Timeline of Polish history
161-596: The early modern era of Polish history follows the Late Middle Ages . Historians use the term early modern to refer to the period beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around the Napoleonic Wars in 1800 AD. The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish diet in 1505 transferred legislative power from the king to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as
322-466: A national uprising under his supreme command. Kościuszko emancipated many peasants in order to enroll them as kosynierzy in his army, but the hard-fought insurrection, despite widespread national support, proved incapable of generating the foreign assistance necessary for its success. In the end, it was suppressed by the combined forces of Russia and Prussia, with Warsaw captured in November 1794 in
483-537: A national uprising . Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The third and final partition of the Commonwealth was undertaken again by all three partitioning powers , and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. The death of Sigismund II Augustus in 1572 ended
644-674: A rebellion in Sweden started the chain of events that would involve the Commonwealth in more than a century of warfare with Sweden . The Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The Union of Brest split the Eastern Christians of the Commonwealth. In order to further Catholicism, the Uniate Church (acknowledging papal supremacy but following Eastern ritual and Slavonic liturgy )
805-571: A union of Hungary and Poland that lasted until 1382. In 1374, Louis granted the Polish nobility the Privilege of Koszyce to assure the succession of one of his daughters in Poland. His youngest daughter Jadwiga (d. 1399) assumed the Polish throne in 1384. In 1386, Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania converted to Catholicism and married Queen Jadwiga of Poland. This act enabled him to become
966-563: A current session immediately) was exercised by a deputy in 1652. This practice would eventually weaken Poland's central government critically. In the Treaty of Pereyaslav (1654), the Ukrainian rebels declared themselves subjects of the Tsar of Russia . The Second Northern War raged through the core Polish lands in 1655–1660; it included a brutal and devastating invasion of Poland referred to as
1127-466: A distinctive Polish culture that was integrated into the broader European culture . Mieszko's son, Duke Bolesław I the Brave (r. 992–1025), established a Polish Church structure, pursued territorial conquests and was officially crowned the first king of Poland in 1025, near the end of his life. Bolesław also sought to spread Christianity to parts of eastern Europe that remained pagan, but suffered
1288-471: A fervent Christian . The event is known as the " baptism of Poland ", and its date is often used to mark a symbolic beginning of Polish statehood. Mieszko completed a unification of the Lechitic tribal lands that was fundamental to the new country's existence. Following its emergence, Poland was led by a series of rulers who converted the population to Christianity, created a strong kingdom and fostered
1449-606: A halt or regressed. The royal election of 1697 brought a ruler of the Saxon House of Wettin to the Polish throne: Augustus II the Strong (r. 1697–1733), who was able to assume the throne only by agreeing to convert to Roman Catholicism. He was succeeded by his son Augustus III (r. 1734–1763). The reigns of the Saxon kings (who were both simultaneously prince-electors of Saxony ) were disrupted by competing candidates for
1610-587: A handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty , Augustus II and Augustus III , brought the Commonwealth further disintegration. The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the Russian Empire from the time of Peter the Great . This foreign control reached its climax under Catherine the Great , and involved at that time also
1771-532: A king of Poland himself, and he ruled as Władysław II Jagiełło until his death in 1434. The marriage established a personal Polish–Lithuanian union ruled by the Jagiellonian dynasty . The first in a series of formal "unions" was the Union of Krewo of 1385, whereby arrangements were made for the marriage of Jogaila and Jadwiga. The Polish–Lithuanian partnership brought vast areas of Ruthenia controlled by
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#17327830808551932-951: A mixed army from Sweden and Poland, but was defeated in the Battle of Stångebro . As the Tsardom of Russia went through its " Time of Troubles ," Poland failed to capitalize on the situation. Military campaigns undertaken brought Poland at times close to a conquest of Russia and the Baltic coast during the Time of Troubles and False Dimitris , but military burden imposed by the ongoing rivalry also along other frontiers (the Ottoman Empire and Sweden) prevented this from being accomplished. After prolonged war with Russia , Polish forces occupied Moscow in 1610. The office of tsar, then vacant in Russia,
2093-605: A more closely merged continuation of the already existing personal union of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading Western culture eastward. Following
2254-587: A process of unification and created a lasting political structure in the 10th century that subsequently became the state of Poland. Poland was established as a state under the Piast dynasty , which ruled the country between the 10th and 14th centuries. Historical records referring to the Polish state begin with the rule of Duke Mieszko I , whose reign commenced sometime before 963 and continued until his death in 992. Mieszko converted to Christianity in 966, following his marriage to Princess Doubravka of Bohemia ,
2415-591: A region in the Sejm , himself being elected at a sejmik (the local sejm of a region). He thus assumed responsibility to his sejmik for all decisions taken at the Sejm. Since all noblemen were considered equal, a decision taken by a majority against the will of a minority (even if only one sejmik) was considered a violation of the principle of political equality. At first, the dissenting deputies were often convinced or cowed back to withdraw their objections. Also, at first,
2576-573: A series of conflicts that would soon spread to Transylvania , Wallachia and Hungary , when the forces of the Polish magnates clashed with the forces backed by the Ottoman Empire and occasionally the Habsburgs, all competing for the domination over that region. With the Commonwealth engaged on its northern and eastern borders with nearly constant conflicts against Sweden and Russia, its armies were spread thin. The southern wars culminated in
2737-579: A setback when his greatest missionary, Adalbert of Prague , was killed in Prussia in 997. During the Congress of Gniezno in the year 1000, Holy Roman Emperor Otto III recognized the Archbishopric of Gniezno , an institution crucial for the continuing existence of the sovereign Polish state. During the reign of Otto's successor, Holy Roman Emperor Henry II , Bolesław fought prolonged wars with
2898-473: A significant constraint on the powers of the monarch by making the "rule of law, religious tolerance and limited constitutional government... the norm in Poland in times when the rest of Europe was being devastated by religious hatred and despotism." It was seen as one of the key principles of the Commonwealth political system and culture, the Golden Liberty . At the same time, historians hold that
3059-573: A third failing to pass any legislation, mostly because of the liberum veto . The expression Polish parliament in many European languages originated from the apparent paralysis. The rule evolved from the principle of unanimous consent, which derived from the traditions of decision making in the Kingdom of Poland, and it developed under the federative character of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Each deputy represented
3220-474: A useful tool to frustrate attempts at reforming and strengthening the Commonwealth. By bribing deputies to exercise their vetoes, Poland–Lithuania's neighbours could derail any measures not to their liking. The Commonwealth deteriorated from a European power into a state of anarchy. Only a few Sejms were able to meet during the reign of the House of Saxony in Poland (1696–1763), the last one in 1736. Only 8 out of
3381-596: Is known as the Great Sejm or Four-Year Sejm; it first met in 1788. Its landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of 3 May 1791 , the first singular pronouncement of a supreme law of the state in modern Europe. A moderately reformist document condemned by detractors as sympathetic to the ideals of the French Revolution , it soon generated strong opposition from the conservative circles of
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#17327830808553542-655: Is that of many small victories, few of them bringing anything worthwhile to the Commonwealth. He was once elected a Russian tsar , but never had any control over Russian territories. Like his father, Władysław was involved in Swedish dynastic ambitions. He failed to strengthen the Commonwealth or prevent the crippling events of the Khmelnytsky Uprising and the Deluge that devastated the Commonwealth from 1648 onward. The reign of Władysław's brother John Casimir ,
3703-754: The Baltic during the Polish–Swedish wars of 1617–1629, and the Ottoman Empire pressed from the south in the Battles at Cecora in 1620 and Khotyn in 1621. The agricultural expansion and serfdom policies in Polish Ukraine resulted in a series of Cossack uprisings . Allied with the Habsburg monarchy , the Commonwealth did not directly participate in the Thirty Years' War . Władysław's IV reign
3864-788: The Baltic Sea . It is estimated that the UNESCO -protected neolithic flint mines at Krzemionki , one of Europe's largest, were utilised by the Funnelbeaker and Globular Amphora cultures from 3900 BC to 1600 BC. The only surviving example of ancient parietal art in Poland is at a flint shaft in Krzemionki and features a linear charcoal pictogram of a female figure or deity that has been since associated with fertility. Poland's Early Bronze Age began around 2400–2300 BC, whereas its Iron Age commenced c. 750–700 BC. One of
4025-584: The Battle of Grunwald (1410), a great victory that the Poles and Lithuanians were unable to follow up with a decisive strike against the main seat of the Teutonic Order at Malbork Castle . The Union of Horodło of 1413 further defined the evolving relationship between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The privileges of the szlachta (nobility) kept expanding and in 1425
4186-532: The Cardinal Laws of 1768. The liberum veto was finally abolished by the Constitution of 3 May 1791 , adopted by a confederated sejm, which permanently established the principle of majority rule. The achievements of that constitution, however, which historian Norman Davies called "the first constitution of its kind in Europe", were undone by another confederated sejm, meeting at Grodno in 1793 . That Sejm, under duress from Russia and Prussia, ratified
4347-624: The Deluge , for the magnitude and suddenness of its hardships. The emergency began when the Ukrainian Cossacks rose in revolt and declared an independent state based in the vicinity of Kiev , allied with the Crimean Tatars and the Ottoman Empire. Their leader Bohdan Khmelnytsky defeated Polish armies in 1648 and 1652 , and after the Cossacks concluded the Treaty of Pereyaslav with Russia in 1654, Tsar Alexis overran
4508-736: The Duchy of Prussia on the Baltic coast. From then on, Poland's link to the Baltic Sea was bordered on both sides by two provinces of the same German state . The Commonwealth viewed itself as the "bulwark of the Christendom " and together with the Habsburgs and the Republic of Venice stood in the way of the Ottoman plans of European conquests. Since the second half of the 16th century,
4669-497: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania into Poland's sphere of influence and proved beneficial for the nationals of both countries, who coexisted and cooperated in one of the largest political entities in Europe for the next four centuries. When Queen Jadwiga died in 1399, the Kingdom of Poland fell to her husband's sole possession. In the Baltic Sea region, Poland's struggle with the Teutonic Knights continued and culminated in
4830-480: The Islamic Ottomans . He proposed an anti-Ottoman alliance with Russia, which he considered necessary for his anti-Ottoman crusade . Russia however was heading for its Time of Troubles and he could not find a partner there. When Báthory died, there was a year-long interregnum. Emperor Mathias ' brother, Archduke Maximilian III , tried to claim the Polish throne, but was defeated at Byczyna during
4991-472: The Khmelnytsky Uprising . History of Poland Timeline of Polish history The history of Poland spans over a thousand years, from medieval tribes , Christianization and monarchy ; through Poland's Golden Age , expansionism and becoming one of the largest European powers ; to its collapse and partitions , two world wars , communism , and the restoration of democracy . The roots of Polish history can be traced to ancient times , when
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5152-589: The Kingdom of Germany between 1002 and 1018. Bolesław I's expansive rule overstretched the resources of the early Polish state, and it was followed by a collapse of the monarchy. Recovery took place under Casimir I the Restorer (r. 1039–58). Casimir's son Bolesław II the Generous (r. 1058–79) became involved in a conflict with Bishop Stanislaus of Szczepanów that ultimately caused his downfall. Bolesław had
5313-516: The Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy . During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski . The Bar Confederation of 1768
5474-656: The Linear Pottery culture , whose founders belonged to the Danubian culture and migrated from the Danube River area beginning about 5500 BC. This culture was distinguished by the establishment of the first settled agricultural communities in modern Polish territory. Later, between about 4400 and 2000 BC, the native post- Mesolithic populations would also adopt and further develop the agricultural way of life. Excavations indicated broad-ranging development in
5635-487: The Marshal of the Sejm was elected. During the reign of John III Sobieski (1674–1696), half of Sejm proceedings were scuttled by the veto. The practice also spread from the national Sejm to local sejmik proceedings. In the first half of the 18th century, it became increasingly common for Sejm sessions to be broken up by the liberum veto , as the Commonwealth's neighbours, chiefly Russia and Prussia , found it to be
5796-552: The New Stone Age . Most notably, the oldest samples of European cheese (5500 BC) were found in the region of Kuyavia , and a pot from Bronocice is incised with what is now believed to be the earliest-known portrayal of a wheeled vehicle (3400 BC). Toolmaking became more advanced and material was primarily sourced from quarries and mines in the Świętokrzyskie (Holy Cross) Mountains . Artifacts that originated in this mountain region were excavated as far as Moravia and near
5957-508: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569, one of Europe's great powers . The Commonwealth was able to sustain centuries-long prosperity, while its political system matured as a unique noble democracy with an elective monarchy . From the mid-17th century, however, the huge state entered a period of decline caused by devastating wars and the deterioration of its political system. Significant internal reforms were introduced in
6118-484: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , a federal state more closely unified than the earlier political arrangement between Poland and Lithuania. The union was run largely by the nobility through the system of central parliament and local assemblies , but was headed by elected kings . The formal rule of the nobility, who were proportionally more numerous than in other European countries, constituted an early democratic system ("a sophisticated noble democracy"), in contrast to
6279-523: The Reformation gains accompanied by religious toleration, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Protestant circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in
6440-707: The Second Partition , anticipating the Third Partition , the final dissolution of the Polish-Lithuanian state, just two years later. Harvard political scientist Grzegorz Ekiert , assessing the history of the liberum veto in Poland–Lithuania, concludes: Political scientist Dalibor Roháč noted that the "principle of liberum veto played an important role in [the] emergence of the unique Polish form of constitutionalism " and acted as
6601-528: The Swedish Deluge . The war ended in 1660 with the Treaty of Oliva , which resulted in the loss of some of Poland's northern possessions. In 1657 the Treaty of Bromberg established the independence of the Duchy of Prussia . The Commonwealth forces did well in the Russo-Polish War (1654–1667) , but the result was the permanent division of Ukraine between Poland and Russia, as agreed to in
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6762-546: The Truce of Andrusovo (1667). Towards the end of the war, the Lubomirski's rebellion , a major magnate revolt against the king, destabilized and weakened the country. The large-scale slave raids of the Crimean Tatars also had highly deleterious effects on the Polish economy. Merkuriusz Polski , the first Polish newspaper, was published in 1661. In 1668, grief-stricken at the recent death of his wife and frustrated by
6923-644: The Uniate East Slavic Greek Catholic Church gradually advanced. By the 18th century, the populations of Ducal Prussia and Royal Prussia were a mixture of Catholics and Protestants and used both the German and Polish languages. The rest of Poland and most of Lithuania remained overwhelmingly Roman Catholic, while Ukraine and some parts of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ( Belarus ) were Greek Orthodox and Greek Catholic (both Church Slavonic liturgy ). The society consisted of
7084-679: The Union of Brest and by several Cossack uprisings . In the west and north of the country, cities had large German minorities, often of reformed beliefs. According to the Risāle-yi Tatar-i Leh (an account of the Lipka Tatars written for Suleiman the Magnificent by an anonymous Polish Muslim during a stay in Istanbul in 1557–8, on his way to Mecca ) there were 100 Lipka Tatar settlements with mosques in Poland. In 1672,
7245-435: The Vasa dynasty monarchs, elected Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki as king, believing that as a non-foreigner he would further the interests of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was the first ruler of Polish origin since the last of Jagiellon dynasty , Sigismund II Augustus , died in 1572. Michael was a son of a controversial but popular with szlachta military commander Jeremi Wiśniowiecki , known for his actions during
7406-528: The War of the Polish Succession (1587–1588) . Sigismund III Vasa became the Commonwealth's next king, the first of the three rulers from the Swedish House of Vasa . Sigismund III Vasa was King of Poland 1587–1632 and King of Sweden 1592–1599. He was the son of John III Vasa of Sweden and Catherine , the daughter of Sigismund I the Old of Poland. He annoyed the Polish nobles by deliberately dressing in Spanish and other Western European styles (including French hosiery). An ardent Catholic , Sigismund III
7567-422: The Warsaw Confederation in 1573. After the rule of the Jagiellonian dynasty ended in 1572, Henry of Valois (later King Henry III of France ) was the winner of the first " free election " by the Polish nobility, held in 1573. He had to agree to the restrictive pacta conventa obligations and fled Poland in 1574 when news arrived of the vacancy of the French throne, to which he was the heir presumptive . From
7728-435: The absolute monarchies prevalent at that time in the rest of Europe. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with a period in Polish history when great political power was attained and advancements in civilization and prosperity took place. The Polish–Lithuanian Union became an influential participant in European affairs and a vital cultural entity that spread Western culture (with Polish characteristics ) eastward. In
7889-418: The " Republic of Nobles ", to be Polish was much less an indication of ethnicity than of rank; it was a designation largely reserved for the landed noble class , which included members of Polish and non-Polish origin alike. Generally speaking, the ethnically non-Polish noble families of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania gradually adopted the Polish language and culture . As a result, in the eastern territories of
8050-400: The "Nobles' Democracy" ( Polish : Demokracja szlachecka ) or "Nobles' Commonwealth" ( Polish : Rzeczpospolita szlachecka ). The state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or szlachta , albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the Jagiellon and then elective kings. The Union of Lublin of 1569 constituted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ,
8211-402: The 18 Sejm sessions during the reign of Augustus II (1697–1733) passed legislation. For a period of 30 years around the reign of Augustus III, only one session was able to pass legislation (1734–1763). The government was near collapse, giving rise to the term "Polish anarchy", and the country was managed by provincial assemblies and magnates. Disruption of the Commonwealth governance caused by
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#17327830808558372-399: The 18th century, when foreign powers bribed Sejm members to paralyze its proceedings, causing foreign occupation, dominance and manipulation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and its eventual destruction in the partitions . Piotr Stefan Wandycz wrote that the " liberum veto had become the sinister symbol of old Polish anarchy". In the period of 1573–1763, about 150 sejms were held, about
8533-412: The Allies at the end of World War II in 1945 shifted Poland's geographic centre of gravity towards the west , and the re-defined Polish lands largely lost their historic multi-ethnic character . By the late 1980s, the Polish reform movement Solidarity contributed to a peaceful transition from a planned communist economy to capitalism and a liberal parliamentary democracy . This process resulted in
8694-434: The Commonwealth as an equal partner (1658) and Polish military successes in 1660–1662. This was not enough to keep eastern Ukraine. Under the pressure of continuing Ukrainian unrest and the threat of a Turkish-Tatar intervention , the Commonwealth and Russia signed in 1667 an agreement in the village of Andrusovo near Smolensk , according to which eastern Ukraine (left bank of the Dnieper River ) now belonged to Russia. Kiev
8855-460: The Commonwealth ceded to Sweden most of Livonia, which the Swedes had invaded in 1626. Sigismund III Vasa failed to strengthen the Commonwealth or to solve its internal problems; he concentrated on futile attempts to regain his former Swedish throne. Sigismund desire to reclaim the Swedish throne drove him into prolonged military adventures waged against Sweden under Charles IX and later also Russia. In 1598, Sigismund tried to defeat Charles with
9016-420: The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia between 1605 and 1618 in the wake of Russia's Time of Troubles ; the series of conflicts is referred to as the Polish–Russian War or the Dymitriads . The efforts resulted in expansion of the eastern territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but the goal of taking over the Russian throne for the Polish ruling dynasty was not achieved. Sweden sought supremacy in
9177-509: The Commonwealth's existence as a Russian protectorate: the Tsardom would guarantee the reform-impeding Golden Liberty of the nobility from that time on in order to cement the Commonwealth's weak central authority and a state of perpetual political impotence. In a resounding break with traditions of religious tolerance, Protestants were executed during the Tumult of Thorn in 1724. In 1732, Russia , Austria and Prussia , Poland's three increasingly powerful and scheming neighbors, entered into
9338-409: The Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Empress Catherine of Russia, who was determined to prevent the rebirth of a strong Commonwealth. The nobility's Targowica Confederation , formed in Russian imperial capital of Saint Petersburg , appealed to Catherine for help, and in May 1792, the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The Polish–Russian War of 1792 , a defensive war fought by
9499-732: The Commonwealth, becoming the Tsardom 's dependency. John III Sobieski , fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught. The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720 , suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. Lubomirski's Rokosz against John II Casimir and other confederations ), corrupted legislative processes ( liberum veto ) and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of
9660-402: The Duchy of Warsaw abolished serfdom as a reflection of the ideals of the French Revolution , but it did not promote land reform . Liberum veto The liberum veto ( Latin for "free veto " ) was a parliamentary device in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . It was a form of unanimity voting rule that allowed any member of the Sejm (legislature) to force an immediate end to
9821-443: The Duchy of Warsaw , led by Józef Poniatowski , participated in numerous campaigns in alliance with France, including the successful Austro-Polish War of 1809, which, combined with the outcomes of other theaters of the War of the Fifth Coalition , resulted in an enlargement of the duchy's territory. The French invasion of Russia in 1812 and the German Campaign of 1813 saw the duchy's last military engagements. The Constitution of
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#17327830808559982-418: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania to Poland and transformed the Polish–Lithuanian polity into a real union , preserving it beyond the death of the childless Sigismund II, whose active involvement made the completion of this process possible. Livonia in the far northeast was incorporated by Poland in 1561 and Poland entered the Livonian War against Russia. The executionist movement , which attempted to check
10143-415: The Kingdom the Polish-speaking landed nobility dominated over the peasantry, whose great majority was neither Polish nor Catholic. Moreover, the decades of peace brought huge colonization efforts to Ukraine , which heightened tensions between peasants, Jews and nobles. The tensions were aggravated by the conflicts between the Orthodox and Greek Catholic (both Church Slavonic liturgy ) churches following
10304-400: The Old (1506–1548) and King Sigismund II Augustus (1548–1572) witnessed an intense cultivation of culture and science (a Golden Age of the Renaissance in Poland ), of which the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) is the best known representative. Jan Kochanowski (1530–1584) was a poet and the premier artistic personality of the period. In 1525, during the reign of Sigismund I,
10465-427: The Pious granted Jewish liberties in the Statute of Kalisz . Attempts to reunite the Polish lands gained momentum in the 13th century, and in 1295, Duke Przemysł II of Greater Poland managed to become the first ruler since Bolesław II to be crowned king of Poland. He ruled over a limited territory and was soon killed. In 1300–05 King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia also reigned as king of Poland. The Piast Kingdom
10626-465: The Polish Church at the Congress of Łęczyca . Around 1220, Wincenty Kadłubek wrote his Chronica seu originale regum et principum Poloniae , another major source for early Polish history. In 1226, one of the regional Piast dukes, Konrad I of Masovia , invited the Teutonic Knights to help him fight the Baltic Prussian pagans. The Teutonic Order destroyed the Prussians but kept their lands, which resulted in centuries of warfare between Poland and
10787-436: The Polish Jura. The arrival of Homo sapiens and anatomically modern humans coincided with the climatic discontinuity at the end of the Last Glacial Period ( Weichselian glaciation ) around 10,000 BC, when Poland became warmer and habitable. It allowed various groups of early humans to pass the Sudeten Mountains through the Moravian Gate and the Kłodzko Valley into Lower Silesia. The Neolithic period ushered in
10948-403: The Polish defeat at the Battle of Cecora in 1620. The Commonwealth was forced to renounce all claims to Moldavia, Transylvania, Wallachia and Hungary. The population of Poland-Lithuania was neither overwhelmingly Roman Catholic nor Polish. This circumstance resulted from the federation with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , where East Slavic Ruthenian populations predominated. In the days of
11109-436: The Polish populace to rise up in revolt. The Swedes overran the remainder of Poland except for Lwów and Danzig (Gdańsk). Poland-Lithuania rallied to recover most of its losses from the Swedes. In exchange for breaking the alliance with Sweden, Frederick William, the ruler of Ducal Prussia , was released from his vassalage and became a de facto independent sovereign, while much of the Polish Protestant nobility went over to
11270-403: The Polish state for centuries to come. Progress was made in the recovery of the separately governed central province of Mazovia , however, and in 1340, the conquest of Red Ruthenia began, marking Poland's expansion to the east. The Congress of Kraków , a vast convocation of central, eastern, and northern European rulers probably assembled to plan an anti- Turkish crusade , took place in 1364,
11431-415: The Polish-Ottomans relations were worsened by the escalation of Cossack - Tatar border warfare, which turned the entire border region between the Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire into a semi-permanent warzone . A constant threat from Crimean Tatars supported the appearance of Cossackdom . In 1595, magnates of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth intervened in the affairs of Moldavia . This started
11592-472: The Sejm had to be passed unanimously. The liberum veto was a key part of the political system of the Commonwealth, strengthening democratic elements and checking royal power and went against the European-wide trend of having a strong executive ( absolute monarchy ). Many historians hold that the liberum veto was a major cause of the deterioration of the Commonwealth political system, particularly in
11753-403: The Sejm's proceedings. Majority voting for non-crucial items, including most economic and tax matters, was introduced, with binding instructions from sejmiks being outlawed. The road to reform was not easy, as conservatives, supported by foreign powers, opposed most of the changes and attempted to defend the liberum veto and other elements perpetuating the inefficient governance, most notably by
11914-444: The Sejm, transferred most of the legislative power from the monarch to the Sejm. This event marked the beginning of the period known as " Golden Liberty ", when the state was ruled in principle by the "free and equal" Polish nobility. In the 16th century, the massive development of folwark agribusinesses operated by the nobility led to increasingly abusive conditions for the peasant serfs who worked them. The political monopoly of
12075-532: The Swedish crown, which ended the feud between Sweden and the Commonwealth and the accompanying string of wars between those countries ( War against Sigismund (1598–1599), Polish–Swedish wars (1600–1629) and the Northern War (1655–1660)). After the Truce of Andrusovo of 1667 and the Eternal Peace Treaty of 1686 , the Commonwealth lost left-bank Ukraine to Russia. Polish culture and
12236-587: The Tatar subjects rose up in an open rebellion against the Commonwealth. During the reign of Sigismund's son, Władysław IV Vasa , the Cossacks in Ukraine revolted against Poland ; wars with Russia and Turkey weakened the country; and szlachta obtained new privileges, mainly exemption from income tax. Władysław IV aimed to achieve many military goals, including conquests of Russia, Sweden and Turkey. His reign
12397-772: The Teutonic Knights, and later between Poland and the German Prussian state . The first Mongol invasion of Poland began in 1240; it culminated in the defeat of Polish and allied Christian forces and the death of the Silesian Piast Duke Henry II the Pious at the Battle of Legnica in 1241. In 1242, Wrocław became the first Polish municipality to be incorporated , as the period of fragmentation brought economic development and growth of towns. New cities were founded and existing settlements were granted town status per Magdeburg Law . In 1264, Bolesław
12558-740: The Teutonic Order was secularized and Duke Albert performed an act of homage before the Polish king (the Prussian Homage ) for his fief, the Duchy of Prussia. Mazovia was finally fully incorporated into the Polish Crown in 1529. The reign of Sigismund II ended the Jagiellonian period, but gave rise to the Union of Lublin (1569), an ultimate fulfillment of the union with Lithuania. This agreement transferred Ukraine from
12719-550: The accession of Władysław's brother Casimir IV Jagiellon in 1447. Critical developments of the Jagiellonian period were concentrated during Casimir IV's long reign, which lasted until 1492. In 1454, Royal Prussia was incorporated by Poland and the Thirteen Years' War of 1454–66 with the Teutonic state ensued. In 1466, the milestone Peace of Thorn was concluded. This treaty divided Prussia to create East Prussia ,
12880-762: The affairs of the Commonwealth. At that time, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and the Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Polish and Lithuanian Protestant circles . In 1596, the Union of Brest split the Eastern Christians of the Commonwealth to create the Uniate Church of the Eastern Rite, but subject to the authority of the pope. The Zebrzydowski rebellion against Sigismund III unfolded in 1606–1608. Seeking supremacy in Eastern Europe,
13041-401: The aftermath of the Battle of Praga . In 1795, a Third Partition of Poland was undertaken by Russia, Prussia and Austria as a final division of territory that resulted in the effective dissolution of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. King Stanisław August Poniatowski was escorted to Grodno , forced to abdicate, and retired to Saint Petersburg . Tadeusz Kościuszko, initially imprisoned,
13202-543: The agreements with their elected king but did not attempt his overthrow. For ten years between 1619 and 1629, the Commonwealth was at its greatest geographical extent in history. In 1619, the Russo-Polish Truce of Deulino came into effect, whereby Russia conceded Commonwealth control over Smolensk and several other border territories. In 1629, the Swedish-Polish Truce of Altmark took place;
13363-549: The ancient Przeworsk culture of the 3rd century BC, though some Slavic groups may have arrived from the east in later periods. The West Slavic and Lechitic peoples as well as any remaining minority clans were organized into tribal units ( Polish tribes ), as outlined by the anonymous Bavarian Geographer in the 9th century. Largely divided, it was the Western Polans in the Greater Poland region who began
13524-426: The balance of power. In the short-term the country was weakened at the moment of the invasion by Sweden . Although Poland-Lithuania was unaffected by the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), the following two decades subjected the nation to one of its worst trials ever. This colorful but ruinous interval, the stuff of legend and popular historical novels of Nobel laureate Henryk Sienkiewicz , became known as potop , or
13685-455: The bishop murdered in 1079 after being excommunicated by the Polish church on charges of adultery. This act sparked a revolt of Polish nobles that led to Bolesław's deposition and expulsion from the country. Around 1116, Gallus Anonymus wrote a seminal chronicle, the Gesta principum Polonorum , intended as a glorification of his patron Bolesław III Wrymouth (r. 1107–38), a ruler who revived
13846-446: The capital city of Warsaw , replaced Danzig (Gdańsk) as the leading trade center, and the importance of the more prosperous urban social classes increased. The last decades of the independent Commonwealth's existence were characterized by aggressive reform movements and far-reaching progress in the areas of education, intellectual life, art and the evolution of the social and political system. The royal election of 1764 resulted in
14007-574: The capital; and the King, abandoned or betrayed by his subjects, had to seek temporary refuge in Silesia . As a result of the wars with the Cossacks and Russia, the Commonwealth lost Kiev , Smolensk , and all the areas east of the Dnieper River by the Treaty of Andrusovo (1667). During John Casimir's reign, East Prussia successfully renounced its formal status as a fief of Poland. Internally,
14168-463: The country's three powerful neighbors and only a rump state remained. In 1773, the " Partition Sejm " ratified the partition under duress as a fait accompli . However, it also established the Commission of National Education , a pioneering in Europe education authority often called the world's first ministry of education. The long-lasting session of parliament convened by King Stanisław August
14329-562: The creation of the modern Polish state , the Third Polish Republic, founded in 1989. In prehistoric and protohistoric times, over a period of approximately 500,000 years, the area of present-day Poland was intermittently inhabited by members of the genus Homo . The earliest evidence of Homo erectus activity in the form of microlith artifacts was discovered at Trzebnica , in Lower Silesia . It remains
14490-513: The current session and to nullify any legislation that had already been passed at the session by shouting either Sisto activitatem! (Latin: "I stop the activity!") or Nie pozwalam! ( Polish : "I do not allow!"). The rule was in place from the mid-17th century to the late 18th century in the Sejm's parliamentary deliberations. It was based on the premise that since all of the Polish–Lithuanian noblemen were equal, every measure that came before
14651-447: The disastrous political setbacks of his reign, John II Casimir abdicated the throne and fled to France . King Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki , a native Pole, was elected to replace John II Casimir in 1669. The Polish–Ottoman War (1672–76) broke out during his reign, which lasted until 1673, and continued under his successor, John III Sobieski (r. 1674–1696). Sobieski intended to pursue Baltic area expansion (and to this end he signed
14812-414: The early 1990s, IBM had a decision-making process called "non-concur" in which any department head could veto a company-wide strategy if it did not fit in with their own department's outlook, the disagreements being then sent to the superiors in the hierarchy, often taking several months. This effectively turned IBM into several independent fiefdoms . "Non-concur" was eliminated by CEO Louis Gerstner , who
14973-527: The elevation of Stanisław August Poniatowski , a refined and worldly aristocrat connected to the Czartoryski family, but hand-picked and imposed by Empress Catherine the Great of Russia, who expected him to be her obedient follower. Stanisław August ruled the Polish–Lithuanian state until its dissolution in 1795. The king spent his reign torn between his desire to implement reforms necessary to save
15134-480: The end of the Polish Golden Age . Their effect was to render the once powerful Commonwealth increasingly vulnerable to foreign intervention. The Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648–1657 engulfed the south-eastern regions of the Polish crown; its long-term effects were disastrous for the Commonwealth. The first liberum veto (a parliamentary device that allowed any member of the Sejm to dissolve
15295-507: The entire eastern part of the Commonwealth (Ukraine) to Lwów (Lviv) . Taking advantage of Poland's preoccupation in the east and weakness, Charles X Gustav of Sweden intervened. Most of the Polish nobility along with the Polish vassal Frederick William of Brandenburg-Prussia agreed to recognize him as king after he promised to drive out the Russians. However, the Swedish troops embarked on an orgy of looting and destruction, which caused
15456-413: The failing state and the perceived necessity of remaining in a subordinate relationship to his Russian sponsors. The Bar Confederation (1768–1772) was a rebellion of nobles directed against Russia's influence in general and Stanisław August, who was seen as its representative, in particular. It was fought to preserve Poland's independence and the nobility's traditional interests. After several years, it
15617-537: The few more highly regarded elective kings. During the Livonian War (1558–1582), fought between Ivan the Terrible of Russia and Poland-Lithuania, Pskov was besieged by Polish forces. The city was not captured, but Báthory, with his Chancellor Jan Zamoyski , led the Polish army in a decisive campaign and forced Russia to return territories previously taken, gaining Livonia and Polotsk . In 1582,
15778-526: The first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II. The nobility's Targowica Confederation appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth ended when the King , convinced of
15939-574: The forces of the Commonwealth against Russian invaders, ended when the Polish king, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. The Russian-allied confederation took over the government, but Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for the Second Partition of Poland anyway. The partition left the country with a critically reduced territory that rendered it essentially incapable of an independent existence. The Commonwealth's Grodno Sejm of 1793,
16100-502: The futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the Second Partition of the Commonwealth , which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence. Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko , chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794, in Cracow (Kraków) declared
16261-434: The future Duchy of Prussia , a separate entity that functioned as a fief of Poland under the administration of the Teutonic Knights. Poland also confronted the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Tatars in the south, and in the east helped Lithuania fight the Grand Duchy of Moscow . The country was developing as a feudal state, with a predominantly agricultural economy and an increasingly dominant landed nobility . Kraków ,
16422-688: The great Migration Period of the European Dark Ages . Wooded regions to the north and east were settled by Balts . According to some archaeological research, Slavs have resided in modern Polish territories for only 1,500 years. However, recent genetic studies determined that the inhabitants of Poland are also the descendants of people from before the Migration Period. According to other archaeological and linguistic research, early Slavic peoples were likely present in parts of Poland much earlier, and may have been associated with
16583-643: The historically Polish province of Silesia from the Habsburg monarchy in the Silesian Wars ; it thus constituted an ever-greater threat to Poland's security . The personal union between the Commonwealth and the Electorate of Saxony did give rise to the emergence of a reform movement in the Commonwealth and the beginnings of the Polish Enlightenment culture, the major positive developments of this era. The first Polish public library
16744-617: The history of the Commonwealth: in the first half of the 18th century, Poland ceased to be an active player in international politics. The Treaty of Perpetual Peace (1686) with Russia was the final border settlement between the two countries before the First Partition of Poland in 1772. The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered enormous population losses and massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective in
16905-586: The interests of the Commonwealth to those of their own country and ruling house. In April 1573, Sigismund 's sister Anna , the sole heir to the crown, convinced the Sejm to elect the French prince Henry of Valois as king. Her marriage with Henry was to further legitimize Henry's rule, but less than a year after his coronation, Henry fled Poland to succeed his brother Charles IX as King of France. The able and militarily as well as domestically assertive Transylvanian Stephen Báthory (1576–1586) counts among
17066-432: The king was effectively a partner with the nobility, a top member of the diet ( sejm ), and was constantly supervised by a group of upper-rank nobles, senators from sejm's upper chamber. The disappearance of the ruling dynasty and its replacement with a non-hereditary elective monarchy made the constitutional system much more unstable. With each election the noble electors wanted more power for themselves and less for
17227-515: The largest of the Cossack uprisings , proved disastrous for the Commonwealth. The Cossacks, allied with the Tatars, defeated the forces of the Commonwealth in several battles, the Commonwealth scored a major victory at Berestechko , but the Polish-Lithuanian empire ended up "fatally wounded". The easternmost parts of its territory were effectively lost to Russia, which resulted in a long-term shift in
17388-475: The last Piast monarch, Casimir III the Great , presided over a period of economic prosperity and territorial aggrandizement before his death in 1370 without male heirs. The period of the Jagiellonian dynasty in the 14th–16th centuries brought close ties with the Lithuania , a cultural Renaissance in Poland and continued territorial expansion as well as Polonization that culminated in the establishment of
17549-685: The last Sejm of the state's existence, was compelled to confirm the new partition. Radicalized by recent events, Polish reformers (whether in exile or still resident in the reduced area remaining to the Commonwealth) were soon working on preparations for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko , a popular general and a veteran of the American Revolution , was chosen as its leader. He returned from abroad and issued Kościuszko's proclamation in Kraków on March 24, 1794. It called for
17710-556: The last of the Vasas, was dominated by the culmination in the war with Sweden , the groundwork for which was laid down by the two previous Vasa kings. In 1660, John Casimir was forced to renounce his claims to the Swedish throne and acknowledge Swedish sovereignty over Livonia and city of Riga . Under John Casimir, the Cossacks grew in power and at times were able to defeat the Poles ; the Swedes occupied much of Poland , including Warsaw,
17871-455: The late 18th century, such as Europe's first Constitution of 3 May 1791 . The existence of the Commonwealth ended in 1795 after a series of invasions and partitions carried out by the Russian Empire , the Kingdom of Prussia and the Habsburg monarchy . From 1795 until 1918, no truly independent Polish state existed, although strong resistance movements operated. The opportunity to regain sovereignty only materialized after World War I , when
18032-498: The legal Crown Tribunal in 1578 meant a transfer of many appellate cases from the royal to noble jurisdiction. A period of rule under the Swedish House of Vasa began in the Commonwealth in the year 1587. The first two kings from this dynasty, Sigismund III (r. 1587–1632) and Władysław IV (r. 1632–1648), repeatedly attempted to intrigue for accession to the throne of Sweden, which was a constant source of distraction for
18193-478: The liberation of their Polish homeland. The Polish national anthem, " Poland Is Not Yet Lost ", or "Dąbrowski's Mazurka ", was written in praise of his actions by Józef Wybicki in 1797. The Duchy of Warsaw , a small, semi-independent Polish state, was created in 1807 by Napoleon in the wake of his defeat of Prussia and the signing of the Treaties of Tilsit with Emperor Alexander I of Russia . The Army of
18354-420: The liberum veto was highly significant. From 1573 to 1763, about 150 Sejms were held, of which 53 failed to pass any legislation. Historian Jacek Jędruch notes that out of the 53 disrupted Sejms, 32 were disrupted by the liberum veto . The 18th century saw an institution known as a " confederated sejm " evolve. It was a parliament session that operated under the rules of a confederation. Its primary purpose
18515-486: The main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia , Sweden and the Ottoman Empire . The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a Swedish invasion , which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by
18676-693: The many cultures that have been uncovered, the Lusatian culture , spanned the Bronze and Iron Ages and left notable settlement sites. Around 400 BC, Poland was settled by Celts of the La Tène culture . They were soon followed by emerging cultures with a strong Germanic component, influenced first by the Celts and then by the Roman Empire . The Germanic peoples migrated out of the area by about 500 AD during
18837-579: The monarch, although there were practical limits to how much the kings could be constrained. A semi-permanent power struggle resulted, to which the magnates and lesser szlachta added their own constant manipulations and bickering and authority eroded from the government's center. Eventually foreign states had taken advantage of the vacuum and replaced the nobility of the Commonwealth as the real arbiter of royal elections and of overall power in Poland-Lithuania. In its periodic opportunities to fill
18998-444: The nation's economic base was decimated. The war had been paid for by large-scale minting of worthless currency, causing runaway inflation. Religious feelings had also been inflamed by the conflict, ending tolerance of non-Catholic beliefs. Henceforth, the Commonwealth would be on the strategic defensive facing hostile and increasingly more powerful neighbors. In the Treaty of Oliva in 1660, John Casimir finally renounced his claims to
19159-455: The nearly two centuries of the rule of the Jagiellon dynasty in Poland. It was followed by a three-year interregnum period, during which the Polish nobility ( szlachta ) was searching for ways to continue the governance process and elect a new monarch. Lower szlachta was now included in the selection process and adjustments were made to the constitutional system. The power of the monarch
19320-477: The next few sejms, the veto was still occasionally overruled, but it became gradually more accepted. Before 20 years had passed, in 1669 in Kraków , the entire Sejm was prematurely disrupted on the strength of the liberum veto before it had finished its deliberations by the Kyiv deputy, Adam Olizar . The practice spiraled out of control, and in 1688, the Sejm was dissolved even before the proceedings had begun or
19481-645: The nobility took oaths of loyalty to their new rulers and served as officers in their armies. Although no sovereign Polish state existed between 1795 and 1918, the idea of Polish independence was kept alive throughout the 19th century. There were a number of uprisings and other armed undertakings waged against the partitioning powers. Military efforts after the partitions were first based on the alliances of Polish émigrés with post- revolutionary France . Jan Henryk Dąbrowski 's Polish Legions fought in French campaigns outside of Poland between 1797 and 1802 in hopes that their involvement and contribution would be rewarded with
19642-617: The nobles also stifled the development of cities, some of which were thriving during the late Jagiellonian era, and limited the rights of townspeople, effectively holding back the emergence of the middle class . In the 16th century, Protestant Reformation movements made deep inroads into Polish Christianity and the resulting Reformation in Poland involved a number of different denominations . The policies of religious tolerance that developed in Poland were nearly unique in Europe at that time and many who fled regions torn by religious strife found refuge in Poland. The reigns of King Sigismund I
19803-590: The oldest archeological site in the country, dating back to the Lower Paleolithic period of the Stone Age . The southern regions of Poland were subsequently penetrated by sporadic groups of Neanderthals . Their presence was confirmed by the stone tools unearthed in caves of the Kraków-Częstochowa Upland , a limestone formation with hills, cliffs and valleys that came to be known as
19964-429: The principle of liberum veto was a major cause of the deterioration of the Commonwealth political system and Commonwealth's eventual downfall. Deputies bribed by magnates or foreign powers, or simply content to believe they were living in some kind of "Golden Age", for over a century paralysed the Commonwealth's government, stemming any attempts at reform. Piotr Stefan Wandycz wrote that the " liberum veto had become
20125-497: The process of disintegration started. The nobles, making their own alliances with foreign powers, pursued independent policies; the rebellion of Jerzy Lubomirski shook the throne. John Casimir, a broken, disillusioned man, abdicated the Polish throne on 16 September 1668 amid internal anarchy and strife and returned to France, where he joined the Jesuit order and became a monk . He died in 1672. The Khmelnytsky Uprising , by far
20286-659: The progressing domination of the state by the magnate families of Poland and Lithuania , peaked at the Sejm in Piotrków in 1562–63. On the religious front, the Polish Brethren split from the Calvinists , and the Protestant Brest Bible was published in 1563. The Jesuits , who arrived in 1564, were destined to make a major impact on Poland's history. The Union of Lublin of 1569 established
20447-574: The region and gave Poland - which lies in the North-Central European Plain - its name . The first ruling dynasty, the Piasts , emerged in the 10th century AD. Duke Mieszko I , regarded as the creator of Polish statehood, adopted Western Christianity in 966 CE. Mieszko's dominion was formally reconstituted as a medieval kingdom in 1025 by his son Bolesław I the Brave , known for his military expansions. The most successful and
20608-454: The religious Union of Brest . On the military front, a series of Cossack uprisings took place. The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King Stephen Báthory , suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the Vasa kings Sigismund III and Władysław IV . It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were
20769-412: The royal capital, was turning into a major academic and cultural center, and in 1473 the first printing press began operating there. With the growing importance of szlachta (middle and lower nobility), the king's council evolved to become by 1493 a bicameral General Sejm (parliament) that no longer represented exclusively top dignitaries of the realm. The Nihil novi act, adopted in 1505 by
20930-429: The rule of Neminem captivabimus , which protected the noblemen from arbitrary royal arrests, was formulated. The reign of the young Władysław III (1434–44), who succeeded his father Władysław II Jagiełło and ruled as king of Poland and Hungary , was cut short by his death at the Battle of Varna , during a crusade against the Ottoman Empire . This disaster led to an interregnum of three years that ended with
21091-453: The rule was used to strike down only individual laws, not to dissolve the chamber and throw out all measures passed. For example, as historian Władysław Czapliński describes in the Sejm of 1611 context, some resolutions were struck down, but others passed. From the mid-17th century onward, however, an objection to any item of Sejm legislation from a deputy or senator automatically caused other, earlier adopted legislation to be rejected. That
21252-508: The same year that the future Jagiellonian University , one of the oldest European universities, was founded. On 9 October 1334, Casimir III confirmed the privileges granted to Jews in 1264 by Bolesław the Pious and allowed them to settle in Poland in great numbers. After the Polish royal line and Piast junior branch died out in 1370, Poland came under the rule of Louis I of Hungary of the Capetian House of Anjou , who presided over
21413-405: The second half of the 16th century and the first half of the 17th century, the Commonwealth was one of the largest and most populous states in contemporary Europe, with an area approaching one million square kilometres (0.39 million square miles ) and a population of about ten million. Its economy was dominated by export-focused agriculture. Nationwide religious toleration was guaranteed at
21574-416: The secret Treaty of Jaworów with France in 1675), but was forced instead to fight protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire. By doing so, Sobieski briefly revived the Commonwealth's military might. He defeated the expanding Muslims at the Battle of Khotyn in 1673 and decisively helped deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught at the Battle of Vienna in 1683. Sobieski's reign marked the last high point in
21735-553: The secret Treaty of the Three Black Eagles with the intention of controlling the future royal succession in the Commonwealth. The War of the Polish Succession was fought in 1733–1735 to assist Leszczyński in assuming the throne of Poland for a second time. Amidst considerable foreign involvement, his efforts were unsuccessful. The Kingdom of Prussia became a strong regional power and succeeded in wresting
21896-500: The side of the Swedes. Under Hetman Stefan Czarniecki , the Poles and Lithuanians had driven the Swedes from the Commonwealth's territory by 1657. The armies of Frederick William intervened and were also defeated. Frederick William's rule over East Prussia was recognized , although Poland retained the right of succession until 1773. The thirteen-year struggle over control of Ukraine included an attempted formal union of Ukraine with
22057-506: The sinister symbol of old Polish anarchy." Wagner echoed him thus: "Certainly, there was no other institution of old Poland which has been more sharply criticized in more recent times than this one.". A 2004 Polish collectible card game , Veto , set in the background of a royal election during an election sejm , is named after this procedure. In the Netflix series 1670 , Jan Paweł uses liberum veto to "win" an assembly. Until
22218-413: The start, the royal elections increased foreign influence in the Commonwealth as foreign powers sought to manipulate the Polish nobility to place candidates amicable to their interests. The reign of Stephen Báthory of Hungary followed (r. 1576–1586). He was militarily and domestically assertive and is revered in Polish historical tradition as a rare case of a successful elective king. The establishment of
22379-557: The territory of present-day Poland was inhabited by diverse ethnic groups, including Celts , Scythians , Sarmatians , Slavs , Balts and Germanic peoples . However, it was the West Slavic Lechites , the closest ancestors of ethnic Poles , who established permanent settlements during the Early Middle Ages . The Lechitic Western Polans , a tribe whose name denotes "people living in open fields", dominated
22540-569: The three partitioning powers were fatally weakened in the wake of war and revolution. The Second Polish Republic was established in 1918 and existed as an independent state until 1939, when Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union invaded Poland , marking the beginning of World War II . Millions of Polish citizens of different faiths or identities perished under Nazi occupation between 1939 and 1945 through planned genocide and extermination . A Polish government-in-exile functioned throughout
22701-408: The throne and witnessed further disintegration of the Commonwealth. The Great Northern War of 1700–1721, a period seen by the contemporaries as a temporary eclipse, may have been the fatal blow that brought down the Polish political system. Stanisław Leszczyński was installed as king in 1704 under Swedish protection, but lasted only a few years. The Silent Sejm of 1717 marked the beginning of
22862-432: The throne, the szlachta exhibited a preference for foreign candidates who would not found another strong dynasty. This policy produced monarchs who were either ineffective or in constant debilitating conflict with the nobility. The kings of alien origin were initially unfamiliar with the internal dynamics of the Commonwealth, had remained distracted by the politics of their native countries, and often inclined to subordinate
23023-561: The tradition of military prowess of Bolesław I's time. Gallus' work remains a paramount written source for the early history of Poland. After Bolesław III divided Poland among his sons in his Testament of 1138 , internal fragmentation eroded the Piast monarchical structures in the 12th and 13th centuries. In 1180, Casimir II the Just , who sought papal confirmation of his status as a senior duke , granted immunities and additional privileges to
23184-402: The upper stratum (8% nobles, 1% clergy), townspeople and the peasant majority. Various nationalities/ethnicities or linguistic groups were present, including Poles, Germans, Jews, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Lithuanians, Armenians and Tatars, among others. Following the abdication of King John Casimir Vasa and the end of the Deluge , the Polish nobility ( szlachta ), disappointed with the rule of
23345-453: The wake of large-scale internal conflicts, corrupted legislative processes and manipulation by foreign interests. The nobility fell under the control of a handful of feuding magnate families with established territorial domains. The urban population and infrastructure fell into ruin, together with most peasant farms, whose inhabitants were subjected to increasingly extreme forms of serfdom. The development of science, culture and education came to
23506-524: The war ended with the Truce of Jam Zapolski . The Commonwealth forces retrieved most of the lost provinces. At the end of Báthory's reign, Poland ruled two main Baltic Sea ports: Danzig (Gdańsk), controlling the Vistula River trade and Riga , controlling the Daugava River trade. Both cities were among the largest in the country. Stephen Báthory planned a Christian alliance against
23667-658: The war, and the Poles contributed to the Allied victory through participation in military campaigns on both the eastern and western fronts. The westward advances of the Soviet Red Army in 1944 and 1945 compelled Nazi Germany's forces to retreat from Poland, which led to the establishment of a satellite communist country, known from 1952 as the Polish People's Republic . The territorial adjustments mandated by
23828-432: Was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the First Partition of the Commonwealth , a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria. The Great, or Four-Year Sejm was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791 , considered
23989-477: Was allowed to emigrate to the United States in 1796. The response of the Polish leadership to the last partition is a matter of historical debate. Literary scholars found that the dominant emotion of the first decade was despair that produced a moral desert ruled by violence and treason. On the other hand, historians have looked for signs of resistance to foreign rule. Apart from those who went into exile,
24150-546: Was also leased to Russia for two years, but never returned and eventually Poland recognized Russian control of the city. The potop wars episode inflicted irremediable damage and contributed heavily to the ultimate demise of the state. Held responsible for the greatest disaster in Polish history, John Casimir abdicated in 1668. The population of the Commonwealth had been reduced by a staggering 1/3, by military casualties, slave raids, plague epidemics, and mass murders of civilians. Most of Poland's cities were reduced to rubble, and
24311-407: Was because all legislation that was adopted by a given Sejm formed a whole. It is commonly and erroneously believed that a Sejm was first disrupted by the liberum veto by a Trakai deputy, Władysław Siciński , in 1652. In reality, he vetoed only the continuation of the Sejm's deliberations beyond the statutory time limit. He had, however, set up a dangerous precedent. Over the proceedings of
24472-601: Was brought in to revive the declining company. Dispositions of the European Union law requiring unanimity between states have been compared to the liberum veto by some commenters. Wallonia vetoing Belgium's signature of the Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) with Canada brought comparisons to this rule. Decisions made by the United Nations can be dropped if
24633-419: Was brought under control by forces loyal to the king and those of the Russian Empire . Following the suppression of the Bar Confederation, parts of the Commonwealth were divided up among Prussia, Austria and Russia in 1772 at the instigation of Frederick the Great of Prussia, an action that became known as the First Partition of Poland : the outer provinces of the Commonwealth were seized by agreement among
24794-415: Was created at the Synod of Brest in 1596. The Uniates drew many followers away from the Orthodox Church in the Commonwealth's eastern territories. Sigismund's attempts to introduce absolutism , then becoming prevalent in the rest of Europe, and his goal of reacquiring the throne of Sweden for himself, resulted in a rebellion of the szlachta (gentry) . In 1607, the Polish nobility threatened to suspend
24955-426: Was determined to win the Swedish crown and bring Sweden back to Catholicism. Subsequently, Sigismund III involved Poland in unnecessary and unpopular wars with Sweden during which the diet refused him money and soldiers and Sweden seized Livonia and Prussia . The first few years of Sigismund's reign (until 1598) saw Poland and Sweden united in a personal union that made the Baltic Sea an internal lake. However,
25116-462: Was effectively restored under Władysław I the Elbow-high (r. 1306–33), who became king in 1320. In 1308, the Teutonic Knights seized Gdańsk and the surrounding region of Pomerelia . King Casimir III the Great (r. 1333–70), Władysław's son and the last of the Piast rulers, strengthened and expanded the restored Kingdom of Poland, but the western provinces of Silesia (formally ceded by Casimir in 1339) and most of Polish Pomerania were lost to
25277-402: Was further circumscribed in favor of the expanding noble class, which sought to ensure its future domination. Each king had to sign the so-called Henrician Articles (named after Henry of Valois , the first post-Jagiellon king), which were the basis of the political system of Poland, and the pacta conventa , which were various further personal obligations of the chosen king. From that point,
25438-475: Was mostly peaceful, with a Russian invasion in the form of the Smolensk War of 1632–1634 successfully repelled. The Orthodox Church hierarchy, banned in Poland after the Union of Brest, was re-established in 1635. During the reign of John II Casimir Vasa (r. 1648–1668), the third and last king of his dynasty, the nobles' democracy fell into decline as a result of foreign invasions and domestic disorder. These calamities multiplied rather suddenly and marked
25599-443: Was offered to Sigismund's son, Władysław . Sigismund, however, opposed his son's accession as tsar, as he hoped to obtain the Russian throne for himself. Two years later the Poles were driven out of Moscow and Poland lost an opportunity for a Polish-Russian union. Poland escaped the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), which ravaged everything to the west, especially Prussia. In 1618, the Elector of Brandenburg became hereditary ruler of
25760-505: Was the Załuski Library in Warsaw, opened to the public in 1747. During the later part of the 18th century, fundamental internal reforms were attempted in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as it slid into extinction. The reform activity, initially promoted by the magnate Czartoryski family faction known as the Familia , provoked a hostile reaction and military response from neighboring powers, but it did create conditions that fostered economic improvement. The most populous urban center,
25921-473: Was to avoid disruption by the liberum veto , unlike the national Sejm, which was being paralyzed by the veto. On some occasions, a confederated sejm was formed of the whole membership of the national Sejm so that the liberum veto would not operate. The second half of the 18th century, marking the age of the Polish Enlightenment , also witnessed an increased trend aiming at the reform of the Commonwealth's inefficient governance. Reforms of 1764–1766 improved
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