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75-427: Vienna's water supply originally came from private wells. In the absence of a functioning sewer system, the quality of the groundwater went from bad to worse, triggering disease and epidemics. Reinforced water pipes were built, but these primarily benefitted the wealthy and large institutions. Most of the population had to rely on spouts or fountains attached to wells. The first water pipe that provided greater coverage

150-660: A Delegation requested an audience with Emperor Franz Joseph I to request that he graciously transfer his interests in the Kaiserbrunnen to the City of Vienna. On 1 May 1865, at the opening ceremonies for the Ringstraße , the Emperor declared that he would present the Kaiserbrunnen to the city as a gift. The Ministry of Finance, however, made demands for indemnification and negotiations ensued. A decision on 29 November 1867

225-408: A drop in the ground surface. In unconsolidated aquifers, groundwater is produced from pore spaces between particles of gravel, sand, and silt. If the aquifer is confined by low-permeability layers, the reduced water pressure in the sand and gravel causes slow drainage of water from the adjoining confining layers. If these confining layers are composed of compressible silt or clay, the loss of water to

300-402: A former lake bed, has experienced rates of subsidence of up to 40 centimetres (1 foot 4 inches) per year. For coastal cities, subsidence can increase the risk of other environmental issues, such as sea level rise . For example, Bangkok is expected to have 5.138 million people exposed to coastal flooding by 2070 because of these combining factors. If the surface water source

375-1076: A global level, although priority chemicals will vary by country. There is a lot of heterogeneity of hydrogeologic properties. For this reason, salinity of groundwater is often highly variable over space. This contributes to highly variable groundwater security risks even within a specific region. Salinity in groundwater makes the water unpalatable and unusable and often occurs in coastal areas, for example in Bangladesh and East and West Africa. Municipal and industrial water supplies are provided through large wells. Multiple wells for one water supply source are termed "wellfields", which may withdraw water from confined or unconfined aquifers. Using groundwater from deep, confined aquifers provides more protection from surface water contamination. Some wells, termed "collector wells", are specifically designed to induce infiltration of surface (usually river) water. Aquifers that provide sustainable fresh groundwater to urban areas and for agricultural irrigation are typically close to

450-408: A home and then returned to the ground in another well. During cold seasons, because it is relatively warm, the water can be used in the same way as a source of heat for heat pumps that is much more efficient than using air. Groundwater makes up about thirty percent of the world's fresh water supply, which is about 0.76% of the entire world's water, including oceans and permanent ice. About 99% of

525-519: A long time without severe consequences. Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of seepage above a groundwater source is the upper bound for average consumption of water from that source. Groundwater is naturally replenished by surface water from precipitation , streams , and rivers when this recharge reaches the water table. Groundwater can be a long-term ' reservoir ' of the natural water cycle (with residence times from days to millennia), as opposed to short-term water reservoirs like

600-722: A permanently reduced capacity to hold water. The city of New Orleans, Louisiana is actually below sea level today, and its subsidence is partly caused by removal of groundwater from the various aquifer/aquitard systems beneath it. In the first half of the 20th century, the San Joaquin Valley experienced significant subsidence , in some places up to 8.5 metres (28 feet) due to groundwater removal. Cities on river deltas, including Venice in Italy, and Bangkok in Thailand, have experienced surface subsidence; Mexico City, built on

675-666: A search for new sources of water. A temporary pumping station was established on the Naßbach, near its confluence with the Preinbach, but this water had to be chlorinated . That pump was eventually replaced by an electrically powered pump at the pipeline's headwaters. In 1930, improvements were made to the source at Kaiserbrunnen, including a "metering chamber" that would provide precise measurements of water flow. Water consumption in Vienna rose sharply after 1939, slowing down only towards

750-463: A vote of 94 to 2. Those involved in the planning were divided in two groups. The First Department was responsible for the source of the pipeline and the reservoir . The Second Department oversaw the pipeline route and work within the Vienna city limits. The work was done under the direction of Carl Junker , a civil engineer, and Karl Gabriel, the City Engineer. The plans were completed near

825-399: Is a highly useful and often abundant resource. Most land areas on Earth have some form of aquifer underlying them, sometimes at significant depths. In some cases, these aquifers are rapidly being depleted by the human population. Such over-use, over-abstraction or overdraft can cause major problems to human users and to the environment. The most evident problem (as far as human groundwater use

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900-528: Is also often withdrawn for agricultural , municipal , and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells . The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology , also called groundwater hydrology . Typically, groundwater is thought of as water flowing through shallow aquifers, but, in the technical sense, it can also contain soil moisture , permafrost (frozen soil), immobile water in very low permeability bedrock , and deep geothermal or oil formation water. Groundwater

975-466: Is also subject to substantial evaporation, a groundwater source may become saline . This situation can occur naturally under endorheic bodies of water, or artificially under irrigated farmland. In coastal areas, human use of a groundwater source may cause the direction of seepage to ocean to reverse which can also cause soil salinization . As water moves through the landscape, it collects soluble salts, mainly sodium chloride . Where such water enters

1050-632: Is an additional water source that was not used previously. First, flood mitigation schemes, intended to protect infrastructure built on floodplains, have had the unintended consequence of reducing aquifer recharge associated with natural flooding. Second, prolonged depletion of groundwater in extensive aquifers can result in land subsidence , with associated infrastructure damage – as well as, third, saline intrusion . Fourth, draining acid sulphate soils, often found in low-lying coastal plains, can result in acidification and pollution of formerly freshwater and estuarine streams. Groundwater

1125-417: Is concerned) is a lowering of the water table beyond the reach of existing wells. As a consequence, wells must be drilled deeper to reach the groundwater; in some places (e.g., California , Texas , and India ) the water table has dropped hundreds of feet because of extensive well pumping. The GRACE satellites have collected data that demonstrates 21 of Earth's 37 major aquifers are undergoing depletion. In

1200-412: Is fresh water located in the subsurface pore space of soil and rocks . It is also water that is flowing within aquifers below the water table . Sometimes it is useful to make a distinction between groundwater that is closely associated with surface water , and deep groundwater in an aquifer (called " fossil water " if it infiltrated into the ground millennia ago ). Groundwater can be thought of in

1275-427: Is hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly influence the movement of faults . It is likely that much of Earth 's subsurface contains some water, which may be mixed with other fluids in some instances. Groundwater is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than surface water . Therefore, it is commonly used for public drinking water supplies. For example, groundwater provides

1350-545: Is less visible and more difficult to clean up than pollution in rivers and lakes. Groundwater pollution most often results from improper disposal of wastes on land. Major sources include industrial and household chemicals and garbage landfills , excessive fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture, industrial waste lagoons, tailings and process wastewater from mines, industrial fracking , oil field brine pits, leaking underground oil storage tanks and pipelines, sewage sludge and septic systems . Additionally, groundwater

1425-468: Is rapidly increasing with population growth, while climate change is imposing additional stress on water resources and raising the probability of severe drought occurrence. The anthropogenic effects on groundwater resources are mainly due to groundwater pumping and the indirect effects of irrigation and land use changes. Groundwater plays a central role in sustaining water supplies and livelihoods in sub-Saharan Africa . In some cases, groundwater

1500-560: Is susceptible to saltwater intrusion in coastal areas and can cause land subsidence when extracted unsustainably, leading to sinking cities (like Bangkok ) and loss in elevation (such as the multiple meters lost in the Central Valley of California ). These issues are made more complicated by sea level rise and other effects of climate change , particularly those on the water cycle . Earth's axial tilt has shifted 31 inches because of human groundwater pumping. Groundwater

1575-400: Is the most accessed source of freshwater around the world, including as drinking water , irrigation , and manufacturing . Groundwater accounts for about half of the world's drinking water, 40% of its irrigation water, and a third of water for industrial purposes. Another estimate stated that globally groundwater accounts for about one third of all water withdrawals , and surface water for

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1650-456: Is used for irrigation. Occasionally, sedimentary or "fossil" aquifers are used to provide irrigation and drinking water to urban areas. In Libya, for example, Muammar Gaddafi's Great Manmade River project has pumped large amounts of groundwater from aquifers beneath the Sahara to populous areas near the coast. Though this has saved Libya money over the alternative, seawater desalination,

1725-686: The Minister of War to help with the tunnel but, instead of the 250 men he requested, he was assigned only 70 sappers . After an intervention by the City of Vienna, the War Ministry sent more men and the last tunnel section was completed on 8 December 1872. On 5 April 1870, the City Council approved a proposal by the Water Supply Commission and designated three companies to supply the pipes needed in urban areas. These were:

1800-585: The Punjab region of India , for example, groundwater levels have dropped 10 meters since 1979, and the rate of depletion is accelerating. A lowered water table may, in turn, cause other problems such as groundwater-related subsidence and saltwater intrusion . Another cause for concern is that groundwater drawdown from over-allocated aquifers has the potential to cause severe damage to both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems – in some cases very conspicuously but in others quite imperceptibly because of

1875-442: The hydraulic pressure of groundwater in the pore spaces of the aquifer and the aquitard supports some of the weight of the overlying sediments. When groundwater is removed from aquifers by excessive pumping, pore pressures in the aquifer drop and compression of the aquifer may occur. This compression may be partially recoverable if pressures rebound, but much of it is not. When the aquifer gets compressed, it may cause land subsidence,

1950-405: The vadose zone below plant roots and is often expressed as a flux to the water table surface. Groundwater recharge also encompasses water moving away from the water table farther into the saturated zone. Recharge occurs both naturally (through the water cycle ) and through anthropogenic processes (i.e., "artificial groundwater recharge"), where rainwater and/or reclaimed water is routed to

2025-762: The Prager Eisenindustrie-Gesellschaft (located in Kladno ), Gambier et Cie. (from La Louvière , Belgium) and the Neuberg-Mariazeller Gewerkschaft. However, Gambier encountered difficulties in delivering their pipes due to the Franco-Prussian War , so most of their contract was transferred to nearby factories in Moravia . Many of the pipes were tested after being laid and were not up to standards, so

2100-479: The Rax-Schneeberg area. On 21 November 1862, the City Council established a twelve-member commission to carry out the necessary surveys and paperwork. Among the commission's members were Cajetan Felder (an entomologist ), Ludwig Förster (an architect) and August Zang (a publisher). Eduard Suess (a geologist) was appointed to replace Förster upon the latter's death in 1863. In the spring of that year,

2175-602: The Schloss Stixenstein at Sieding was owned by Count Ernst Karl von Hoyos-Sprinzenstein . The city of Vienna had notified him that they intended to acquire the property by right of public domain as early as 27 July 1864. Although he presented several conditions, none were considered onerous and the contract was approved by the Regional Court on 11 August 1868. In return for his "donation" he was made an Honorary Citizen of Vienna in 1873. On 12 July 1864,

2250-568: The Second Vienna Mountain Spring Pipeline could be completed. After the opening of the second pipeline in 1910, further investment in the first pipeline no longer seemed necessary. On 25 July 1914, during the First World War, both pipelines became state-protected companies by Imperial Decree. As a result, monitoring of the lines, which was normally undertaken by city employees and volunteers, became

2325-561: The age of groundwater obtained from different parts of the Great Artesian Basin, hydrogeologists have found it increases in age across the basin. Where water recharges the aquifers along the Eastern Divide , ages are young. As groundwater flows westward across the continent, it increases in age, with the oldest groundwater occurring in the western parts. This means that in order to have travelled almost 1000 km from

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2400-405: The aquifer reduces the water pressure in the confining layer, causing it to compress from the weight of overlying geologic materials. In severe cases, this compression can be observed on the ground surface as subsidence . Unfortunately, much of the subsidence from groundwater extraction is permanent (elastic rebound is small). Thus, the subsidence is not only permanent, but the compressed aquifer has

2475-525: The aquifers are likely to run dry in 60 to 100 years. Groundwater provides critical freshwater supply, particularly in dry regions where surface water availability is limited. Globally, more than one-third of the water used originates from underground. In the mid-latitude arid and semi-arid regions lacking sufficient surface water supply from rivers and reservoirs, groundwater is critical for sustaining global ecology and meeting societal needs of drinking water and food production. The demand for groundwater

2550-485: The area between Rax, Schneeberg and Würflach . The data collected from these studies were summarized by the City Planning Authority and presented to the City Council on 31 July 1861. Later, on 1 December 1861, foreign and domestic engineering companies were invited to submit plans and bids for the proposed project. Twelve offers were presented and various sources were suggested; two of which focused on

2625-598: The atmosphere and fresh surface water (which have residence times from minutes to years). Deep groundwater (which is quite distant from the surface recharge) can take a very long time to complete its natural cycle. The Great Artesian Basin in central and eastern Australia is one of the largest confined aquifer systems in the world, extending for almost 2 million km . By analysing the trace elements in water sourced from deep underground, hydrogeologists have been able to determine that water extracted from these aquifers can be more than 1 million years old. By comparing

2700-510: The atmosphere through evapotranspiration , these salts are left behind. In irrigation districts, poor drainage of soils and surface aquifers can result in water tables' coming to the surface in low-lying areas. Major land degradation problems of soil salinity and waterlogging result, combined with increasing levels of salt in surface waters. As a consequence, major damage has occurred to local economies and environments. Aquifers in surface irrigated areas in semi-arid zones with reuse of

2775-477: The canal had to be closed. The first major project after the pipeline was recommissioned was the construction of a major water storage facility at Neusiedl am Steinfeld . The foundation stone was laid on 21 November 1953 and the four-chambered water tank was fully operational by 25 April 1959. It can hold 150,000 cubic metres of water, making it the largest in Europe at that time. A few years later, another problem

2850-553: The commission began a detailed examination of the proposed sites and projects. Their studies extended higher and higher, finally examining the area around Höllental , which they declared to be suitable for the project's purposes. The final "Report on the surveys of the Water Supply Commission of the Municipal Council of the City of Vienna" was written by Suess in 1864 and published by the Council. The report concluded that

2925-491: The current population growth rate. Global groundwater depletion has been calculated to be between 100 and 300 km per year. This depletion is mainly caused by "expansion of irrigated agriculture in drylands ". The Asia-Pacific region is the largest groundwater abstractor in the world, containing seven out of the ten countries that extract most groundwater (Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Pakistan and Turkey). These countries alone account for roughly 60% of

3000-507: The end of 1944. By 1942, demand had exceeded supply. In the event that one of the lines might become disabled, groundwater stations and locks were built in the urban area. Water saving measures were, of course, already in effect as a result of the war. On 12 April 1944 an attack on the nearby airbase at Kottingbrunn caused collateral damage to the first pipeline. Far more serious were the results of an attack at Wöllersdorf in May, which damaged

3075-593: The end of October in 1865 and put on public display at the Palais Augarten in December. Another panel of experts examined the plans and gave their approval in February, 1866. On May 25 that year, the plans were presented to the City Council for final approval and after a long debate, the project was authorized to proceed on 19 June. Having fulfilled the tasks assigned to it, the original Water Supply Commission

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3150-404: The extended period over which the damage occurs. The importance of groundwater to ecosystems is often overlooked, even by freshwater biologists and ecologists. Groundwaters sustain rivers, wetlands , and lakes , as well as subterranean ecosystems within karst or alluvial aquifers. Not all ecosystems need groundwater, of course. Some terrestrial ecosystems – for example, those of

3225-407: The extent, depth and thickness of water-bearing sediments and rocks. Before an investment is made in production wells, test wells may be drilled to measure the depths at which water is encountered and collect samples of soils, rock and water for laboratory analyses. Pumping tests can be performed in test wells to determine flow characteristics of the aquifer. The characteristics of aquifers vary with

3300-472: The geology and structure of the substrate and topography in which they occur. In general, the more productive aquifers occur in sedimentary geologic formations. By comparison, weathered and fractured crystalline rocks yield smaller quantities of groundwater in many environments. Unconsolidated to poorly cemented alluvial materials that have accumulated as valley -filling sediments in major river valleys and geologically subsiding structural basins are included among

3375-404: The globe includes canals redirecting surface water, groundwater pumping, and diverting water from dams. Aquifers are critically important in agriculture. Deep aquifers in arid areas have long been water sources for irrigation. A majority of extracted groundwater, 70%, is used for agricultural purposes. In India, 65% of the irrigation is from groundwater and about 90% of extracted groundwater

3450-416: The ground surface (within a couple of hundred metres) and have some recharge by fresh water. This recharge is typically from rivers or meteoric water (precipitation) that percolates into the aquifer through overlying unsaturated materials. In general, the irrigation of 20% of farming land (with various types of water sources) accounts for the production of 40% of food production. Irrigation techniques across

3525-699: The largest source of usable water storage in the United States , and California annually withdraws the largest amount of groundwater of all the states. Underground reservoirs contain far more water than the capacity of all surface reservoirs and lakes in the US, including the Great Lakes . Many municipal water supplies are derived solely from groundwater. Over 2 billion people rely on it as their primary water source worldwide. Human use of groundwater causes environmental problems. For example, polluted groundwater

3600-437: The late 1850s, several projects to divert water from other sources were proposed, and studies were made to calculate the amount of water that would be required. These studies considered not only drinking water, but industry, irrigation, road sprinkling, fountains and bathing facilities as well. A primary consideration was that the water should originate at a high altitude, so that gravity, rather than pumps, would be sufficient to

3675-463: The line in several places. Bombing near Vienna caused damage to the aqueduct. Temporary repairs were attempted, often by local fire brigades. On 29 March 1945, a bombing raid by Russian aircraft caused severe damage at Neunkirchen . This remained unrepaired until after the war. The bomb craters near Neunkirchen had allowed large quantities of gravel to enter the system, causing erosion to the pipes. Cleaning and repair required several years, during which

3750-518: The local hydrogeology , may draw in non-potable water or saltwater intrusion from hydraulically connected aquifers or surface water bodies. This can be a serious problem, especially in coastal areas and other areas where aquifer pumping is excessive. Subsidence occurs when too much water is pumped out from underground, deflating the space below the above-surface, and thus causing the ground to collapse. The result can look like craters on plots of land. This occurs because, in its natural equilibrium state,

3825-412: The most productive sources of groundwater. Fluid flows can be altered in different lithological settings by brittle deformation of rocks in fault zones ; the mechanisms by which this occurs are the subject of fault zone hydrogeology . Reliance on groundwater will only increase, mainly due to growing water demand by all sectors combined with increasing variation in rainfall patterns . Groundwater

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3900-473: The new pipes. By 1888, this had increased to 91%. Due to an increase in population, a pumping station had to be added at Breitensee in 1896. By 1899, another pumping station had been added on the Wienerbergstraße. In 1908 and 1909, the city found itself facing shortages again and, despite some opposition from industrial interests, took stop-gap measures to insure an adequate drinking water supply until

3975-671: The open deserts and similar arid environments – exist on irregular rainfall and the moisture it delivers to the soil, supplemented by moisture in the air. While there are other terrestrial ecosystems in more hospitable environments where groundwater plays no central role, groundwater is in fact fundamental to many of the world's major ecosystems. Water flows between groundwaters and surface waters. Most rivers, lakes, and wetlands are fed by, and (at other places or times) feed groundwater, to varying degrees. Groundwater feeds soil moisture through percolation, and many terrestrial vegetation communities depend directly on either groundwater or

4050-499: The opening ceremony on 24 October 1873 was the dedication of a jet fountain on the Schwarzenbergplatz by the Emperor. The entire pipe network, however, was not completed until July 1874. Private wells were examined for potential health hazards and, if any were found, the residences they served had to be connected to the new system and the old wells closed. By 1883, 80% of the homes in Vienna were receiving their water from

4125-470: The other two thirds. Groundwater provides drinking water to at least 50% of the global population. About 2.5 billion people depend solely on groundwater resources to satisfy their basic daily water needs. A similar estimate was published in 2021 which stated that "groundwater is estimated to supply between a quarter and a third of the world's annual freshwater withdrawals to meet agricultural, industrial and domestic demands." Global freshwater withdrawal

4200-683: The percolated soil moisture above the aquifer for at least part of each year. Hyporheic zones (the mixing zone of streamwater and groundwater) and riparian zones are examples of ecotones largely or totally dependent on groundwater. A 2021 study found that of ~39 million investigated groundwater wells 6-20% are at high risk of running dry if local groundwater levels decline by a few meters, or – as with many areas and possibly more than half of major aquifers  – continue to decline. Fresh-water aquifers, especially those with limited recharge by snow or rain, also known as meteoric water , can be over-exploited and depending on

4275-481: The responsibility of the Landsturm . After the war, the population of Vienna decreased by almost 326,000 and the ensuing economic depression reduced economic activity so the city found itself with a surplus of water that was delivered to adjacent communities such as Klosterneuburg , Schwechat , Brunn am Gebirge and others. But, during the summers of 1928 and 1929, the area experienced a drought, once again forcing

4350-423: The same terms as surface water : inputs, outputs and storage. The natural input to groundwater is seepage from surface water. The natural outputs from groundwater are springs and seepage to the oceans. Due to its slow rate of turnover, groundwater storage is generally much larger (in volume) compared to inputs than it is for surface water. This difference makes it easy for humans to use groundwater unsustainably for

4425-416: The source of recharge in 1 million years, the groundwater flowing through the Great Artesian Basin travels at an average rate of about 1 metre per year. Groundwater recharge or deep drainage or deep percolation is a hydrologic process, where water moves downward from surface water to groundwater. Recharge is the primary method through which water enters an aquifer . This process usually occurs in

4500-497: The subsurface. The high specific heat capacity of water and the insulating effect of soil and rock can mitigate the effects of climate and maintain groundwater at a relatively steady temperature . In some places where groundwater temperatures are maintained by this effect at about 10 °C (50 °F), groundwater can be used for controlling the temperature inside structures at the surface. For example, during hot weather relatively cool groundwater can be pumped through radiators in

4575-486: The task. The Traisen was considered first, and rejected, because of high water temperatures during the summer and concerns about its purity. The Pitten , Schwarza and the Leitha were subsequently rejected for similar reasons. The Fischa was rejected because of concerns about the companies that used the river as a power source and the possibility of contamination from ammonia-based fertilizers. Attention finally turned to

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4650-411: The thickness of the pipe walls was increased and the general plan was revised to prevent water pressure from being too high in the low-lying areas. Due to a lack of water in 1873, Gabrielli was asked to accelerate his work so the supplies could be increased by no later than October. The City Council approved a special payment for this purpose. Construction was largely completed by August. The highlight of

4725-421: The three sources of Kaiserbrunnen, Stixenstein and Alta would supply high quality water and, even though it was longer than the route to Fischa, would be more cost-effective because no pump station would be necessary. The report was submitted to a group of experts and verified on 6 July 1864. The Imperial Society of Physicians gave their support to the final proposal and it was ratified by the Council on 12 July by

4800-471: The tunnel at Höllental. Due to some initial difficulties, the proposed completion date was re-estimated to be July, 1874. Gabrielli had awarded individual segments of the project to sub-contractor. The tunnel work had been given to Franz Schlögl, a Viennese architect, who was not up to the task and was removed from the project in August, 1870. Falling further behind from delays in deliveries, Gabrielli turned to

4875-408: The unavoidable irrigation water losses percolating down into the underground by supplemental irrigation from wells run the risk of salination . Surface irrigation water normally contains salts in the order of 0.5 g/L or more and the annual irrigation requirement is in the order of 10,000 m /ha or more so the annual import of salt is in the order of 5,000 kg/ha or more. Under

4950-441: The world is groundwater. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table . Groundwater is recharged from the surface; it may discharge from the surface naturally at springs and seeps , and can form oases or wetlands . Groundwater

5025-519: The world's liquid fresh water is groundwater. Global groundwater storage is roughly equal to the total amount of freshwater stored in the snow and ice pack, including the north and south poles. This makes it an important resource that can act as a natural storage that can buffer against shortages of surface water , as in during times of drought . The volume of groundwater in an aquifer can be estimated by measuring water levels in local wells and by examining geologic records from well-drilling to determine

5100-420: The world's total groundwater withdrawal. Groundwater may or may not be a safe water source. In fact, there is considerable uncertainty with groundwater in different hydrogeologic contexts: the widespread presence of contaminants such as arsenic , fluoride and salinity can reduce the suitability of groundwater as a drinking water source. Arsenic and fluoride have been considered as priority contaminants at

5175-555: Was built in 1803-1804, bringing water from Hütteldorf . Vienna was growing too fast for the supply to be sufficient so, in 1836, the Emperor Ferdinand Aqueduct was built. It provided artificially filtered water from the Danube Canal . Initially, the water quality was acceptable, but the effects of the filtering gradually diminished and the health risk returned. Demand also continued to exceed supply. During

5250-622: Was dissolved on 3 July and replaced by a new twenty-one member commission to oversee the actual construction. Most of the original commissioners were retained. The first construction permits were issued in July 1868. Objections were raised by local land owners and factory operators near the Schwarza, but were rejected by the Ministry of the Interior on 22 March 1869. The Stixenstein source, near

5325-475: Was expanded in 1998 and has 950 objects, several informational displays and video presentations. 48°08′18″N 16°16′25″E  /  48.1383°N 16.2736°E  / 48.1383; 16.2736 Groundwater This is an accepted version of this page Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth 's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations . About 30 percent of all readily available fresh water in

5400-497: Was followed by another audience with the Emperor, followed by more negotiations, which led to a contract being signed on 6 March 1868. After the issuance of construction permits, the bids were examined and the contract awarded to Antonio Gabrielli, a contractor from London, on 12 October 1869. The construction officially began on 21 April 1870. The Emperor himself turned over the first spadeful of dirt at Rosenhügel. In fact, construction had started on 6 December 1869, with blasting for

5475-531: Was posed by the construction of the Süd Autobahn (1961-1963), which crosses the first pipeline four times between Bad Vöslau and Bad Fischau . Precautions had to be taken to protect the pipeline from the potential effects of traffic accidents. With the establishment of the Schneealpenstollen (Alpine Snow Tunnel) in 1968, water from Styria was introduced into the pipeline system. The tunnel

5550-402: Was probably around 600 km per year in 1900 and increased to 3,880 km per year in 2017. The rate of increase was especially high (around 3% per year) during the period 1950–1980, partly due to a higher population growth rate, and partly to rapidly increasing groundwater development, particularly for irrigation. The rate of increase is (as per 2022) approximately 1% per year, in tune with

5625-699: Was then the largest in Europe and increased supplies by 20%. Two more such tunnels, the Scheiblingstollen and the Lärchsteinstollen, have been built, bringing water from the Hochschwab range. A former forest warden's house in Kaiserbrunnen has served since 1973 as a museum, consisting of two buildings with seven rooms documenting the construction of the First Vienna Mountain Spring Pipeline. The museum

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