontus, then to Galatia. He was replaced by two new consuls arriving from Italy with fresh legions, Marcius Rex and Acilius Glabrio . Mithridates now recovered Pontus while Tigranes invaded Cappadocia. In response to increasing pirate activity in the eastern Mediterranean, the senate granted Pompey extensive proconsular Imperium throughout

672-557: A modest Roman observation force under the legatus Lucius Hortensius, elder brother of Quintus Hortensius the orator. But despite his great energy and reputation as an experienced vir militaris , there was little Hortensius could do against the enormous disproportion of the forces descending upon him, other than gather together some Thessalian auxiliary units he had been commissioned to recruit, and fall back southwards. In about April 86 BC, beginning to run short of supplies and increasingly anxious about Lucius Hortensius' safety, Sulla took

768-703: A much higher number. At this point, Mithridates finished capturing Asia Minor and established a presence in Greece. Archelaus was sent to Greece, where he established Aristion as a tyrant in Athens . The Romans quickly declared war. In 87 BC, the proconsul Lucius Cornelius Sulla landed in Epirus (western Greece) and marched on Athens. The course of Sulla's expedition has been pieced together through inscriptions (see: Roman Command Structure during First Mithridatic War ). Marching into Attica through Boeotia , Sulla found

864-458: A navy allowed Mithridates to escape immediate danger by sea, as Lucullus , Sulla's admiral, refused to collaborate with Fimbria to prevent Mithridates sailing away from the port. Mithridates met with Sulla at Dardanus later in 85 BC, and accepted terms which restored all his gains in Asia, Cappadocia and Bithynia to their original rulers, but left him his own kingdom, in return for a huge indemnity and

960-470: A nominal friend and ally. After a lengthy delay they finally came up with a publicly acceptable pronouncement: the Romans did not wish harm done to their ally Mithridates, nor could they allow war to be made against Nicomedes because it was against the interests of Rome that he be weakened. Pelopidas wished to make something of the insufficiency of this answer, but was ushered out. Mithridates knew enough about

1056-547: A peaceful, pro-Roman policy. He sent aid to the Roman ally Attalus II Philadelphus of Pergamon against Prusias II of Bithynia in 155. His successor, Mithridates V of Pontus Euergetes, remained a friend of Rome and in 149 BC sent ships and a small force of auxiliaries to aid Rome in the Third Punic War. He also sent troops for the war against Eumenes III (Aristonicus), who had usurped the Pergamene throne after

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1152-630: A strong ally of Athens and revolted against Artaxerxes , but was betrayed by his son Mithridates II of Cius . Mithridates   II remained as ruler after Alexander's conquests and was a vassal to Antigonus I Monophthalmus , who briefly ruled Asia Minor after the Partition of Triparadisus . Mithridates was killed by Antigonus in 302   BC under suspicion that he was working with his enemy Cassander . Antigonus planned to kill Mithridates' son, also called Mithridates (later named Ktistes, 'founder') but Demetrius   I warned him and he escaped to

1248-641: A time of weakness by their chieftains, or may have slowly descended into it as a result of "being protected out of all they owned" by the Herakleots... The vigorous expansion of the Herakleot territory resulted in the locking of the Mariandyni into their agricultural villages as a dependent people, subject also to impressment as rowers in the fleet." In the early 5th century they seem to still have been an independent people, paying tribute directly to Lydian king Croesus, and to have been at war with Heraclea. In

1344-408: Is possible that Mithridates inherited part of Paphlagonia after the death of its King, Pylaemenes. Mithridates   V married his daughter Laodice to the king of Cappadocia, Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia , and he also went on to invade Cappadocia, though the details of this war are unknown. Hellenization continued under Mithridates   V. He was the first king to widely recruit Greek mercenaries in

1440-650: The Battle of Orchomenus in 85   BC but was once again defeated and suffered heavy losses. As a result of the losses and the unrest they stirred in Asia Minor, as well as the presence of the Roman army now campaigning in Bithynia, Mithridates was forced to accept a peace deal. Mithridates and Sulla met in 85   BC at Dardanus . Sulla decreed that Mithridates had to surrender Roman Asia and return Bithynia and Cappadocia to their former kings. He also had to pay 2,000 talents and provide ships. Mithridates would retain

1536-803: The Boeotian League except Thespiae . Finally, in 87 BC, Lucius Cornelius Sulla set out from Italy with five legions. He marched through Boeotia , which quickly surrendered, and began laying siege to Athens and the Piraeus (the Athenian port city, no longer connected by the Long Walls ). Athens fell in March 86   BC, and the city was sacked. After stiff resistance, Archelaus, the Pontic general in Piraeus, left by sea, and Sulla utterly destroyed

1632-627: The Kingdom of Cappadocia ) where his sister Laodice was Queen. He had his brother-in-law, Ariarathes VI , assassinated by a Cappadocian nobleman, Gordius , who had been an ally of Mithradates. The kingdom was thus left in the hands of Laodice, who continued the rule as regent for her son Ariarathes VII of Cappadocia . Laodice married Nicomedes III of Bithynia , whose country was Pontus' traditional enemy. Nicomedes occupied Cappadocia and Mithridates retaliated by driving him out of Cappadocia and establishing himself as patron of his nephew's kingship on

1728-635: The Senatus consulta authorising Aquillius' mission, and the Treaty. It was a strategic move with a view to serious conflict with the Romans: unlike Nicomedes, Ariobarzanes had done naught to offend. It was thus a de facto declaration of war. The main ancient source, Appian, now states that both sides began to assemble large forces for all-out war, and implies precipitate action by the Pontic King. Instead

1824-792: The Tauric Chersonesus now appealed for his aid against the Scythians in the north. Mithridates sent 6,000 men under General Diophantus. After various campaigns in the north of the Crimea he controlled all of the Chersonesus. Mithridates also developed trade links with cities on the western Black Sea coast. At the time, Rome was fighting the Jugurthine and Cimbric wars. Mithridates and Nicomedes of Bithynia both invaded Paphlagonia and divided it amongst themselves. A Roman embassy

1920-465: The astu , let alone the large Roman army in addition, with no imports coming in by sea. Early in the spring of 86 BC, Taxiles concentrated most of his troops, sent word to Archelaos to join him in the Magnetic ports, and marched south from Macedonia into Thessaly. Archelaos rejected the suggestion. He was the senior officer and preferred to persist with his blockade of Attica. Thessaly was only held by

2016-633: The 3rd century BC. The Kingdom of Pontus was divided into two distinct areas: the coastal region and the Pontic interior. The coastal region bordering the Black Sea was separated from the mountainous inland area by the Pontic Alps , which run parallel to the coast. The river valleys of Pontus also ran parallel to the coast and were quite fertile, supporting cattle herds, millet , and fruit trees, including cherry , apple , and pear . ( Cherry and Cerasus are probably cognates .) The coastal region

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2112-491: The Aegean, he was honored at Delos, and he depicted himself as Apollo on his coins. Mithridates was assassinated at Sinope in 121/0, the details of which are unclear. Because both the sons of Mithridates V, Mithridates   VI and Mithridates Chrestus , were still children, Pontus now came under the regency of his wife Laodice. She favored Chrestus, and Mithridates   VI escaped the Pontic court. Legend would later say this

2208-652: The Aquillian legation ought to have gone home in winter 90/89 BC. Instead, no doubt on the excuse of keeping Mithridates under observation, it began provoking the Pontic King to war. This was considered to be a very risky and even reckless policy with the Italian War still in the balance. The kings, Nicomedes in particular, had taken out big loans in Rome to bribe the Senators to vote for their restoration (this decision

2304-588: The Bithynian raid, preferring to appear as manifestly wronged by what was seen as the puppets and representatives of Rome. The Bithynians returned home with a great deal of plunder – presumably sufficient for Nicomedes to repay his debts. After the raid Mithridates sent his spokesman Pelopidas to the Roman legates and commanders to make a complaint, apparently against Pergamon. At the same time Mithridates continued with his war preparations, trusting especially in his existing alliance with Tigranes of Armenia , although

2400-513: The Bithynians insisted, were aimed not at Bithynia but at Rome herself. Pelopidas countered by agreeing to let bygones be bygones, and accepting all Roman acta in the East. But he insisted that something must be done about the most recent Bithynian acts of aggression: the closing of the Euxine and the invasion and plunder of Pontic territory. He once again called upon the Romans to honour the letter of

2496-402: The Euxine to Pontic ships. Around the middle of spring, 89 BC, Nicomedes invaded the ancient Mithridateian dynastic lands of Mariandynia , plundering as far east as Amastris without encountering resistance. Mithridates had long been preparing a challenge to Roman power and the time was now ripe. As a final means of enlisting as much sympathy as possible in Anatolia, he offered no opposition to

2592-545: The Great of Armenia to invade Cappadocia and remove Ariobarzanes. The Senate sent special orders to Lucius Cornelius Sulla , the propraetor who was in charge of reducing the pirates infesting Cilicia (south of Cappadocia), and charged him with driving out Mithridates's adherents and the Armenians. After initial difficulties Sulla succeeded and Ariobarzanes was restored to his throne. In Bithynia Nicomedes III had died. He

2688-447: The Great of Armenia, to invade Cappadocia, which he did, and Ariobarzanes fled to Rome. Mithridates then deposed Nicomedes   IV from Bithynia, placing Socrates Chrestus on the throne. A Roman army under Manius Aquillius arrived in Asia Minor in 90   BC, prompting Mithridates and Tigranes to withdraw. Cappadocia and Bithynia were restored to their respective monarchs, but then faced large debts to Rome due to their bribes for

2784-601: The Great, who conquered Colchis , Cappadocia , Bithynia , the Greek colonies of the Tauric Chersonesos , and for a brief time the Roman province of Asia . After a long struggle with Rome in the Mithridatic Wars , Pontus was defeated. The kingdom had three cultural strands, which often fused together: Greek (mostly on the coast), Persian, and Anatolian, with Greek becoming the official language in

2880-518: The Greek cities were in rebellion against Mithridates. This rebellion was prompted in no small part by Mithridates' harsh treatment of the islanders of Chios , whom he ordered into slavery after they allegedly kept back loot collected from the previously massacred Romans of the island. After crossing the Hellespont, Flaccus was killed in a mutiny led by Flavius Fimbria , who went on to defeat Mithridates and recapture Pergamum . However, his lack of

2976-665: The Heracleot colonists] fairly peacefully, being in need of protection from... the Bebrykes and the Paphlagones. In time the Herakleots acquired the Lycus Valley as the basis of their prosperity, and the Mariandyni entered a form of collective serfdom in which the saving grace was that they could not be dispersed or sold abroad. How this state of affairs was arrived at is not clear, but the people may have been sold into it at

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3072-716: The Mediterranean in 67   BC. Pompey eliminated the pirates, and in 66 he was assigned command in Asia Minor to deal with Pontus. Pompey organized his forces, close to 45,000 legionaries, including Lucullus' troops, and signed an alliance with the Parthians , who attacked and kept Tigranes busy in the east. Mithridates massed his army, some 30,000 men and 2,000–3,000 cavalry, in the heights of Dasteira in lesser Armenia. Pompey fought to encircle him with earthworks for six weeks, but Mithridates eventually retreated north. Pompey pursued and managed to catch his forces by surprise in

3168-519: The Noble Grecians and Romans (London, John Lane The Bodley Head Ltd.) Caius Marius , pp. 494–524 Sylla , pp. 545–573 The Comparison of Lysander with Sulla , pp. 573–577 Cimon , pp. 577–592 Lucullus , pp. 592–624 The Comparison of Lucullus with Cimon , pp. 624–626 - translated by Rex Warner, with Introductions and notes by Robin Seager, as Fall of

3264-596: The Paphlagonians, which was quite different from that of the Bithyni. The chief city in their territory was Heraclea Pontica , the inhabitants of which reduced the Mariandyni, for a time, to a state of servitude resembling that of the Cretan Mnoae, or the Thessalian Penestae . According to modern researcher John Hind, "...the Mariandyni may have initially ceded some coastal territory [to

3360-473: The Pontic king should be attacked and deposed. Even more importantly, the winding-down of the Italic War now released the troops necessary to effect this. As for Sulla, he had put himself back in the public eye by a good showing as a commander in the Italic War. He had recently married Metella , widow of the recently deceased princeps senatus M. Aemilius Scaurus and cousin of the praetor Metellus Pius and

3456-870: The Roman Republic, Six Lives by Plutarch: Marius, Sulla, Crassus, Pompey, Caesar, Cicero (Penguin Books, 1958; with noted added by Robin Seager, 1972) RE = Real-Encyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft , eds. Pauly, Wissowa, Kroll - "Mithridates Eupator and Rome: A Study of the Background of the First Mithridatic War", Athenaeum 55 (1977), 380-405 - "The Selling of the King: A Note on Mithridates Eupator's Propaganda in 88 B.C.", Hermes 105 (1977), 253-56 Kingdom of Pontus Pontus ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Πόντος Pontos )

3552-442: The Roman senators, and Nicomedes   IV was eventually convinced by Aquillius to attack Pontus in order to repay the debts. He plundered as far as Amastris , and returned with much loot. Mithridates invaded Cappadocia once again, and Rome declared war. In the summer of 89 BC, Mithridates invaded Bithynia and defeated Nicomedes and Aquillius in battle. He moved swiftly into Roman Asia and resistance crumbled; by 88 he had obtained

3648-405: The Roman supply line to Cappadocia in the south, but they suffered heavy casualties. Mithridates, still unwilling to fight a decisive engagement, now began a retreat to Lesser Armenia , where he expected aid from his ally Tigranes the Great. Because of his now weakened cavalry, the retreat turned into an all-out rout, and most of the Pontic army was destroyed or captured. These events led Machares ,

3744-573: The Romans off Chalcedon and laid siege to Cyzicus . Lucullus marched from Phrygia with his five legions and forced Mithridates to retreat to Pontus. In 72   BC Lucullus invaded Pontus through Galatia and marched north following the river Halys to the north coast, he besieged Amisus , which withstood until 70   BC. In 71 he marched through the Iris and Lycus river valleys and established his base in Cabeira . Mithridates sent his cavalry to cut

3840-465: The Seleucid Empire. The sources are silent on Pontus for the years following the death of Mithridates   II, when his son Mithridates   III ruled (c.   220–198/88). Pharnaces I of Pontus was much more successful in his expansion of the kingdom at the expense of the Greek coastal cities. He joined in a war with Prusias I of Bithynia against Eumenes of Pergamon in 188 BC, but

3936-406: The Treaty and help Mithridates punish his attackers, or at least honour its spirit and to stand aside while Mithridates himself took his revenge. Through Pelopidas' skill in presenting the case, Mithridates' attempt to embarrass and even discredit the Roman representatives succeeded. The latter had made a show of listening fairly to both sides and were now embarrassed by the obvious injustice done to

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4032-517: The Treaty between Mithridates and Rome, calling upon the Romans, as friends and allies, to punish or restrain the Bithynian aggressor. Bithynian envoys replied first, citing Pontic aggression against Bithynia and her present king, the ominous Pontic build-up of arms, territory and resources, and alliances – from Armenia to Thrace – while negotiations were still in progress with the Ptolemaic Empire and Seleucid Empire . Such vast preparations,

4128-492: The army of Pontus adopted the Macedonian phalanx ; it fielded a corps of Chalkaspides ('bronze-shields'), for example against Sulla at the Battle of Chaeronea , while at the same battle 15,000 phalangites were recruited from freed slaves . Pontus also fielded various cavalry units, including cataphracts . In addition to normal cavalry Pontus also fielded scythed chariots . Under Mithridates VI Pontus also fielded

4224-465: The autumn of 88 Mithridates also placed Rhodes under siege, but he failed to take it. In Athens , anti-Roman elements were emboldened by the news and soon formed an alliance with Mithridates. A joint Pontic–Athenian naval expedition took Delos in 88   BC, and granted the city to Athens. Many Greek city-states now joined Mithridates, including Sparta , the Achaean League , and most of

4320-412: The bold decision to quit Attica and march into the fertile plains of Boeotia to feed his army, but also expose it to the great cavalry strength of the Pontic army. This move gave Archelaeus little choice but to sail northward and link up with Taxiles. In Boeotia, Sulla met and defeated Archelaeus in the Battle of Chaeronea (86 BC) . Archelaeus gathered his remaining forces on the island of Euboea where he

4416-1005: The bottom of a ter scriptus manuscript palimpsest: see L. D. Reynolds (ed.) Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics (Oxford, 1983). - ed. Michael Flemisch Grani Liciniani quae supersunt (G.B. Teubner, Stuttgart, 1904; reprint 1967) - ed. N. Crinti (Leipzig, 1981) - ed. René Henry Photius Bibliothèque Tome IV: Codices 223-229 (Association Guillaume Budé, Paris, 1965), pp. 48–99: Greek text with French translation - ed. K. Müller FHG III , 525: Greek text with Latin translation - ed. F. Jacoby FGrH no.434: Greek text, detailed commentary in German - ed. K. Müller FHG III , 602ff. - ed. F. Jacoby FGrH no.257 - English translations and commentary by William Hansen, Phlegon of Tralles' Book of Marvels (University of Exeter Press, 1996) - translated by John Dryden, with revision by Arthur Hugh Clough, as Plutarch: Lives of

4512-631: The client Kingdom of Pontus, Colchis, and Cilicia until Polemon   II was forced to abdicate the Pontic throne by Nero in AD ;62. Although the Pontic kings claimed descent from the Persian royal house, they generally acted as Hellenistic kings and portrayed themselves as such in their coins, mimicking Alexander's royal stater . The army of the Pontic Kingdom had a varied ethnic composition, as it recruited its soldiers from all over

4608-399: The communities of the Roman province to the Pontic cause, the king should arrange for the extermination of all Romans in the province without regard to age or sex, and force the participation of all the Greek civic authorities, thus shaking off Roman rule permanently and irrevocably. Soon after securing control of the province in spring 88 BC, Mithridates proceeded with his plans. The massacre

4704-763: The consul Lucullus took over Cilicia , Mithridates faced Roman commanders on two fronts. The Cilician pirates had not been completely defeated, and Mithridates signed an alliance with them. He was also allied with the government of Quintus Sertorius in Spain and with his help reorganized some of his troops in the Roman legionary pattern with short stabbing swords. The Third Mithridatic war broke out when Nicomedes   IV of Bithynia died without heirs in 75 and left his kingdom to Rome. In 74   BC Rome mobilized its armies in Asia Minor, probably provoked by some move made by Mithridates, but our sources are not clear on this. In 73 Mithridates invaded Bithynia, and his fleet defeated

4800-551: The death of Attalus III . After Rome received the Kingdom of Pergamon in the will of Attalus   III in the absence of an heir, they turned part of it into the province of Asia, while giving the rest to loyal allied kings. For his loyalty Mithridates was awarded the region of Phrygia Major. The kingdom of Cappadocia received Lycaonia . Because of this it seems reasonable to assume that Pontus had some degree of control over Galatia , since Phrygia does not border Pontus directly. It

4896-612: The east with six horsemen. Mithridates first went to the city of Cimiata in Paphlagonia and later to Amasya in Cappadocia. He ruled from 302 to 266   BC, fought against Seleucus I and, in 281 (or 280) BC, declared himself king ( basileus ) of a state in northern Cappadocia and eastern Paphlagonia. He further expanded his kingdom to the river Sangrius in the west. His son Ariobarzanes captured Amastris in 279, its first important Black sea port. Mithridates also allied with

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4992-522: The immediate allegiance of most of its cities, foremost among them Thebes . Most of the Peloponnese would soon follow after a victory mentioned by Pausanias (1.20.5) and Memnon (22.11). Athens, nevertheless, remained loyal to Mithridates, despite a bitter siege throughout the winter of 87/6. Sulla captured Athens on March 1, 86 BC, but Archelaus evacuated Piraeus , and landed in Boeotia , where he

5088-450: The kingdom. The standing army included Armenians , Bastarnae , Bithynians , Cappadocians , Galatians , Heniochoi , Iazyges , Koralloi , Leucosyrians , Phrygians , Sarmatians , Scythians , Tauri , and Thracians , as well as soldiers from other areas around the Black Sea. The Greeks who served in the military were not part of the standing army, but rather fought as citizens of their respective cities. Like many Hellenistic armies ,

5184-402: The late summer 90 BC a Senatorial legation was sent east, under Manius Aquillius and Manlius Maltinus, to restore Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes to their kingdoms. The Senate also sent instructions to Cassius, the Roman governor (probably a propraetor) of the Roman province of Asia, who had a small army and to Mithridates Eupator himself to assist the restorations. Cassius' small army was probably

5280-617: The latter more so with the coastal region. By the time of Mithridates   VI Eupator, Greek was the official language of the Kingdom, though Anatolian languages continued to be spoken in the interior. The region of Pontus was originally part of the Persian satrapy of Cappadocia (Katpatuka). The Persian dynasty which was to found this kingdom had, during the 4th century BC, ruled the Greek city of Cius (or Kios) in Mysia , with its first known member being Mithridates of Cius. His son Ariobarzanes   II became satrap of Phrygia . He became

5376-596: The loan of 70 ships to Sulla to return to Rome and face his enemies. Following this and realizing that he could not face Sulla, Fimbria fell on his sword. This left Sulla to settle Asia, which he did by imposing a huge indemnity on the Greek cities there, along with demands for five years of back taxes, thus leaving the Asian cities heavily in debt for a long time to come. post-Hadrian annalist survives in retrieved fragments, from books XXVI, XXVIII, XXXIII, XXXV and XXXVI of his history, in 5th century uncials of African origin at

5472-551: The loans that had been needed for the bribes. Fearing the power of Mithridates (and probably aware that the Senate had given no such orders), both kings demurred. But Nicomedes' creditors persisted with their pressure until he at last consented. It was probably at the end of autumn, 90 BC, that Nicomedes regained control of the Thracian Bosporos and in the new sailing season (from mid-March, 89 BC) he prevented egress from

5568-478: The more distant connection with Parthia was now without use because his ally Mithridates II had been slain by his rival Sanatruk attacking from the east in summer 91 BC, and a serious internal war persisted between Sanatruk and Mithridates' eldest son and heir Gotarzes I . Eventually the Parthian internal conflict was to seize the entire attention of Tigranes too, but this could not yet be known. The Pontic king

5664-479: The newly arrived Galatians and defeated a force sent against him by Ptolemy I . Ptolemy had been expanding his territory in Asia Minor since the beginning of the First Syrian war against Antiochus in the mid-270s and was allied with Mithridates' enemy, Heraclea Pontica . We know little of Ariobarzanes' short reign, except that when he died his son Mithridates   II (c.   250—189) became king and

5760-429: The night, and the Pontic army suffered heavy casualties. After the battle, Pompey founded the city of Nicopolis. Mithridates fled to Colchis, and later to his son Machares in the Crimea in 65   BC. Pompey now headed east into Armenia, where Tigranes submitted to him, placing his royal diadem at his feet. Pompey took most of Tigranes' empire in the east but allowed him to remain as king of Armenia. Meanwhile, Mithridates

5856-400: The port city. Meanwhile, Mithridates had sent his son Arcathias with a large army via Thrace into Greece. Sulla now headed north, seeking the fertile plains of Boeotia to supply his army. At the Battle of Chaeronea , Sulla inflicted severe casualties on Archelaus, who nevertheless retreated and continued to raid Greece with the Pontic fleet. Archelaus regrouped and attacked a second time at

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5952-409: The province of Asia in Anatolia, and it had also rescinded the region of Phrygia Major from Pontus during the reign of Laodice. Mithridates began his expansion by inheriting Lesser Armenia from King Antipater (precise date unknown, c.115–106) and by conquering the Kingdom of Colchis . Colchis was an important region in Black Sea trade – rich with gold, wax, hemp, and honey. The cities of

6048-477: The region between the rivers Sangarius and Billaeus , on the east of the territory occupied by another tribe called Thyni or Bithyni . According to Scylax of Caryanda , they did not extend as far west as the Sangarius, for according to him the river Hypius formed the boundary between the Bithyni and Mariandyni. Ancient sources are vague as to the ethnic affiliation of the Mariandyni. Strabo expresses

6144-454: The region by sending troops; Mithridates swiftly invaded, placing his nephew Ariarathes VII of Cappadocia on the throne of Cappadocia. War soon broke out between the two, and Mithridates invaded with a large Pontic army, but Ariarathes   VII was murdered in 101   BC before any battle was fought. Mithridates then installed his eight-year-old son, Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia as king, with Gordius as regent. In 97 Cappadocia rebelled, but

6240-422: The reoccupation of Cappadocia, the possibility remained, in the context of the disastrous Italic War losses, that the Senate might prefer to negotiate a settlement and send a new legation to replace the provocative Aquillius). Marius' instructions to Aquillius had probably been to precipitate war and thus present the Senate with a fait accompli . But the present situation was even better from Marius' viewpoint, since

6336-487: The rest of his holdings and become an ally of Rome. The treaty agreed with Sulla was not to last. From 83 to 82   BC Mithridates fought against and defeated Licinius Murena , who had been left by Sulla to organize the province of Asia. The so-called Second Mithridatic war ended without any territorial gains by either side. The Romans now began securing the coastal region of Lycia and Pamphylia from pirates and established control over Pisidia and Lycaonia . When in 74

6432-443: The river Lycus and Iris. The major city of the interior was Amasia , the early Pontic capital, where the Pontic kings had their palace and royal tombs. Besides Amasia and a few other cities, the interior was dominated mainly by small villages. The kingdom of Pontus was divided into districts named Eparchies. The division between coast and interior was also cultural. The coast was mainly Greek and focused on sea trade. The interior

6528-410: The royal house being identified with the Persian god Ahuramazda of the Achaemenid dynasty; both Apollo and Mithras were worshipped by the Kings. Indeed, the name used by the majority of the Pontic kings was Mithridates, which means "given by Mithras". Pontic culture represented a synthesis between Iranian, Anatolian and Greek elements, with the former two mostly associated with the interior parts, and

6624-399: The sea lanes, holding position off Mounychia with his fleet and preventing any food or materiel reaching the city or the Roman army by sea. By the early spring Archelaos' strategy was biting hard. Rocky Attica provided good security for operations against the large Pontic cavalry forces massed in Macedonia, but it was infertile and notoriously incapable even of fully supporting the population of

6720-569: The son of Mithridates and ruler of the Crimean Bosporus, to seek an alliance with Rome. Mithridates fled to Armenia. In the summer of 69 Lucullus invaded Armenian territory, marching with 12,000 men through Cappadocia into Sophene . His target was Tigranocerta , the new capital of Tigranes's empire. Tigranes retreated to gather his forces. Lucullus laid siege to the city, and Tigranes returned with his army, including large numbers of heavily armored cavalrymen, termed Cataphracts , vastly outnumbering Lucullus' force. Despite this, Lucullus led his men in

6816-515: The standard peacetime garrison force of between a whole and half legion (5 to 10 cohorts) and a few local auxiliary units – certainly no more than 5,000 troops in all. The Aquillian legation soon augmented it with a large force of Galatian and Phrygian auxiliary regiments and with these troops proceeded to restore both monarchs. Mithridates, angry with the Romans, refused to cooperate but neither did he offer opposition and both kings were restored without any fighting in autumn 90 BC. Its mandate achieved,

6912-409: The surrender of most of the newly created province. He was welcomed in many cities, where the residents chafed under Roman tax farming . In 88 Mithridates also ordered the massacre of at least 80,000 Romans and Italians in what became known as the ' Asiatic Vespers '. Many Greek cities in Asia Minor happily carried out the orders; this ensured that they could no longer return to an alliance with Rome. In

7008-569: The throne. When Ariarathes refused to welcome Gordius back, Mithridates invaded Cappadocia again and killed Ariarathes. He proceeded to place his son, also called Ariarathes, on the throne of Cappadocia under the guardianship of Gordius. Nicomedes appealed to the Roman Senate , which decreed that Mithridates be removed from Cappadocia and Nicomedes be removed from Paphlagonia and the Senate appointed Ariobarzanes I of Cappadocia as King of Cappadocia. Mithridates prompted his son-in-law Tigranes

7104-563: The two made peace in 183 after Bithynia suffered a series of reversals. He took Sinope in 182   BC and although the Rhodians complained to Rome about this, nothing was done. Pharnaces also took the coastal cities of Cotyora , Pharnacia , and Trapezus in the east, effectively gaining control of most of the northern Anatolian coastline. Despite Roman attempts to keep the peace, Pharnaces fought against Eumenes of Pergamon and Ariarathes of Cappadocia. While initially successful, it seems he

7200-554: The uprising was swiftly put down by Mithridates. Afterwards, Mithridates and Nicomedes   III both sent embassies to Rome. The Roman Senate decreed that Mithridates had to withdraw from Cappadocia and Nicomedes from Paphlagonia. Mithridates obliged, and the Romans installed Ariobarzanes in Cappadocia. In 91/90   BC, while Rome was busy in the Social War in Italy, Mithridates encouraged his new ally and son-in-law, King Tigranes

7296-465: The various tribes of the kingdom, or were of Greek origin. Mariandyni The Mariandyni ( Ancient Greek : Μαριανδυνοί or Μαρυανδυνοί ) were an ancient tribe in the north-east of Bithynia . Their country was called Mariandynia (Μαριανδυνία, Stephanus of Byzantium s. v.) and Pliny speaks of a Sinus Mariandynus ("Mariandynian Gulf") on their coast. Greek myths have Mariandynus as their presumed eponymous hero. The Mariandyni inhabited

7392-474: The war was now inevitable but still impending: which gave him time to get out to Asia province before it began, if he hurried. However, it was not Marius but Sulla, the newly elected consul, who received the command against Mithridates (autumn 89 BC, probably calendar December). News of Mithridates' second expulsion of Ariobarzanes (c. July 89 BC) must have reached Rome in September, a month or two before Sulla

7488-455: The workings of Roman politics to seek redress from the Senate, were he really interested. Instead he wanted to act under the éclat of the recent violation of his territory. After Pelopidas' return he sent his son Ariarathes into Cappadocia with a strong army. The occupation (summer 89 BC) was rapid and once again (now for a fourth time) Ariobarzanes I the philoromaios was expelled and the rule of Mithridates' son enforced. This violated both of

7584-519: The young Luculli brothers. He was also close to his colleague, Pompeius Rufus, whose son was already married, with at least one child, to his daughter Cornelia. In Bithynia Mithridates received a radical and strange piece of advice from a prominent Greek philosopher at his court, Metrodoros of Skepsis, who was known as ho misoromaios (the Roman-hater) on account of the extremity of his anti-Roman sentiments. Metrodoros suggested that in order to bind

7680-638: Was a Hellenistic kingdom centered in the historical region of Pontus in modern-day Turkey , and ruled by the Mithridatic dynasty of Persian origin, which may have been directly related to Darius the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty . The kingdom was proclaimed by Mithridates I in 281   BC and lasted until its conquest by the Roman Republic in 63   BC. The Kingdom of Pontus reached its largest extent under Mithridates VI

7776-423: Was a given in accordance with long-term policy in the region, but it appears that by now nothing much was done by the Senate in foreign affairs without accompanying payments from the foreigners with something to gain by Roman intervention). Aquillius' retinue included representatives of the lenders. With Aquillius' support they now urged the two kings to invade the Pontic kingdom to secure the funds with which to repay

7872-551: Was also exploiting carefully prepared networks of support and recruitment among the Thracians and the Scythians , and now solicited help and alliances from the kings in Syria and from Ptolemy Alexander I and the Cretans. The Pontic envoy Pelopidas cleverly ignored the fact that Aquillius and his suite had induced the Bithynian raid. Instead he let out propaganda about Roman intolerance towards Mithridates and concluded by appealing to

7968-421: Was also made into a client kingdom. Pharnaces   II later made an attempt at reconquering Pontus. During the civil war of Caesar and Pompey, he invaded Asia Minor (48   BC), taking Colchis, lesser Armenia, Pontus, and Cappadocia and defeating a Roman army at Nicopolis. Caesar responded swiftly and defeated him at Zela , where he uttered the famous phrase ' Veni, vidi, vici '. Pontic kings continued to rule

8064-615: Was attacked by the Galatians. Mithridates   II received aid from Heraclea Pontica , who was also at war with the Galatians at this time. Mithridates went on to support Antiochus Hierax against his brother Seleucus   II Callinicus. Seleucus was defeated in Anatolia by Hierax, Mithridates, and the Galatians. Mithridates also attacked Sinope in 220 but failed to take the city. He married Seleucus   II's sister and gave his daughter in marriage to Antiochus   III, to obtain recognition for his new kingdom and create strong ties with

8160-567: Was carefully planned and co-ordinated to take the victims by surprise, in every community and all at once. In writing to all the civic authorities of the province, detailing the measures to be taken, the king stipulated that the killings were to be carried out exactly one month after the date of his letter. The date in question is not recorded but fell around early May 88 BC. What took place on that day profoundly affected Roman/Hellenistic relations. Appian states that 80,000 Romans and Italians were killed in these " Asiatic Vespers ", while Plutarch gives

8256-500: Was defeated at the Battle of Chaeronea . Sulla's army took Athens on the Kalends of March, in the consulship of Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna, February 12, 86 BC. The siege of Athens was a long and brutal campaign, and Sulla's rough battle-hardened legions, veterans of the Social War , thoroughly besieged and stormed Athens. Soon afterwards he captured Athens' harbor of Piraeus, looting and demolishing this area, most of which

8352-569: Was destroyed by fire, including architect Philon 's famous arsenal. Caius Scribonius Curio Burbulieus was put in charge of the siege of the Acropolis of Athens , and it was "some time" before Aristion and his followers surrendered when their water ran out (perhaps the late spring). Athens was punished severely, in a show of vengeance that ensured Greece would remain docile during later civil wars and Mithridatic wars. Even after Sulla seized Piraeus, Archelaeus persisted in exploiting his command of

8448-499: Was dominated by Greek cities such as Amastris and Sinope, which became the Pontic capital after its capture. The coast was rich in timber, fishing, and olives. Pontus was also rich in iron and silver , which were mined near the coast south of Pharnacia ; steel from the Chalybian mountains became quite famous in Greece. There were also copper , lead , zinc and arsenic . The Pontic interior also had fertile river valleys such as

8544-411: Was elected consul with Pompeius Rufus, for Plutarch records at the time of his entry into office: Sulla regarded his consulate as a very minor matter compared with future events. What fired his imagination was the thought of the war against Mithridates. Here, however, he found himself opposed by Marius. Clearly the prevalent view at Rome was that the reoccupation of Cappadocia was the last straw and that

8640-630: Was occupied by the Anatolian Cappadocians and Paphlagonians ruled by an Iranian aristocracy that went back to the Persian empire. The interior also had powerful temples with large estates. The gods of the Kingdom were mostly syncretic, with features of local gods along with Persian and Greek deities. Major gods included the Persian Ahuramazda , who was termed Zeus Stratios; the moon god Men Pharnacou; and Ma (interpreted as Cybele). Sun gods were particularly popular, with

8736-513: Was organizing a defense of the Crimea when his son Pharnaces led the army in revolt; Mithridates was forced to commit suicide or was assassinated. Most of the western half of Pontus and the Greek cities of the coast, including Sinope, were annexed by Rome directly as part of the Roman province of Bithynia et Pontus . The interior and eastern coast remained an independent client kingdom. The Bosporan Kingdom also remained independent under Pharnaces II of Pontus as an ally and friend of Rome. Colchis

8832-598: Was overmatched by 179 when he was forced to sign a treaty. He had to give up all lands he had obtained in Galatia , and Paphlagonia and the city of Tium, but he kept Sinope. Seeking to extend his influence to the north, Pharnaces allied with the cities in the Chersonesus and with other Black Sea cities such as Odessus on the Bulgarian coast. Pharnaces' brother, Mithridates   IV Philopator Philadelphus adopted

8928-494: Was reinforced by Mithridates with 80,000 men from Asia Minor. He then returned to mainland Greece where he was again defeated by Sulla, this time at the Battle of Orchomenus . Greece was fully restored to Roman rule. By now, Rome had also sent a force under Lucius Valerius Flaccus , to apprehend Sulla and deal with Mithridates. Flaccus' army passed through Macedonia, crossed the Hellespont and landed in Asia, where many of

9024-540: Was sent, but it accomplished nothing. Mithridates also took a part of Galatia that had previously been part of his father's kingdom and intervened in Cappadocia, where his sister Laodice was queen. In 116 the king of Cappadocia, Ariarathes   VI, was murdered by the Cappadocian noble Gordius at the behest of Mithridates, and Laodice ruled as regent over the sons of Ariarathes until 102   BC. After Nicomedes III of Bithynia married Laodice, he tried to intervene in

9120-402: Was succeeded by his son Nicomedes IV . Unfortunately for Nicomedes IV, his bastard half-brother, Socrates Chrestus , supported by Mithridates drove him from his kingdom. Nicomedes fled to Rome and got the support of the Romans who promised to restore him to his throne. Mithridates main ally, his son-in-law Tigranes, had once again invaded Cappadocia and driven Ariobarzanes from his throne. In

9216-498: Was the time he traveled through Asia Minor, building his resistance to poisons and learning all of the languages of his subjects. He returned in 113   BC to depose his mother; she was thrown into prison, and he eventually had his brother killed. Mithridates VI Eupator, 'the Good Father', followed a decisive anti-Roman agenda, extolling Greek and Iranian culture against ever-expanding Roman influence. Rome had recently created

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