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112-589: The Federalists were dominant until 1800, while the Republicans were dominant after 1800. Both parties originated in national politics, but soon expanded their efforts to gain supporters and voters in every state. The Federalists, successors to the Pro-Administration faction that favored Washington’s policies, appealed to the business community and had their base in the North, while the Republicans, like

224-558: A Federalist majority, submitted to the states a series of amendments to guarantee specific freedoms and rights; once ratified, these would become the first ten amendments to the Constitution. Upon taking office in 1789, President Washington nominated his wartime chief of staff Alexander Hamilton to the new office of Secretary of the Treasury . Hamilton wanted a strong national government with financial credibility, and he proposed

336-454: A century earlier, convinced him that public debts were a nursery of multiple public evils—corruption, legislative impotence, executive tyranny, social inequality, financial speculation, and personal indolence. Not only was it necessary to extinguish the existing debt as rapidly as possible, he argued, but Congress would have to ensure against the accumulation of future debts by more diligently supervising government expenditures. Andrew Jackson saw

448-505: A century.) This highly coordinated "get-out-the-vote" drive would be familiar to modern political campaigners, but was the first of its kind in world history. The Jeffersonians invented many campaign techniques that the Federalists later adopted and that became standard American practice. They were especially effective at building a network of newspapers in major cities to broadcast their statements and editorialize in their favor. But

560-628: A facilitated access to the government itself through the channels of party passions. Thus the policy and the will of one country are subjected to the policy and will of another. Washington never considered himself a member of any party, but broadly supported most Federalist policies. The spoils system helped finance Federalist printers until 1801 and Republican editors after that. Federalist Postmasters General , Timothy Pickering (1791–94) and Joseph Habersham (1795–1801) appointed and removed local postmasters to maximize party funding. Numerous printers were appointed as postmasters. They did not deliver

672-487: A few years afterwards. The party appealed to businesses who favored banks, national over state government, manufacturing, and an army and navy. In world affairs, the party preferred Great Britain and strongly opposed involvement in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars . The party favored centralization, federalism , modernization, industrialization, and protectionism. The Federalists called for

784-608: A fiery editor of a New York City Anti-Federalist paper, to Philadelphia to start an Anti-Administration newspaper, the National Gazette . Jefferson gave the only State Department patronage position that he had to Freneau. During the Second Congress , the Anti-Administration elements were more numerous and included about 32 House members out of 72. In 1791, Madison and Hamilton again clashed after

896-648: A highly visible celebration of the nation's new civil religion. The Fourth of July became a semi-sacred day—a status it has maintained for much of American history. Its celebration in Boston emphasized national over local patriotism and included orations, dinners, militia musters, parades, marching bands, floats and fireworks. By 1800, the Fourth of July was closely identified with the Federalist Party. Republicans were annoyed and staged their own celebrations on

1008-471: A leading Federalist, who used the term " Jacobin " to link Jefferson's followers to the terrorists of the French Revolution, blamed the newspapers for electing Jefferson, seeing them as "an overmatch for any Government ... The Jacobins owe their triumph to the unceasing use of this engine; not so much to skill in use of it as by repetition." Historians echo Ames' assessment. As one explains, It

1120-519: A new capital stock of several millions of dollars, which, with that before existing, is directed into every branch of business, giving life and vigor to industry in its infinitely diversified operation. The enemies of the general government, the funding act and the National Bank may bellow tyranny, aristocracy, and speculators through the Union and repeat the clamorous din as long as they please; but

1232-617: A rival network of supporters in Congress and in the states. Madison, who largely authored the Constitution, was a Federalist in 1787–1788, but he opposed the program of the Hamiltonians and their new Federalist Party. The group led by Jefferson and Madison emerged in 1792–93 as the Democratic-Republican Party . The elections of 1792 were the first contested on anything resembling a partisan basis. In most states,

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1344-522: A somewhat different coalition of nationalists led by Washington, which advocated replacing the weaker national government under the Articles of Confederation with a new Constitution in 1789. This early coalition included Hamilton and James Madison . The Federalists of this time were rivaled by the Anti-Federalists , who opposed the ratification of the Constitution and objected to creating

1456-463: A strong national government that promoted economic growth and fostered friendly relationships with Great Britain in opposition to Revolutionary France. The Federalist Party came into being between 1789 and 1790 as a national coalition of bankers and businessmen in support of Hamilton's fiscal policies . These supporters worked in every state to build an organized party committed to a fiscally sound and nationalistic government. The only Federalist president

1568-539: A stronger central government. The critiques of the Constitution raised by the Anti-Federalists influenced the creation of the Bill of Rights . Federalists responded to these objections by promising to add a bill of rights as amendments to the Constitution to satisfy these concerns, which aided in securing acceptance and ratification of the Constitution by the states. The new United States Congress , initially with

1680-526: A tariff to pay off those debts, a national bank to facilitate financing, and encouragement of banking and manufacturing. The Republicans, based in the plantation South, opposed strong executive power, were hostile to a standing army and navy, demanded a strict reading of the Constitutional powers of the federal government, and strongly opposed the Hamilton financial program. Perhaps even more important

1792-618: A yeoman farmers' arcadia. At worst, they were proslavery racists who wish to rid the West of Indians, expand the empire of slavery, and keep political power in local hands – all the better to expand the institution of slavery and protect slaveholders' rights to own human property." Pro-Administration Defunct Newspapers Journals TV channels Websites Other Economics Gun rights Identity politics Nativist Religion Watchdog groups Youth/student groups Miscellaneous Other The Federalist Party

1904-596: Is already too strong for the republican parts of the Constitution; and therefore in equivocal cases they incline to the legislative powers: the former of these are called federalists, sometimes aristocrats or monocrats, and sometimes Tories , after the corresponding sect in the English Government of exactly the same definition: the latter are styled republicans, Whigs , jacobins , anarchists , dis-organizers, etc. these terms are in familiar use with most persons. Madison worked diligently to form party lines inside

2016-482: Is already too strong for the republican parts of the Constitution; and therefore in equivocal cases they incline to the legislative powers: the former of these are called federalists, sometimes aristocrats or monocrats, and sometimes tories, after the corresponding sect in the English Government of exactly the same definition: the latter are stiled republicans, whigs, jacobins, anarchists, disorganizers, etc. these terms are in familiar use with most persons. In New England,

2128-485: Is looking at the first letters of all the lines: A sk—who lies here beneath this monument? L o—'tis a self created MONSTER, who E mbraced all vice. His arrogance was like X erxes, who flogg'd the disobedient sea, A dultery his smallest crime; when he N obility affected. This privilege D ecreed by Monarchs, was to that annext. E nticing and entic'd to ev'ry fraud , R enounced virtue, liberty and God. H aunted by whores—he haunted them in turn A ristocratic

2240-457: Is now seen as imprecise since several Anti-Administration leaders supported ratification, including Virginia Representative James Madison. He joined former Anti-Federalists to oppose Hamilton's financial plans in 1790. William Maclay , a leader of the faction in the Senate, used in his Congressional diary the term "Republican". After Jefferson took leadership of the opposition to Hamilton in 1792,

2352-545: The American civil religion . George Washington was always their hero and after his death he became viewed as a sort of demigod looking down from heaven to bestow his blessings on the party. At first, the Federalists focused on commemorating the ratification of the Constitution and organized parades to demonstrate widespread popular support for the new Federalist Party. The parade organizers incorporated secular versions of traditional religious themes and rituals, thereby fostering

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2464-545: The Anti-Administration faction before them, relied on the planters and farmers within their base in the South and non-coastal North. By 1796, politics in every state was nearly monopolized by the two parties, with party newspapers and caucuses becoming effective tools to mobilize voters. The Federalists promoted the financial system of Treasury Secretary Hamilton, which emphasized federal assumption of state debts,

2576-458: The Bill of Rights , which the Federalists agreed to add to the Constitution. At first, there were no parties in the nation. The framers of the Constitution did not want or expect political parties to emerge because they considered them divisive. However, during the presidency of George Washington, factions soon formed around dominant personalities such as Alexander Hamilton , the Secretary of

2688-650: The Constitutional Convention in 1787. It drew up a new constitution that was submitted to state ratification conventions for approval, with the old Congress of the Confederation also approving the process. James Madison was the most prominent figure in the Constitutional Convention; he is often referred to as "the father of the Constitution". An intense debate on ratification pitted the " Federalists ", who supported

2800-715: The Episcopalians in the larger cities supported the Federalists, while other minority denominations tended toward the Republican camp. Catholics in Maryland were generally Federalists. The state networks of both parties began to operate in 1794 or 1795, and patronage became a factor. The winner-takes-all election system opened a wide gap between winners, who got all the patronage, and losers who got none. Hamilton had many lucrative Treasury jobs to dispense—there were 1,700 of them by 1801. Jefferson had one part-time job in

2912-649: The Jay Treaty negotiated in 1794. Hamilton developed the concept of implied powers and successfully argued the adoption of that interpretation of the Constitution. The Democratic-Republicans led by Jefferson denounced most of the Federalist policies, especially the bank and implied powers, and vehemently attacked the Jay Treaty as a sell-out of republican values to the British monarchy. The Jay Treaty passed and

3024-492: The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions (1798), secretly drafted by Madison and Jefferson, the legislatures of the two states challenged the power of the federal government. Jefferson and Albert Gallatin focused on the danger that the public debt, unless it was paid off, would be a threat to republican values. They were appalled that Hamilton was increasing the national debt and using it to solidify his Federalist base. Gallatin

3136-787: The Quasi-War (1798–1800), an undeclared naval war involving the navies and merchant ships of both countries. Democratic-Republicans said France really wanted peace, but the XYZ Affair undercut their position. Warning that full-scale war with France was imminent, Hamilton and his "High Federalist" allies forced the issue by getting Congressional approval to raise a large new army (which Hamilton controlled), replete with officers' commissions (which he bestowed on his partisans). The Alien and Sedition Acts (1798) clamped down on dissenters, including pro-Jefferson editors, and Vermont Congressman Matthew Lyon , who won re-election while in jail in 1798. In

3248-867: The Reign of Terror , when thousands were guillotined, though it was at this point that many began backing away from their pro-France leanings. Many of those executed had been friends of the United States, such as the Comte D'Estaing , whose fleet had fought alongside the Americans in the Revolution ( Lafayette had already fled into exile, and Thomas Paine went to prison in France). The republicans denounced Hamilton, Adams and even Washington as friends of Britain, as secret monarchists , aristocrats and as enemies of

3360-575: The Senate included that provision. The deadlock was broken by the Compromise of 1790 , a deal between Madison and Secretary of State Jefferson on one hand and Hamilton on the other, which included both assumption and the location of the national capital in the South, which later became the District of Columbia . In the summer of 1791, Jefferson and Madison brought the journalist Philip Freneau ,

3472-402: The war between France and Great Britain . Hamilton proposed to fund the national and state debts, and Madison and John J. Beckley began organizing a party to oppose it. This " Anti-Administration " faction became what is now called the Democratic-Republican Party , led by Madison and Thomas Jefferson. This party attracted many Anti-Federalists who were wary of a centralized government. By

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3584-543: The "Pro-Administration party". Washington was re-elected without opposition in 1792. Hamilton built a national network of supporters that emerged about 1792–93 as the Federalist Party . This was a somewhat different coalition from the previous Federalist group, consisting of supporters of the Constitution in 1787–1788 as well as entirely new elements, and even a few former opponents of the Constitution (such as Patrick Henry ). In response, Jefferson and Madison built

3696-426: The 1778 treaty that was still in effect. Washington and his unanimous cabinet (including Jefferson) decided the treaty did not bind the U.S. to enter the war; instead Washington proclaimed neutrality. When war threatened with Britain in 1794, Washington sent John Jay to negotiate the Jay Treaty with Britain; it was signed in late 1794, and ratified in 1795. It averted a possible war and settled many (but not all) of

3808-416: The Congress and build coalitions with sympathetic political factions in each state. In 1800, a critical election galvanized the electorate, sweeping the Federalists out of power, and electing Jefferson and his Democratic-Republican Party. Adams made a few last minute, "midnight appointments", notably Federalist John Marshall as Chief Justice. Marshall held the post for three decades and used it to federalize

3920-431: The Constitution and were led by Madison and Hamilton, against the " Anti-Federalists ", who opposed the new Constitution. The Federalists won and the Constitution was ratified. The Anti-Federalists were deeply concerned about the theoretical danger of a strong central government (like that of Britain) that someday could usurp the rights of the states. The Anti-Federalist argument influenced the drafting and eventual passage of

4032-402: The Constitution, much to Jefferson's dismay. As president, Jefferson worked to cleanse the government of Adams's "midnight appointments", withholding the commissions of 25 of 42 appointed judges and removing army officers. The sense that the nation needed two rival parties to balance each other had not been fully accepted by either party; Hamilton had viewed Jefferson's election as the failure of

4144-521: The Federalist Party was closely linked to the Congregational church . When the party collapsed, the church was disestablished. In 1800 and other elections, the Federalists targeted infidelity in any form. They repeatedly charged that Republican candidates were atheistic or anti-religious, especially Jefferson, Paine, and Franklin. Conversely, the Baptists, Methodists, and other dissenters favored

4256-513: The Federalist effort to stimulate a national literary culture through their clubs and publications in New York and Philadelphia, and by Noah Webster 's efforts to Americanize the language inherited from England. Newspaper content focused largely on attacks or defense of the new federal government, as well as on state and local politics. Editors directed much abuse toward opposition politicians—the fatal duel between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr

4368-426: The Federalist experiment. The rhetoric of the day was cataclysmic — election of the opposition meant the enemy would ruin the nation. Jefferson's foreign policy was not exactly pro-Napoleon, but it applied pressure on Britain to stop impressment of American sailors and other hostile acts. By engineering an embargo of trade against Britain, Jefferson and Madison plunged the nation into economic depression, ruined much of

4480-871: The Federalists shrank to a few isolated strongholds and the Democratic-Republicans lost unity. In 1824–28, as the Second Party System emerged, the Democratic-Republican Party split into the Jacksonian faction, which became the modern Democratic Party in the 1830s, and the Henry Clay faction, which was absorbed by Clay's Whig Party . Leading nationalists, George Washington , Alexander Hamilton and Benjamin Franklin (see Annapolis Convention ), called

4592-585: The Federalists to dominate. The Jay Treaty battle in 1794–1795 was the effort by Washington, Hamilton and John Jay to resolve numerous difficulties with Britain. Some of these issues dated to the Revolution, such as boundaries, debts owed in each direction and the continued presence of British forts in the Northwest Territory . In addition, the United States hoped to open markets in the British Caribbean and end disputes stemming from

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4704-477: The Federalists won most of the major legislative battles in the 1790s. They held a strong base in the nation's cities and in New England. They factionalized when President Adams secured peace with France, to the anger of Hamilton's larger faction. The Jeffersonians won the presidential election of 1800 , and the Federalists never returned to power. They recovered some strength through their intense opposition to

4816-482: The Federalists, with a strong base among merchants, controlled more newspapers: in 1796 the Federalist papers outnumbered the Democratic Republicans by 4 to 1. Every year more papers began publishing; in 1800 the Federalists still had a 2 to 1 numerical advantage. Most papers, on each side, were weeklies with a circulation of 300 to 1000. Jefferson systematically subsidized the editors. Fisher Ames ,

4928-463: The Hamiltonian program had restored national prosperity, as shown in one 1792 anonymous newspaper essay: To what physical, moral, or political energy shall this flourishing state of things be ascribed? There is but one answer to these inquiries: Public credit is restored and established. The general government, by uniting and calling into action the pecuniary resources of the states, has created

5040-642: The Jeffersonians denounced it as a sell-out to Britain, even as the Federalists said it avoided war, reduced the Indian threat, created good trade relations with the world's foremost economic power, and ended lingering disputes from the Revolutionary War. When Jefferson came to power in 1801 he honored the treaty, but new disputes with Britain led to the War of 1812 . In 1798 disputes with France led to

5152-742: The Republican cause. Jefferson told the Baptists of Connecticut that there should be a "wall of separation" between church and state, alluding to the writings of Rhode Island's Roger Williams. International affairs—the French Revolution and the subsequent war between royalist Britain and republican France—decisively shaped American politics in 1793–1800 and threatened to entangle the country in wars that "mortally threatened its very existence". The French revolutionaries guillotined King Louis XVI in January 1793, and subsequently declared war on Britain. The French king had been decisive in helping

5264-526: The Republicans after the Treaty fight and in the South the Federalists lost most of the support they had among planters. The excise tax of 1791 caused grumbling from the frontier including threats of tax resistance . Corn, the chief crop on the frontier, was too bulky to ship over the mountains to market unless it was first distilled into whiskey. This was profitable as the United States population consumed per capita relatively large quantities of liquor. After

5376-593: The State Department, which he gave to journalist Philip Freneau to attack the Federalists. In New York, George Clinton won the election for governor and used the vast state patronage fund to help the Republican cause. Washington tried and failed to moderate the feud between his two top cabinet members. He was re-elected without opposition in 1792 . The Democratic-Republicans nominated New York's Governor Clinton to replace Federalist John Adams as vice president, but Adams won. The balance of power in Congress

5488-520: The Treasury Alexander Hamilton in the first term of U.S. president George Washington . It was not an organized political party , but an unorganized faction. Most members had been Anti-Federalists in 1788, when they opposed ratification of the U.S. Constitution . However, the situation was fluid, with members joining and leaving. Although contemporaries often referred to Hamilton's opponents as "Anti-Federalists", that term

5600-484: The Treasury, and Thomas Jefferson , the Secretary of State, who opposed Hamilton's broad vision of a powerful federal government. Jefferson especially objected to Hamilton's flexible view of the Constitution, which stretched to include a national bank. Jefferson was joined by Madison in opposing the Washington administration, leading the " Anti-Administration party "; Hamilton led the informal political faction known as

5712-456: The United States achieve independence, but now he was dead and many of the pro-American aristocrats in France were exiled or executed. Federalists warned that American republicans threatened to replicate the horrors of the French Revolution and successfully mobilized most conservatives and many clergymen. The Republicans, some of whom had been strong Francophiles, responded with support even through

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5824-504: The War of 1812, but they practically vanished during the Era of Good Feelings that followed the end of the war in 1815. The Federalists left a lasting legacy in the form of a strong federal government. After losing executive power, they decisively shaped Supreme Court policy for another three decades through Chief Justice John Marshall . The term " Federalist " was previously used to refer to

5936-402: The West. While Federalists helped invent or develop numerous campaign techniques (such as the first national nominating conventions in 1808), their elitist bias alienated the middle class, thus allowing the Jeffersonians to claim they represented the true spirit of "republicanism". Because of the importance of foreign policy (decided by the national government), of the sale of national lands, and

6048-668: The Whiskey Rebellion and Madison in an attempt to save the White House during the War of 1812 ). The rebels dispersed and there was no fighting. Federalists were relieved that the new government proved capable of overcoming rebellion while Republicans, with Gallatin their new hero, argued there never was a real rebellion and the whole episode was manipulated in order to accustom Americans to a standing army . Angry petitions flowed in from three dozen Democratic-Republican Societies created by Citizen Genêt. Washington attacked

6160-412: The actual state of agriculture and commerce, the peace, the contentment and satisfaction of the great mass of people, give the lie to their assertions. Jefferson wrote on 12 February 1798: Two political Sects have arisen within the U. S. the one believing that the executive is the branch of our government which the most needs support; the other that like the analogous branch in the English Government, it

6272-480: The ambitious Hamiltonian economic program that involved the assumption of the state debts incurred during the American Revolution. This created a national debt and the means to pay it off, and it set up a national bank along with tariffs, with James Madison playing major roles in the program. Parties were considered to be divisive and harmful to republicanism, and no similar parties existed anywhere in

6384-546: The business of Federalist New England, and finally precipitated the War of 1812 with a much larger and more powerful foe. The Federalists vigorously criticized the government, and gained strength in the industrial Northeast. However, they committed a major blunder in 1814. That year the semi-secret " Hartford Convention " passed resolutions that verged on secession; their publication ruined the Federalist party. It had been limping along for years, with strength in New England and scattered eastern states but practically no strength in

6496-399: The congressional elections were recognized in some sense, as Jefferson strategist John Beckley put it, as a "struggle between the Treasury department and the republican interest". In New York, the race for governor was organized along these lines. The candidates were John Jay , who was a Hamiltonian, and incumbent George Clinton , who was allied with Jefferson and the Republicans. In 1793,

6608-454: The creation and continuity of an opposition party. He deeply felt the Federalists represented aristocratic forces hostile to true republicanism and the true will of the people, as he explained in a letter to Henry Lee in 1824: Men by their constitutions are naturally divided into two parties: 1. Those who fear and distrust the people, and wish to draw all powers from them into the hands of the higher classes. 2. Those who identify themselves with

6720-414: The debt rewarded speculators , and his proposal to repay only the original bondholders was defeated by a vote of 36 to 13. Hamilton's report also provided for the assumption of state debt by the federal government. Since Massachusetts , Connecticut and South Carolina owed nearly half of this debt, other states resented assumption. The House of Representatives passed the bill without assumption, but

6832-472: The debts owed to France. Acting aggressively, Genêt outfitted privateers that sailed with American crews under a French flag and attacked British shipping. He tried to organize expeditions of Americans to invade Spanish Louisiana and Spanish Florida. When Secretary of State Jefferson told Genêt he was pushing American friendship past the limit, Genêt threatened to go over the government's head and rouse public opinion on behalf of France. Even Jefferson agreed this

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6944-546: The defeat of Napoleon and the compromise settlement of the War of 1812 . Furthermore, the fears that Federalists were plotting to reintroduce aristocracy dissipated. Thus an " Era of Good Feelings " under James Monroe replaced the high-tension politics of the First Party System about 1816. Personal politics and factional disputes were occasionally still hotly debated, but Americans no longer thought of themselves in terms of political parties. Historians have debated

7056-550: The early 1790s, newspapers started calling Hamilton supporters "Federalists" and their opponents "Republicans", "Jeffersonians", or "Democratic-Republicans". Jefferson's supporters usually called themselves "Republicans" and their party the "Republican Party". The Federalist Party became popular with businessmen and New Englanders, as Republicans were mostly farmers who opposed a strong central government. Cities were usually Federalist strongholds, whereas frontier regions were heavily Republican. The Congregationalists of New England and

7168-417: The exact ending of the system. Most concluded it petered out by 1820. The little state of Delaware, largely isolated from the larger political forces controlling the nation, saw the First Party System continue well into the 1820s, with the Federalists occasionally winning some offices. Alexander Hamilton felt that only by mobilizing its supporters on a daily basis in every state on many issues could support for

7280-517: The excise tax, the backwoodsmen complained the tax fell on them rather than on the consumers. Cash poor, they were outraged that they had been singled out to pay off the "financiers and speculators" back in the East and to pay the salaries of the federal revenue officers who began to swarm the hills looking for illegal stills. Insurgents in western Pennsylvania shut the courts and hounded federal officials, but Jeffersonian leader Albert Gallatin mobilized

7392-428: The faction became a formal party, Jefferson's Republican Party, which is often called the Democratic-Republican Party by historians and political scientists. At the Constitutional Convention in 1787 and during the ratifying process in 1788, Madison was one of the most prominent advocates of a smaller national government. He wrote The Federalist Papers , together with Hamilton and John Jay . In 1789 and 1790, Madison

7504-606: The first Democratic-Republican Societies were formed. They supported the French Revolution , which had just seen the execution of King Louis XVI , and generally supported the Jeffersonian cause. The word "democrat" was proposed by Citizen Genêt for the societies, and the Federalists ridiculed Jefferson's friends as "democrats". After Washington denounced the societies as unrepublican, they mostly faded away. In 1793, war broke out between England, France, and their European allies. The Jeffersonians favored France and pointed to

7616-487: The government be sustained through thick and thin. Newspapers were needed to communicate inside the party; patronage helped the party's leaders and made new friends. Hamilton, and especially Washington, distrusted the idea of an opposition party, as shown in George Washington's Farewell Address of 1796. They thought opposition parties would only weaken the nation. By contrast Jefferson was the main force behind

7728-491: The grass-roots support and unprecedented levels of voter turnout for the Jeffersonians. With the world thrown into global warfare after 1793, the small nation on the fringe of the European system could barely remain neutral. The Jeffersonians called for strong measures against Britain, and even for another war. The Federalists tried to avert war by the Jay Treaty (1795) with England. The treaty became highly controversial when

7840-430: The initiative among scholars who portray him as the visionary architect of the modern liberal capitalist economy and of a dynamic federal government headed by an energetic executive. Jefferson and his allies, by contrast, have come across as naïve, dreamy idealists. At best according to many historians, the Jeffersonians were reactionary utopians who resisted the onrush of capitalist modernity in hopes of turning America into

7952-606: The latter proposed the creation of a national bank . Southern planters opposed but urban merchants supported the idea. Madison called the Bank unconstitutional, but Hamilton successfully argued that the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution allowed the creation of the bank. The French Revolutionary Wars , which began in April 1792, hardened the differences between the factions. The Pro-Administration party generally supported

8064-464: The mail, but they did collect fees from mail users and obtained free delivery of their own newspapers and business mail. To strengthen their coalitions and hammer away constantly at the opposition, both parties sponsored newspapers in the capital ( Philadelphia ) and other major cities. On the Republican side, Philip Freneau and Benjamin Franklin Bache blasted the administration with all

8176-607: The most popular and influential newspapers of the period, The Farmer's Weekly Museum , the Gazette of the United States and The Port Folio . The Federalists were conscious of the need to boost voter identification with their party. Elections remained of central importance, but the rest of the political calendar was filled with celebrations, parades, festivals, and visual sensationalism. The Federalists employed multiple festivities, exciting parades, and even quasi-religious pilgrimages and "sacred" days that became incorporated into

8288-445: The national capital to get his plans through Congress brought strong responses across the country. In the process, what began as a capital faction soon assumed status as a national faction and then as the new Federalist Party. The Federalist Party supported Hamilton's vision of a strong centralized government and agreed with his proposals for a national bank and heavy government subsidies. In foreign affairs, they supported neutrality in

8400-423: The national debt as a "national curse" and he took special pride in paying off the entire national debt in 1835. In an analysis of the contemporary party system, Jefferson wrote on February 12, 1798: Two political Sects have arisen within the U. S. the one believing that the executive is the branch of our government which the most needs support; the other that like the analogous branch in the English Government, it

8512-477: The naval war between Britain and France. Most of all the goal was to avert a war with Britain—a war opposed by the Federalists, that some historians claim the Jeffersonians wanted. As a neutral party, the United States argued it had the right to carry goods anywhere it wanted. The British nevertheless seized American ships carrying goods from the French West Indies . The Federalists favored Britain in

8624-413: The new republic. Already by 1796, both parties sponsored national networks of locally owned papers which attracted partisan subscribers. By 1800, there were 234 being published once or twice a week, and the first dailies appeared. Between 1790 and 1820 over 400 new papers were started. Many soon merged or closed. Nationalism was a high priority, and the editors fostered an intellectual nationalism typified by

8736-428: The number of supporters who were not currently eligible to vote but who might qualify (by age or taxes) at the next election. The returns eventually went to the state manager, who issued directions to laggard towns to get all the eligibles to town meetings, help the young men qualify to vote, to nominate a full ticket for local elections, and to print and distribute the party ticket. (The secret ballot did not appear for

8848-412: The outstanding issues between the U.S. and Britain. The Jeffersonians vehemently denounced the treaty, saying it threatened to undermine republicanism by giving the aristocratic British and their Federalist allies too much influence. The fierce debates over the Jay Treaty in 1794–96, according to William Nisbet Chambers, nationalized politics and turned a faction in Congress into a nationwide party. To fight

8960-469: The patronage controlled by the President, the factions in each state realigned themselves in parallel with the Federalists and Republicans. Some newspaper editors became powerful politicians, such as Thomas Ritchie , whose "Richmond Junto" controlled Virginia state politics from 1808 into the 1840s. New England was always the stronghold of the Federalist party. One historian explains how well organized it

9072-465: The peace, school directors and, in Federalist towns, all the town officers who were ready to carry on the party's work ... Militia officers, state's attorneys, lawyers, professors and schoolteachers were in the van of this "conscript army". In all, about a thousand or eleven hundred dependent officer-holders were described as the inner ring which could always be depended upon for their own and enough more votes within their control to decide an election. This

9184-472: The people, have confidence in them, cherish and consider them as the most honest and safe, although not the most wise depositary of the public interests. In every country these two parties exist, and in every one where they are free to think, speak, and write, they will declare themselves. Call them, therefore, liberals and serviles, Jacobins and Ultras, whigs and tories, republicans and federalists, aristocrats and democrats, or by whatever name you please, they are

9296-422: The republican values. The level of rhetoric reached a fever pitch. In 1793, Paris sent a new minister, Edmond-Charles Genêt (known as Citizen Genêt ), who systematically mobilized pro-French sentiment and encouraged Americans to support France's war against Britain and Spain. Genêt funded local Democratic-Republican Societies that attacked Federalists. He hoped for a favorable new treaty and for repayment of

9408-420: The revolutionary government's political opponents. Historians have used statistical techniques to estimate the party breakdown in Congress. Many Congressmen were hard to classify in the first few years, but after 1796 there was less uncertainty. The first parties were anti-federalist and federalist. Given the power of the Federalists, the Democratic Republicans had to work harder to win. In Connecticut in 1806

9520-631: The rising north–south sectionalism and party spirit in politics that threatened national unity: The party spirits serves always to distract the Public Councils, and enfeeble the Public Administration. It agitates the Community with ill-founded jealousies and false alarms; kindles the animosity of one part against another, foments occasionally riot and insurrection. It opens the door to foreign influence and corruption, which find

9632-444: The same day—with rival parades sometimes clashing with each other, which generated even more excitement and larger crowds. After the collapse of the Federalists starting in 1815, the Fourth of July became a nonpartisan holiday. Anti-Administration party The Anti-Administration party was an informal political faction in the United States led by James Madison and Thomas Jefferson that opposed policies of then Secretary of

9744-476: The same parties still and pursue the same object. The last appellation of aristocrats and democrats is the true one expressing the essence of all. Hofstadter (1970) shows it took many years for the idea to take hold that having two parties is better than having one, or none. That transition was made possible by the successful passing of power in 1801 from one party to the other. Although Jefferson systematically identified Federalist army officers and officeholders, he

9856-490: The scurrility at their command. Bache in particular targeted Washington himself as the front man for monarchy who must be exposed. To Bache, Washington was a cowardly general and a money-hungry baron who saw the Revolution as a means to advance his fortune and fame; Adams was a failed diplomat who never forgave the French their love of Benjamin Franklin and who craved a crown for himself and his descendants; and Alexander Hamilton

9968-473: The societies as illegitimate and many disbanded. Federalists now ridiculed Republicans as "democrats" (meaning in favor of mob rule ) or " Jacobins " (a reference to the Reign of Terror in France). Washington refused to run for a third term, establishing a two-term precedent that was to stand until 1940 and eventually to be enshrined in the Constitution as the 22nd Amendment . He warned in his Farewell Address against involvement in European wars and lamented

10080-501: The state leadership sent town leaders instructions for the forthcoming elections; every town manager was told by state leaders "to appoint a district manager in each district or section of his town, obtaining from each an assurance that he will faithfully do his duty". Then the town manager was instructed to compile lists and total up the number of taxpayers, the number of eligible voters, how many were "decided democratic republicans", "decided federalists", or "doubtful", and finally to count

10192-408: The treaty and organized their supporters. The Federalists realized they had to mobilize their popular vote, so they mobilized their newspapers, held rallies, counted votes and especially relied on the prestige of President Washington. The contest over the Jay Treaty marked the first flowering of grassroots political activism in the United States, directed and coordinated by two national parties. Politics

10304-431: The treaty the Jeffersonians "established coordination in activity between leaders at the capital, and leaders, actives and popular followings in the states, counties and towns". In 1796 Jefferson challenged John Adams for the presidency and lost. The Electoral College made the decision, and it was largely chosen by the state legislatures, many of which were not chosen on a national party basis. Newspapers flourished in

10416-516: The war and by far most of America's foreign trade was with Britain, hence a new treaty was called for. The British agreed to evacuate the western forts, open their West Indies ports to American ships, allow small vessels to trade with the French West Indies and set up a commission that would adjudicate American claims against Britain for seized ships and British claims against Americans for debts incurred before 1775. One possible alternative

10528-418: The western moderates and thus forestalled a serious outbreak. Washington, seeing the need to assert federal supremacy, called out 13,000 state militia and marched toward Washington, Pennsylvania to suppress this Whiskey Rebellion . The rebellion evaporated in late 1794 as Washington approached, personally leading the army (only two sitting Presidents have directly led American military forces, Washington during

10640-412: The world. By 1789, Hamilton started building a nationwide coalition (a "Pro-Administration" faction), realizing the need for vocal political support in the states. He formed connections with like-minded nationalists and used his network of treasury agents to link together friends of the government, especially merchants and bankers, in the new nation's dozen major cities. His attempts to manage politics in

10752-514: Was John Adams . George Washington was broadly sympathetic to the Federalist program, but he remained officially non-partisan during his entire presidency. The Federalist Party controlled the national government until 1801, when it was overwhelmed by the Democratic-Republican opposition led by President Thomas Jefferson . Federalist policies called for a national bank, tariffs, and good relations with Great Britain as expressed in

10864-540: Was a conservative and nationalist American political party and the first political party in the United States. It dominated the national government under Alexander Hamilton from 1789 to 1801. The party was defeated by the Democratic-Republican Party in 1800, and it became a minority party while keeping its stronghold in New England . It made a brief resurgence by opposing the War of 1812 , then collapsed with its last presidential candidate in 1816. Remnants lasted for

10976-504: Was a leader in support of a new federal government with limited powers. At the time, the concept of a loyal opposition party was novel. However, Madison joined with Henry Tazewell and others to oppose Hamilton's First Report on the Public Credit in January 1790. The creation of the coalition marked the emergence of the Anti-Administration party, which was then based almost exclusively Southern . Madison argued that repaying

11088-430: Was blatant foreign interference in domestic politics. Genêt's extremism seriously embarrassed the Jeffersonians and cooled popular support for promoting the French Revolution and getting involved in its wars. Recalled to Paris for execution, Genêt kept his head and instead went to New York, where he became a citizen and married the daughter of Governor Clinton. Jefferson left office, ending the coalition cabinet and allowing

11200-567: Was blocked from removing all of them by protests from Republicans. The Quids complained he did not go far enough. Well into the 20th century Jefferson was the hero for scholars, and Hamilton the villain. Jefferson's reputation has declined sharply, primarily because of his role as a major slaveowner. Hamilton has risen; Princeton historian Sean Wilentz in 2010 identified a scholarly trend very much in Hamilton's favor—although Wilentz himself dissented and still admires Jefferson more: In recent years, Hamilton and his reputation have decidedly gained

11312-574: Was close, with some members still undecided between the parties. In early 1793, Jefferson secretly prepared resolutions introduced by Virginia Congressman William Branch Giles designed to repudiate Hamilton and weaken the Washington Administration. Hamilton defended his administration of the nation's complicated financial affairs, which none of his critics could decipher until the arrival in Congress of Republican Albert Gallatin in 1793. Federalists counterattacked by claiming that

11424-406: Was foreign policy, where the Federalists favored Britain because of its political stability and its close ties to American trade, while the Republicans admired France and the French Revolution. Jefferson was especially fearful that British aristocratic influences would undermine republicanism . Britain and France were at war from 1793 to 1815, with only one brief interruption. Official American policy

11536-535: Was in Connecticut: It was only necessary to perfect the working methods of the organized body of office-holders who made up the nucleus of the party. There were the state officers, the assistants, and a large majority of the Assembly. In every county there was a sheriff with his deputies. All of the state, county, and town judges were potential and generally active workers. Every town had several justices of

11648-411: Was incited by their own personal newspaper attacks on each other. The most important newspapers of the 1790s-1800s were closely read by other editors and copied from. They would be read aloud and commented upon in coffee houses and taverns. Key party newspapers include: Editors of the First Party System traded barbs both nasty and humorous. An example is this acrostic from a Republican paper. The clue

11760-437: Was neutrality, with the Federalists hostile to France, and the Republicans hostile to Britain. The Jay Treaty of 1794 marked the decisive mobilization of the two parties and their supporters in every state. President George Washington , while officially nonpartisan, generally supported the Federalists and that party made Washington their iconic hero. The First Party System ended during the Era of Good Feelings (1816–1824), as

11872-399: Was no longer the domain of politicians as every voter was called on to participate. The new strategy of appealing directly to the public worked for the Federalists as public opinion shifted to support the Jay Treaty. The Federalists controlled the Senate and they ratified it by exactly the necessary ⅔ vote (20–10) in 1795. However, the Republicans did not give up and public opinion swung toward

11984-535: Was the Federalist machine. Religious tensions polarized Connecticut, as the established Congregational Church, in alliance with the Federalists, tried to maintain its grip on power. Dissenting groups moved toward the Jeffersonians. The failure of the Hartford Convention in 1814 wounded the Federalists, who were finally upended by the Democratic-Republicans in 1817. The First Party System was primarily built around foreign policy issues that vanished with

12096-637: Was the Republican Party's chief expert on fiscal issues and as Treasury Secretary under Jefferson and Madison worked hard to lower taxes and lower the debt, while at the same time paying cash for the Louisiana Purchase and funding the War of 1812. Burrows says of Gallatin: His own fears of personal dependency and his small-shopkeeper's sense of integrity, both reinforced by a strain of radical republican thought that originated in England

12208-723: Was the good fortune of the Republicans to have within their ranks a number of highly gifted political manipulators and propagandists. Some of them had the ability ... to not only see and analyze the problem at hand but to present it in a succinct fashion; in short, to fabricate the apt phrase, to coin the compelling slogan and appeal to the electorate on any given issue in language it could understand. Outstanding phrasemakers included editor William Duane , party leaders Albert Gallatin and Thomas Cooper , and Jefferson himself. Meanwhile, John J. Beckley of Pennsylvania, an ardent partisan, invented new campaign techniques (such as mass distribution of pamphlets and of handwritten ballots) that generated

12320-573: Was the most inveterate monarchist of them all. The Federalists, with twice as many newspapers at their command, slashed back with equal vituperation. John Fenno and "Peter Porcupine" ( William Cobbett ) were their nastiest penmen and Noah Webster their most learned. Hamilton subsidized the Federalist editors, wrote for their papers and in 1801 established his own paper, the New York Evening Post . Though his reputation waned considerably following his death, Joseph Dennie ran three of

12432-464: Was this noble Goat M onster of monsters, in pollution skill'd I mmers'd in mischief, brothels, funds & banks L ewd slave to lust,—afforded consolation; T o mourning whores, and tory-lamentation. O utdid all fools, tainted with royal name; N one but fools, their wickedness proclaim. The most heated rhetoric came in debates over the French Revolution, especially during the Reign of Terror of 1793–94, which saw huge numbers of executions of

12544-609: Was war with Britain, a war that the United States was ill-prepared to fight. The Republicans wanted to pressure Britain to the brink of war (and assumed that the United States could defeat a weak Britain). Therefore, they denounced the Jay Treaty as an insult to American prestige, a repudiation of the American-French alliance of 1777 and a severe shock to Southern planters who owed those old debts and who would now be never compensated for their escaped slaves who fled to British lines for their freedom. Republicans protested against

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