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119-423: Most military flamethrowers use liquid fuel, typically either heated oil or diesel , but commercial flamethrowers are generally blowtorches using gaseous fuels such as propane . Gases are safer in peacetime applications because their flames have less mass flow rate and dissipate faster, and often are easier to extinguish. Apart from the military applications, flamethrowers have peacetime applications where there

238-529: A haloalkane . Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were once often used as propellants, but since the Montreal Protocol came into force in 1989, they have been replaced in nearly every country due to the negative effects CFCs have on Earth's ozone layer . The most common replacements of CFCs are mixtures of volatile hydrocarbons , typically propane , n- butane and isobutane . Dimethyl ether (DME) and methyl ethyl ether are also used. All these have

357-542: A German military officer and former fireman, converted steam powered fire engines into flamethrowers; his design was demonstrated in 1907. The English word flamethrower is a loan-translation of the German word Flammenwerfer , since the modern flamethrower was invented in Germany. The first flamethrower, in the modern sense, is usually credited to Richard Fiedler . He submitted evaluation models of his Flammenwerfer to

476-427: A Norwegian chemical engineer, and a United States patent was granted for the invention in 1931. The patent rights were sold to a United States company for 100,000 Norwegian kroner . The Norwegian Postal Service, Posten Norge , celebrated the invention by issuing a stamp in 1998. In 1939, American Julian S. Kahn received a patent for a disposable spray can, but the product remained largely undeveloped. Kahn's idea

595-509: A content of 2000 ppm max of sulfur, reduced to a limit of 350 ppm by the beginning of the 21st century with the introduction of Euro 3 specifications. The limit was lowered with the introduction of Euro 4 by 2006 to 50 ppm ( ULSD , Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel). The standard for diesel fuel in force in Europe as of 2009 is the Euro 5, with a maximum content of 10 ppm. Aerosol can Aerosol spray

714-455: A dangerously high pressure and require special pressure vessel design (like in gas cylinders ), or the amount of payload in the can would be small, and rapidly deplete. Usually, the gas is the vapor of a liquid with boiling point slightly lower than room temperature . This means that inside the pressurized can, the vapor can exist in equilibrium with its bulk liquid at a pressure that is higher than atmospheric pressure (and able to expel

833-529: A device consisting of a hand-held pump that shot bursts of Greek fire via a siphon -hose and a piston which ignited it with a match, similar to modern versions, as it was ejected. An illustration in Poliorcetica of Hero of Byzantium display a soldier with a portable flamethrower. Byzantines also used ceramic hand grenades filled with Greek fire. Greek fire, used primarily at sea, gave the Byzantines

952-425: A diesel fuel. A higher cetane number indicates that the fuel ignites more readily when sprayed into hot compressed air. European (EN 590 standard) road diesel has a minimum cetane number of 51. Fuels with higher cetane numbers, normally "premium" diesel fuels with additional cleaning agents and some synthetic content, are available in some markets. About 86.1% of diesel fuel mass is carbon, and when burned, it offers

1071-547: A few minutes due to coal dust deposition. Before diesel fuel was standardised, diesel engines typically ran on cheap fuel oils. In the United States, these were distilled from petroleum, whereas in Europe, coal-tar creosote oil was used. Some diesel engines were fuelled with mixtures of fuels, such as petrol, kerosene, rapeseed oil, or lubricating oil which were cheaper because, at the time, they were not being taxed. The introduction of motor-vehicle diesel engines, such as

1190-469: A gel at temperatures of −19 to −15 °C (−2 to 5 °F), that cannot flow in fuel systems. Conventional diesel fuels vaporise at temperatures between 149 °C and 371 °C. Conventional diesel flash points vary between 52 and 96 °C, which makes it safer than petrol and unsuitable for spark-ignition engines. Unlike petrol, the flash point of a diesel fuel has no relation to its performance in an engine nor to its auto ignition qualities. As

1309-496: A good approximation the chemical formula of diesel is C n H 2n . Diesel is a mixture of different molecules. As carbon has a molar mass of 12 g/mol and hydrogen has a molar mass of about 1 g/mol, so the fraction by weight of carbon in EN ;590 diesel fuel is roughly 12/14. The reaction of diesel combustion is given by: 2 C n H 2n + 3n O 2 ⇌ 2n CO 2 + 2n H 2 O Carbon dioxide has

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1428-544: A long pole was used to reach the target and the lanyard was pulled to ignite the fuel; producing a 2-metre (7 ft) long stream of fire. Those weapons were deployed in six-man teams and were limited by their short range. In theory the Brandröhre was replaced by the flamethrower in 1909 but it was still in use in WW1; it was used during the assaults on Fort du Camp-des-Romains in 1914 and Fort Vaux in 1916. Bernhard Reddeman,

1547-504: A man-portable flamethrower, but their range is still short compared with that of other infantry weapons. The risk of a flamethrower operator being caught in the explosion of their weapon due to enemy hits on the tanks is exaggerated in films. In some cases, the pressure tanks have exploded and killed the operator when hit by bullets or grenade shrapnel. In the documentary Vietnam in HD , platoon sergeant Charles Brown tells of how one of his men

1666-472: A means of separating the fission product palladium from PUREX raffinate which comes from used nuclear fuel . In this system of solvent extraction, the hydrocarbons of the diesel act as the diluent while the di alkyl sulfides act as the extractant. This extraction operates by a solvation mechanism. So far, neither a pilot plant nor full scale plant has been constructed to recover palladium, rhodium or ruthenium from nuclear wastes created by

1785-615: A molar mass of 44g/mol as it consists of 2 atoms of oxygen (16 g/mol) and 1 atom of carbon (12 g/mol). So 12 g of carbon yield 44 g of Carbon dioxide. Diesel has a density of 0.838 kg per liter. Putting everything together the mass of carbon dioxide that is produced by burning 1 liter of diesel fuel can be calculated as: 0.838 k g / L ⋅ 12 14 ⋅ 44 12 = 2.63 k g / L {\displaystyle 0.838kg/L\cdot {\frac {12}{14}}\cdot {\frac {44}{12}}=2.63kg/L} The figure obtained with this estimation

1904-608: A net heating value of 43.1 MJ/kg as opposed to 43.2 MJ/kg for gasoline. Due to the higher density, diesel fuel offers a higher volumetric energy density: the density of EN 590 diesel fuel is defined as 0.820 to 0.845 kg/L (6.84 to 7.05 lb/US gal) at 15 °C (59 °F), about 9.0-13.9% more than EN 228 gasoline (petrol)'s 0.720–0.775 kg/L (6.01–6.47 lb/US gal) at 15 °C, which should be put into consideration when comparing volumetric fuel prices. The CO 2 emissions from diesel are 73.25 g/MJ, just slightly lower than for gasoline at 73.38 g/MJ. Diesel fuel

2023-411: A piston barrier system by CCL Industries or EarthSafe by Crown Holdings is often selected for highly viscous products such as post-foaming hair gels , thick creams and lotions , food spreads and industrial products and sealants . The main benefit of this system is that it eliminates gas permeation and assures separation of the product from the propellant, maintaining the purity and integrity of

2142-402: A recent transfer to ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD), which causes infrastructural complications. In Sweden, a diesel fuel designated as MK-1 (class 1 environmental diesel) is also being sold. This is a ULSD that also has a lower aromatics content, with a limit of 5%. This fuel is slightly more expensive to produce than regular ULSD. In Germany, the fuel tax on diesel fuel is about 28% lower than

2261-524: A reduced-tax agricultural-only product containing an identifying coloured dye known as red diesel . The official term for white diesel is DERV , standing for diesel-engine road vehicle . In Australia , diesel fuel is also known as distillate (not to be confused with "distillate" in an older sense referring to a different motor fuel), and in Indonesia (as well in Israel ), it is known as Solar ,

2380-476: A steel nozzle. The weapon projected a jet of fire and enormous clouds of smoke some 18 metres (20 yd). It was a single-shot weapon—for burst firing, a new igniter section was attached each time. In 1905 Fiedler's flamethrower was demonstrated to the Prussian Committee of Engineers. In 1908 Fiedler started working with Reddeman and made some adjustments to the design; an experimental pioneer company

2499-415: A stored propellant. Liquid aerosol propellant filling machines require additional precautions, such as being mounted externally to the production warehouse in a gas house. Liquid aerosol propellant machines are typically constructed to comply with ATEX Zone II/2G regulations (classification Zone 1). Modern aerosol spray products have three major parts: the can, the valve and the actuator or button. The can

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2618-711: A substantial military advantage against enemies such as members of the Arab Empire (who later adopted the use of Greek fire). An 11th-century illustration of its use survives in the John Skylitzes manuscript. The Pen Huo Qi ("fire spraying device") was a Chinese piston flamethrower that used a substance similar to petrol or naphtha , invented around 919 AD during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period . The earliest reference to Greek fire in China

2737-427: A trademarked name from the country's national petroleum company Pertamina . The term gas oil (French: gazole ) is sometimes also used to refer to diesel fuel. Diesel fuel originated from experiments conducted by German scientist and inventor Rudolf Diesel for his compression-ignition engine which he invented around 1892. Originally, Diesel did not consider using any specific type of fuel. Instead, he claimed that

2856-401: A trench, which limited its use to areas where the opposing trenches were less than the maximum range of the weapon, namely 18 m (20 yd) apart—which was not a common situation; the fuel would also only last for about a minute of continuous firing. The German deployed flamethrowers during the war in more than 650 attacks. The Ottoman Empire received 30 flamethrowers from Germany during

2975-437: Is C 12 H 23 , ranging approximately from C 10 H 20 to C 15 H 28 . Most diesel fuels freeze at common winter temperatures, while the temperatures greatly vary. Petrodiesel typically freezes around temperatures of −8.1 °C (17.4 °F), whereas biodiesel freezes between temperatures of 2 to 15 °C (36 to 59 °F). The viscosity of diesel noticeably increases as the temperature decreases, changing it into

3094-533: Is a need for controlled burning , such as in sugarcane harvesting and other land-management tasks. Various forms are designed for an operator to carry, while others are mounted on vehicles. Modern flamethrowers were first used during the trench warfare conditions of World War I and their use greatly increased in World War II . They can be vehicle-mounted, as on a tank, or man-portable. The man-portable flamethrower consists of two elements—the backpack and

3213-442: Is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum fuel oil , but alternatives that are not derived from petroleum, such as biodiesel , biomass to liquid (BTL) or gas to liquid (GTL) diesel are increasingly being developed and adopted. To distinguish these types, petroleum-derived diesel is sometimes called petrodiesel in some academic circles. Diesel is a high-volume product of oil refineries. In many countries, diesel fuel

3332-482: Is a type of dispensing system which creates an aerosol mist of liquid particles. It comprises a can or bottle that contains a payload, and a propellant under pressure. When the container's valve is opened, the payload is forced out of a small opening and emerges as an aerosol or mist. The concepts of aerosol probably go as far back as 1790. The first aerosol spray can patent was granted in Oslo in 1927 to Erik Rotheim ,

3451-649: Is also used in the United Kingdom, although the UKCA marking is planned to replace it in Great Britain . Sprayboksens far er norsk;Erik Rotheim fant opp aerosolflasken, sprayboksen, på 1920-tallet. I 1927 tok han patent på oppfinnelsen. [...] og patentet ble etterhvert solgt til et amerikansk selskap for 100 000 kroner. The Father of the Spraybox is Norwegian;Erik Rotheim invented the aerosol bottle,

3570-481: Is an electrically heated wire coil; another used a small pilot flame , fueled with pressurized gas from the system. Flamethrowers were primarily used against battlefield fortifications, bunkers , and other protected emplacements. A flamethrower projects a stream of flammable liquid, rather than flame, which allows bouncing the stream off walls and ceilings to project the fire into unseen spaces, such as inside bunkers or pillboxes . Typically, popular visual media depict

3689-446: Is available in some countries for use primarily in agricultural applications, such as fuel for tractors, recreational and utility vehicles or other noncommercial vehicles that do not use public roads . This fuel may have sulfur levels that exceed the limits for road use in some countries (e.g. US). This untaxed diesel is dyed red for identification, and using this untaxed diesel fuel for a typically taxed purpose (such as driving use),

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3808-476: Is because diesel engines are more fuel efficient, and diesel fuel is less prone to catching fire. Some of these diesel-powered vehicles (such as the Leopard 1 or MAN 630 ) still ran on petrol, and some military vehicles were still made with otto engines (e. g. Ural-375 or Unimog 404 ), incapable of running on diesel fuel. Today's tractors and heavy equipment are mostly diesel-powered. Among tractors, only

3927-577: Is close to the values found in the literature. For gasoline, with a density of 0.75 kg/L and a ratio of carbon to hydrogen atoms of about 6 to 14, the estimated value of carbon emission if 1 liter of gasoline is burnt gives: 0.75 k g / L ⋅ 6 ⋅ 12 6 ⋅ 12 + 14 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 44 12 = 2.3 k g / L {\displaystyle 0.75kg/L\cdot {{\frac {6\cdot 12}{6\cdot 12+14}}\cdot 1}\cdot {\frac {44}{12}}=2.3kg/L} In

4046-443: Is dictated by the particular composition of and storage plans for diesel fuels. Each is added at the 5-50 ppm level. The diesel engine is a multifuel engine and can run on a huge variety of fuels. However, development of high-performance, high-speed diesel engines for cars and lorries in the 1930s meant that a proper fuel specifically designed for such engines was needed: diesel fuel. In order to ensure consistent quality, diesel fuel

4165-405: Is dispensed. Among its many benefits, the bag-in-can system extends a product's shelf life, is suitable for all-attitude, (360-degree) dispensing, quiet and non-chilling discharge. One key performance difference relative to true aerosol systems is that traditional BoV dispensing pressures, BoVs pressurized solely by pressurized gas) drops as the product is dispensed. This bag-in-can system is used in

4284-411: Is fed to two tubes. The first opens in the fuel tanks providing the pressure necessary for expelling the liquid. The other tube leads to an ignition chamber behind the exit of the gun assembly, where it is mixed with air and ignited through piezo ignition. This pre-ignition line is the source of the flame seen in front of the gun assembly in movies and documentaries. As the fuel passes through the flame, it

4403-524: Is generally simpler to refine from petroleum than gasoline Additional refining is required to remove sulfur, which contributes to a sometimes higher cost. In many parts of the United States and throughout the United Kingdom and Australia, diesel fuel may be priced higher than petrol per gallon or litre . Reasons for higher-priced diesel include the shutdown of some refineries in the Gulf of Mexico , diversion of mass refining capacity to gasoline production, and

4522-709: Is ignited and propelled towards the target. The concept of projecting fire as a weapon has existed since ancient times. During the Peloponnesian War , Boeotians used some kind of a flamethrower trying to destroy the fortification walls of the Athenians during the Battle of Delium . In 107 AD the Romans used a flamethrower against the Dacians; the device was similar to the one used at Delium. Later, during

4641-502: Is little need for using diesel fuel in aircraft, and diesel fuel is not commercially used as aviation fuel. Instead, petrol ( Avgas ), and jet fuel (e. g. Jet A-1) are used. However, especially in the 1920s and 1930s, numerous series-production aircraft diesel engines that ran on fuel oils were made, because they had several advantages: their fuel consumption was low, they were reliable, not prone to catching fire, and required minimal maintenance. The introduction of petrol direct injection in

4760-473: Is mainly paraffins with low sulfur and aromatics content. This material is blended often into the above mentions petroleum derived diesel. Biodiesel is obtained from vegetable oil or animal fats (bio lipids ) which are mainly fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), and transesterified with methanol . It can be produced from many types of oils, the most common being rapeseed oil (rapeseed methyl ester, RME) in Europe and soybean oil (soy methyl ester, SME) in

4879-417: Is most commonly lacquered tinplate (steel with a layer of tin) and may be made of two or three pieces of metal crimped together. Aluminium cans are also common and are generally used for products that are more expensive or intended to have a more premium appearance, such as personal care products. The valve is crimped to the inside rim of the can, and the design of this component is important in determining

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4998-493: Is produced from various sources, the most common being petroleum . Other sources include biomass , animal fat , biogas , natural gas , and coal liquefaction . Petroleum diesel is the most common type of diesel fuel. It is produced by the fractional distillation of crude oil between 200 and 350 °C (392 and 662 °F) at atmospheric pressure , resulting in a mixture of carbon chains that typically contain between 9 and 25 carbon atoms per molecule . This fraction

5117-421: Is standardised; the first standards were introduced after World War II. Typically, a standard defines certain properties of the fuel, such as cetane number , density , flash point , sulphur content, or biodiesel content. Diesel fuel standards include: Diesel fuel Biodiesel fuel The principal measure of diesel fuel quality is its cetane number . A cetane number is a measure of the delay of ignition of

5236-706: Is standardized. For example, in the European Union, the standard for diesel fuel is EN 590 . Ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD) is a diesel fuel with substantially lowered sulfur contents. As of 2016, almost all of the petroleum-based diesel fuel available in the United Kingdom, mainland Europe, and North America is of a ULSD type. Before diesel fuel had been standardized, the majority of diesel engines typically ran on cheap fuel oils . These fuel oils are still used in watercraft diesel engines. Despite being specifically designed for diesel engines, diesel fuel can also be used as fuel for several non-diesel engines, for example

5355-689: Is still in widespread use in certain regions. During development of rocket engines in Germany during World War II J-2 Diesel fuel was used as the fuel component in several engines including the BMW 109-718 . J-2 diesel fuel was also used as a fuel for gas turbine engines. In the United States, petroleum-derived diesel is composed of about 75% saturated hydrocarbons (primarily paraffins including n , iso , and cycloparaffins ), and 25% aromatic hydrocarbons (including naphthalenes and alkylbenzenes ). The average chemical formula for common diesel fuel

5474-414: Is subjected to hydrodesulfurization . Usually such "straight-run" diesel is insufficient in supply and quality, so other sources of diesel fuels are blended in. One major source of additional diesel fuel is obtained by cracking heavier fractions, using visbreaking and coking. This technology converts less useful fractions but the product contains olefins ( alkenes ) which require hydrogenation to give

5593-480: Is thus suited for certain (but not all) diesel engines. Until World War II, several military vehicles, especially those that required high engine performance ( armored fighting vehicles , for example the M26 Pershing or Panther tanks), used conventional otto engines and ran on petrol. Ever since World War II, several military vehicles with diesel engines have been made, capable of running on diesel fuel. This

5712-520: Is used in the UK as a synonym for unmarked road diesel fuel. In India, taxes on diesel fuel are lower than on petrol, as the majority of the transportation for grain and other essential commodities across the country runs on diesel. Taxes on biodiesel in the US vary between states. Some states (Texas, for example) have no tax on biodiesel and a reduced tax on biodiesel blends equivalent to the amount of biodiesel in

5831-658: Is very visible on the battlefield, which causes operators to become immediately singled out as prominent targets, especially for snipers and designated marksmen . Flamethrower operators were rarely taken prisoner, especially when their target survived an attack by the weapon; captured flamethrower users were in some cases summarily executed . The flamethrower's effective range is short in comparison with that of other battlefield weapons of similar size. To be effective, flamethrower soldiers must approach their target, risking exposure to enemy fire. Vehicular flamethrowers also have this problem; they may have considerably greater range than

5950-542: The Akroyd engine , the Stirling engine , or boilers for steam engines . Diesel is often used in heavy trucks . However, diesel exhaust , especially from older engines, can cause health damage. Diesel fuel has many colloquial names; most commonly, it is simply referred to as diesel . In the United Kingdom, diesel fuel for road use is commonly called diesel or sometimes white diesel if required to differentiate it from

6069-589: The Byzantine era, sailors used rudimentary hand-pumped flamethrowers on board their naval ships. Greek fire , extensively used by the Byzantine Empire , is said to have been invented by Kallinikos of Heliopolis , probably about 673 AD. Byzantine texts described weapons, used by Byzantine land forces, which were shooting Greek fire and called cheirosiphona (χειροσίφωνα, meaning hand-held siphons, singular χειροσίφωνο). The flamethrower found its origins in

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6188-465: The German Army in 1901. The most significant model submitted was a portable device, consisting of a vertical single cylinder 1.2 metres (4 ft) long, horizontally divided in two, with pressurized gas in the lower section and flammable oil in the upper section. On depressing a lever the propellant gas forced the flammable oil into and through a rubber tube and over a simple igniting wick device in

6307-546: The Liekinheitin M/44 . Diesel fuel Diesel fuel , also called diesel oil , heavy oil (historically) or simply diesel , is a liquid fuel specifically designed for use in a diesel engine , a type of internal combustion engine in which fuel ignition takes place without a spark as a result of compression of the inlet air and then injection of fuel. Therefore, diesel fuel needs good compression ignition characteristics. The most common type of diesel fuel

6426-531: The Mercedes-Benz OM 138 , in the 1930s meant that higher-quality fuels with proper ignition characteristics were needed. At first no improvements were made to motor-vehicle diesel fuel quality. After World War II, the first modern high-quality diesel fuels were standardised. These standards were, for instance, the DIN 51601, VTL 9140–001, and NATO F 54 standards. In 1993, the DIN 51601 was rendered obsolete by

6545-596: The Panzer II and Panzer III tanks, generally known as Flammpanzers . The Germans also produced the Abwehrflammenwerfer 42 , a flame-mine or flame fougasse , based on a Soviet version of the weapon. This was essentially a disposable, single use flamethrower that was buried alongside conventional land mines at key defensive points and triggered by either a trip-wire or a command wire. The weapon contained around 30 litres (8 US gal) of fuel, that

6664-730: The Song dynasty in its defense against hostile neighbours to the north, including the Mongols . Abū ʿAbdallāh al-Khwārazmī in Mafātīḥ al - ʿUlūm (“Keys to the Sciences”) ca. 976 AD mentions the bāb al-midfa and the bāb al-mustaq which he said were parts of naphtha-throwers and projectors ( al-naffātāt wa al-zarāqāt ). Book of Ingenious Mechanical Device ( Kitāb fī ma 'rifat al-ḥiyal al-handasiyya ) of 1206 by Ibn al-Razzaz al-Jazari mentioned about ejectors of naphtha ( zarāqāt al-naft ). In 1702,

6783-808: The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising and in 1944 in the Warsaw Uprising (see the Stroop Report and the article on the 1943 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising ). With the contraction of the Third Reich during the latter half of World War II, a smaller, more compact flamethrower known as the Einstossflammenwerfer 46 was produced. Germany also used flamethrower vehicles, most of them based on the chassis of the Sd.Kfz. 251 half track and

6902-599: The Wehrmacht first deployed man-portable flamethrowers against the Polish Post Office in Danzig . Subsequently, in 1942, the U.S. Army introduced its own man-portable flamethrower. The vulnerability of infantry carrying backpack flamethrowers and the weapon's short range led to experiments with tank -mounted flamethrowers ( flame tanks ), which were used by many countries. The Germans made considerable use of

7021-400: The "Badger" (a converted Ram tank ) and the "Oke", used first at Dieppe . A propane-operated flamethrower is a straightforward device. The gas is expelled through the gun assembly by its own pressure and is ignited at the exit of the barrel through piezo ignition . Liquid-operated flamethrowers use a smaller tank with a pressurized gas to expel the flammable liquid fuel. The propellant gas

7140-580: The 'fierce fire oil' derived ultimately from China's contact in the 'southern seas', with Arabia (大食國 Dashiguo ). In the Battle of Langshan Jiang (Wolf Mountain River) in 919, the naval fleet of the Wenmu King of Wuyue defeated the fleet of the Kingdom of Wu because he had used 'fire oil' to burn his fleet; this signified the first Chinese use of gunpowder in warfare, since a slow-burning match fuse

7259-570: The 1871 siege of Paris, French chemist Marcellin Berthelot suggested pumping flaming petroleum at Prussian troops. In 1898 Russian captain Sigern-Korn experimented with burning jets of kerosene for defensive use; in theory in they would be fired from parapets of fortifications. The idea was abandoned due to technical issues During the siege of Port Arthur, Japanese combat engineers used hand pumps to spray kerosene into Russian trenches. Once

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7378-433: The 1920s through 1940s, running either spark-ignition and low-compression engines, akryod engines, or diesel engines. Thus many farm tractors of the era could burn gasoline, alcohol , kerosene , and any light grade of fuel oil such as heating oil , or tractor vaporising oil , according to whichever was most affordable in a region at any given time. On US farms during this era, the name "distillate" often referred to any of

7497-541: The 1920s through 1950s, are now almost exclusively diesel-powered. Due to its ignition characteristics, diesel fuel is thus widely used in these vehicles. Since diesel fuel is not well-suited for otto engines, passenger cars, which often use otto or otto-derived engines, typically run on petrol instead of diesel fuel. However, especially in Europe and India, many passenger cars have, due to better engine efficiency, diesel engines, and thus run on regular diesel fuel. Diesel displaced coal and fuel oil for steam-powered vehicles in

7616-423: The 1930s outweighed these advantages, and aircraft diesel engines quickly fell out of use. With improvements in power-to-mass ratios of diesel engines, several on-road diesel engines have been converted to and certified for aircraft use since the early 21st century. These engines typically run on Jet A-1 aircraft fuel (but can also run on diesel fuel). Jet A-1 has ignition characteristics similar to diesel fuel, and

7735-544: The 2K aerosol by breaking the accessory container, the two components mix. The 2K aerosol can is advantageous for delivery of reactive mixtures; for example, a 2K reactive mixture can use low molecular weight monomer , oligomer , and functionalized low molecular polymer to make a final cross-linked high molecular weight polymer. A 2K aerosol can increase solid contents and deliver high-performance polymer products, such as curable paints , foams , and adhesives . Aerosol cans have three main areas of health concern: In

7854-576: The British had suffered casualties of 31 officers and 751 other ranks. The success of the attack prompted the German Army to adopt the device on all fronts. Flamethrowers were used in squads of six during battles, at the start of an attack destroying the enemy and to the preceding the infantry advance. The flamethrower was useful at short distances but had other limitations: it was cumbersome and difficult to operate and could only be safely fired from

7973-534: The Diesel engine being kerosene ( paraffin ). Diesel experimented with types of lamp oil from various sources, as well as types of petrol and ligroin , which all worked well as Diesel engine fuels. Later, Diesel tested coal tar creosote , paraffin oil, crude oil, gasoline and fuel oil , which eventually worked as well. In Scotland and France, shale oil was used as fuel for the first 1898 production Diesel engines because other fuels were too expensive. In 1900,

8092-594: The French Otto society built a Diesel engine for the use with crude oil, which was exhibited at the 1900 Paris Exposition and the 1911 World's Fair in Paris. The engine actually ran on peanut oil instead of crude oil, and no modifications were necessary for peanut oil operation. During his first Diesel engine tests, Diesel also used illuminating gas as fuel, and managed to build functional designs, both with and without pilot injection. According to Diesel, neither

8211-676: The Italian Army. In 1931 the São Paulo Public Force created an assault car section. The first vehicle to be incorporated was a tank built from a Caterpillar Twenty Two tractor, featuring a turret mounted flamethrower and four Hotchkiss machineguns on the hull. It was used in combat during the Constitutionalist Revolution , routing federal troop from a bridge in an engagement in Cruzeiro . In

8330-658: The Prussian Army tested P. Lange's "serpent-fire-spray'' (Schlangen-Brand-Spritze) who produced a jet of fire 4 metres (12 ft) wide and 40 m (120 ft) long; two years later it was rejected as useless. Peter the Great's chief engineer Vasily Dmitrievich Korchmin designed various incendiary weapons.such as incendiary rockets and furnaces for heating cannonball; two Russian ships the “Svyatoy Yakov” and “Landsou” were armed with flamethrower tubes designed by him. He also developed instructions for their use together with

8449-531: The Russians were covered with the flammable liquid, the Japanese would throw bundles of burning rags at them. Before WW1 German pioneers used the Brandröhre M.95 a weapon consisting of a sheet metal tube (125 mm (4.9 in) wide and 1.2 m (3.9 ft) long) filled with an incendiary mixture, and a friction igniter activated by a lanyard. The Brandröhre was designed to be used against enemy casemates;

8568-754: The Tsar. In the 1750s a French engineer named Dupre, developed a new flammable mixture; it was tested in LeHavre and set fire to a sloop. During the British shelling of LeHavre in 1759, the French War Minister tried to obtain authorization to use this fuel. Although flamethrowers were never used in the American Civil War , "Greek Fire" shells were produced and used by Union troops during the Second Battle of Charleston Harbor . During

8687-483: The UK, diesel is normally stored in a black container to differentiate it from unleaded or leaded petrol, which are stored in green and red containers, respectively. Ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA) is added to diesel as a "cold flow improver". 50-500 ppm of EVA inhibits crystallization of waxes, which can block fuel filters. Antifoaming agents ( silicones ), antioxidants ( hindered phenols ), and "metal deactivating agents" (salicylaldimines) are other additives. Their use

8806-452: The US. Methanol can also be replaced with ethanol for the transesterification process, which results in the production of ethyl esters. The transesterification processes use catalysts, such as sodium or potassium hydroxide, to convert vegetable oil and methanol into biodiesel and the undesirable byproducts glycerine and water, which will need to be removed from the fuel along with methanol traces. Biodiesel can be used pure (B100) in engines where

8925-491: The United States government to manufacture aerosol sprays. Two of the three companies, Chase Products Company and Claire Manufacturing, continue to manufacture aerosol sprays. The "crimp-on valve", used to control the spray in low-pressure aerosol sprays was developed in 1949 by Bronx machine shop proprietor Robert H. Abplanalp . In 1974, Drs. Frank Sherwood Rowland and Mario J. Molina proposed that chlorofluorocarbons , used as propellants in aerosol sprays, contributed to

9044-469: The United States, non-empty aerosol cans are considered hazardous waste , but are still considered "recyclable when empty" in US curbside recycling programs. Aerosol products in the European Union must comply with health and safety regulations as set out in Directive 75/324/EEC. which established the " reversed epsilon " mark. This marking is required for aerosol products over 50ml. The same marking

9163-628: The Yangtze River in 975. Southern Tang forces attempted to use flamethrowers against the Song navy, but were accidentally consumed by their own fire when violent winds swept in their direction. Documented also in later Chinese publications, illustrations and descriptions of mobile flamethrowers on four-wheel push carts appear in the Wujing Zongyao , written in 1044 (its illustration redrawn in 1601 as well). Advances in military technology aided

9282-413: The aforementioned light fuel oils. Spark ignition engines did not start as well on distillate, so typically a small auxiliary gasoline tank was used for cold starting, and the fuel valves were adjusted several minutes later, after warm-up, to transition to distillate. Engine accessories such as vaporizers and radiator shrouds were also used, both with the aim of capturing heat, because when such an engine

9401-680: The blend, so that B20 fuel is taxed 20% less than pure petrodiesel. Other states, such as North Carolina, tax biodiesel (in any blended configuration) the same as petrodiesel, although they have introduced new incentives to producers and users of all biofuels. Diesel fuel is mostly used in high-speed diesel engines, especially motor-vehicle (e.g. car, lorry) diesel engines, but not all diesel engines run on diesel fuel. For example, large two-stroke watercraft engines typically use heavy fuel oils instead of diesel fuel, and certain types of diesel engines, such as MAN M-System engines, are designed to run on petrol with knock resistances of up to 86 RON. On

9520-417: The bunker. Flamethrowers pose many risks to the operator. The first disadvantage is the weapon's weight and length, which impairs the soldier's mobility. The weapon is limited to only a few seconds of burn time, since it uses fuel very quickly, requiring the operator to be precise and conservative. Flamethrowers using a fougasse-style explosive propellant system also have a limited number of shots. The weapon

9639-635: The depletion of Earth's ozone layer . In response to this theory, the U.S. Congress passed amendments to the Clean Air Act in 1977 authorizing the Environmental Protection Agency to regulate the presence of CFCs in the atmosphere. The United Nations Environment Programme called for ozone layer research that same year, and, in 1981, authorized a global framework convention on ozone layer protection. In 1985, Joe Farman , Brian G. Gardiner , and Jon Shanklin published

9758-646: The disadvantage of being flammable . Nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide are also used as propellants to deliver foodstuffs (for example, whipped cream and cooking spray ). Medicinal aerosols such as asthma inhalers use hydrofluoroalkanes (HFA): either HFA 134a (1,1,1,2,-tetrafluoroethane) or HFA 227 (1,1,1,2,3,3,3-heptafluoropropane) or combinations of the two. More recently, liquid hydrofluoroolefin (HFO) propellants have become more widely adopted in aerosol systems due to their relatively low vapor pressure, low global warming potential (GWP), and nonflammability. Manual pump sprays can be used as an alternative to

9877-655: The end of the war. Those flamethrowers were not used in the Winter War; but were issued to engineers during the Continuation War along with captured ROKS-2 flamethrowers OT-130 and OT-133 flame tanks were captured from the Soviet Union and issued at the start of the Continuation War; they were considered impratical and later retrofitted with cannons. In 1944 they developed and adopted

9996-537: The first scientific paper detailing the hole in the ozone layer. That same year, the Vienna Convention was signed in response to the UN's authorization. Two years later, the Montreal Protocol , which regulated the production of CFCs was formally signed. It came into effect in 1989. The U.S. formally phased out CFCs in 1995. If aerosol cans were simply filled with compressed gas , it would either need to be at

10115-414: The flamethrower as short-ranged and only effective for a few metres (due to the common use of propane gas as the fuel in flamethrowers in movies, for the safety of the actors). Contemporary flamethrowers can incinerate a target some 50–100 metres (160–330 ft) from the operator; moreover, an unignited stream of flammable liquid can be fired and afterwards ignited, possibly by a lamp or other flame inside

10234-425: The formulation throughout its consumer lifespan. The piston barrier system also provides a consistent flow rate with minimal product retention. Another type of dispensing system is the bag-in-can (or BOV, bag-on-valve technology) system where the product is separated from the pressurizing agent with a hermetically sealed, multi-layered laminated pouch, which maintains complete formulation integrity so only pure product

10353-759: The free use of the people of the United States. Pressurized by liquefied gas, which gave it propellant qualities, the small, portable can enabled soldiers to defend themselves against malaria -carrying mosquitoes by spraying inside tents and airplanes in the Pacific during World War II . Goodhue and Sullivan received the first Erik Rotheim Gold Medal from the Federation of European Aerosol Associations on August 28, 1970, in Oslo, Norway in recognition of their early patents and subsequent pioneering work with aerosol sprays. In 1948, three companies were granted licenses by

10472-432: The gun. The backpack element usually consists of two or three cylinders. In a two-cylinder system, one cylinder holds compressed, inert propellant gas (usually nitrogen ), and the other holds flammable liquid, typically some form of petrochemical. A three-cylinder system often has two outer cylinders of flammable liquid and a central cylinder of propellant gas to maintain the balance of the soldier carrying it. The gas propels

10591-616: The interwar period, at least four flamethrowers were used in the Chaco War by the Bolivian Army , during the unsuccessful assault on the Paraguayan stronghold of Nanawa in 1933. During the battle of Kilometer 7 to Saavedra , Major Walther Kohn rode in a flamethrower equipped tankette; due to heat he exited the tank to fight on foot and was killed in combat. The flamethrower was used extensively during World War II . In 1939,

10710-471: The inventors of the modern spray can. Their design of a refillable spray can, dubbed the aerosol bomb or bug bomb , is the ancestor of many commercial spray products. It was a hand-sized steel can charged with a liquefied gas under 75 pounds of pressure and a product to be expelled as a mist or a foam. A public-service patent was issued on the invention and assigned to the Secretary of Agriculture for

10829-425: The latter half of the 20th century, and is now used almost exclusively for the combustion engines of self-powered rail vehicles (locomotives and railcars). In general, diesel engines are not well-suited for planes and helicopters. This is because of the diesel engine's comparatively low power-to-mass ratio , meaning that diesel engines are typically rather heavy, which is a disadvantage in aircraft. Therefore, there

10948-408: The liquid fuel out of the cylinder through a flexible pipe and then into the gun element of the flamethrower system. The gun consists of a small reservoir, a spring-loaded valve, and an ignition system; depressing a trigger opens the valve, allowing pressurized flammable liquid to flow and pass over the igniter and out of the gun nozzle. The igniter can be one of several ignition systems: A simple type

11067-489: The manufacturer approves such use, but it is more often used as a mix with diesel, BXX where XX is the biodiesel content in percent. FAME used as fuel is specified in DIN EN 14214 and ASTM D6751 standards. In the US, diesel is recommended to be stored in a yellow container to differentiate it from kerosene , which is typically kept in blue containers, and gasoline (petrol), which is typically kept in red containers. In

11186-443: The new EN 590 standard, which has been used in the European Union ever since. In sea-going watercraft, where diesel propulsion had gained prevalence by the late 1970s due to increasing fuel costs caused by the 1970s energy crisis , cheap heavy fuel oils are still used instead of conventional motor-vehicle diesel fuel. These heavy fuel oils (often called Bunker C ) can be used in diesel-powered and steam-powered vessels. Diesel fuel

11305-406: The operating principle of his rational heat motor would work with any kind of fuel in any state of matter. The first diesel engine prototype and the first functional Diesel engine were only designed for liquid fuels. At first, Diesel tested crude oil from Pechelbronn , but soon replaced it with petrol and kerosene , because crude oil proved to be too viscous, with the main testing fuel for

11424-598: The other hand, gas turbine and some other types of internal combustion engines, and external combustion engines , can also be designed to take diesel fuel. The viscosity requirement of diesel fuel is usually specified at 40 °C. A disadvantage of diesel fuel in cold climates is that its viscosity increases as the temperature decreases, changing it into a gel (see Compression Ignition – Gelling ) that cannot flow in fuel systems. Special low-temperature diesel contains additives to keep it liquid at lower temperatures. Trucks and buses , which were often otto-powered in

11543-421: The packaging of pharmaceutical, industrial, household, pet care and other products that require complete separation between the product and the propellant or require near complete evacuation of thin to viscous formulations. A later development is the 2K (two component) aerosol spray, with a main component stored in a main chamber, and a second component stored in an accessory container. When an applicator activates

11662-414: The past, diesel fuel contained higher quantities of sulfur . European emission standards and preferential taxation have forced oil refineries to dramatically reduce the level of sulfur in diesel fuels. In the European Union, the sulfur content has dramatically reduced during the last 20 years. Automotive diesel fuel is covered in the European Union by standard EN 590 . In the 1990s specifications allowed

11781-405: The payload), but not dangerously high. As gas escapes, it is immediately replaced by evaporating liquid. Since the propellant exists in liquid form in the can, it should be miscible with the payload or dissolved in the payload. In gas dusters and freeze sprays , the payload itself acts as the propellant. The propellant in a gas duster can is not "compressed air" as sometimes assumed, but usually

11900-421: The petrol fuel tax. Diesel fuel is similar to heating oil , which is used in central heating . In Europe, the United States, and Canada, taxes on diesel fuel are higher than on heating oil due to the fuel tax , and in those areas, heating oil is marked with fuel dyes and trace chemicals to prevent and detect tax fraud . "Untaxed" diesel (sometimes called "off-road diesel" or "red diesel" due to its red dye)

12019-667: The project was abandoned. Two Morriss static flamethrowers were mounted in HMS Vindictive and several Hay portable flamethrowers were deployed by the Royal Navy during the Zeebrugge Raid on 23 April 1918. A British newspaper report of the action referred to the British flamethrowers only as flammenwerfer , using the German word. The French Army deployed the Schilt family of flamethrowers, which were also used by

12138-503: The saturated hydrocarbons as desired. Another refinery stream that contributes to diesel fuel is hydrocracking . Finally, kerosene is added to modify its viscosity. Synthetic diesel can be produced from many carbonaceous precursors but natural gas is most important. Raw materials are converted to synthesis gas which by the Fischer–Tropsch process is converted to a synthetic diesel. Synthetic diesel produced in this way generally

12257-527: The shooter from igniting the fuel tank The British experimented with flamethrowers in the Battle of the Somme , during which they used experimental weapons called " Livens Large Gallery Flame Projectors ", named for their inventor, William Howard Livens , a Royal Engineers officer. This weapon was enormous and completely non-portable. The weapon had an effective range of 80 metres (90 yd), which proved effective at clearing trenches, but with no other benefit

12376-461: The smaller classes may also offer gasoline-fuelled engines. The dieselization of tractors and heavy equipment began in Germany before World War II but was unusual in the United States until after that war. During the 1950s and 1960s, it progressed in the US as well. Diesel fuel is commonly used in oil and gas extracting equipment, although some locales use electric or natural gas powered equipment. Tractors and heavy equipment were often multifuel in

12495-540: The spray rate. The actuator is depressed by the user to open the valve; a spring closes the valve again when it is released. The shape and size of the nozzle in the actuator controls the aerosolized particle size and the spread of the aerosol spray. True aerosol sprays release their propellant during use. Some non-propellant alternatives include various spray bottles, squeeze bottles, and Bag on Valve (BoV) or Bag in Can (BiC) compressed gas aerosol systems. Packaging that uses

12614-509: The use of nuclear fuel . Diesel fuel is often used as the main ingredient in oil-base mud drilling fluid. The advantage of using diesel is its low cost and its ability to drill a wide variety of difficult strata, including shale, salt and gypsum formations. Diesel-oil mud is typically mixed with up to 40% brine water. Due to health, safety and environmental concerns, Diesel-oil mud is often replaced with vegetable, mineral, or synthetic food-grade oil-base drilling fluids, although diesel-oil mud

12733-616: The user can be fined (e.g. US$ 10,000 in the US). In the United Kingdom, Belgium and the Netherlands, it is known as red diesel (or gas oil), and is also used in agricultural vehicles, home heating tanks, refrigeration units on vans/trucks which contain perishable items such as food and medicine and for marine craft. Diesel fuel, or marked gas oil is dyed green in the Republic of Ireland and Norway. The term "diesel-engined road vehicle" (DERV)

12852-520: The war. German flamethrowers were also used by Bulgarian forces. Austria-Hungary adopted German designs; but also developed its own flamethrowers in 1915. These included the 50 litres (13 US gal) M.15 Flammenwerfer, which required a crew of three men and was too unwieldy for offensive use; a defensive 200 litres (53 US gal) model and a more portable 22 litres (5.8 US gal) model were also produced. Austro-Hungarian flamethrowers were unreliable and long hoses were used to prevent

12971-587: The weapon ( Flammenwerfer 35 ) during their invasion of the Netherlands and France, against fixed fortifications. World War II German army flamethrowers tended to have one large fuel tank with the pressurizer tank fastened to its back or side. Some German army flamethrowers occupied only the lower part of its wearer's back, leaving the upper part of his back free for an ordinary rucksack. Flamethrowers soon fell into disfavour. Flamethrowers were extensively used by German units in urban fights in Poland , both in 1943 in

13090-636: The weapon is fired. When pierced by a bullet, a metal can filled with diesel or napalm will merely leak unless the round is an incendiary type that may ignite the mixture inside. The best way to minimize the disadvantages of flame weapons was to mount them on armoured vehicles. The Commonwealth and the United States were the most prolific users of vehicle-mounted flame weapons; the British and Canadians fielded "Wasps" ( Universal Carriers fitted with flamethrowers) at infantry battalion level, beginning in mid-1944, and eventually incorporating them into infantry battalions. Early tank-mounted flamethrower vehicles included

13209-489: Was a coal-dust–producing industry existent, nor was fine, high-quality coal-dust commercially available in the late 1890s. This is the reason why the Diesel engine was never designed or planned as a coal-dust engine. Only in December 1899, did Diesel test a coal-dust prototype, which used external mixture formation and liquid fuel pilot injection. This engine proved to be functional, but suffered from piston ring failure after

13328-536: Was created to further test the weapon. It was not until 1911 that the German Army accepted their first real flamethrowing device, creating a specialist regiment of twelve companies equipped with Flammenwerfer Apparent. Despite this, use of fire in a World War I battle predated flamethrower use, with a petrol spray being ignited by an incendiary bomb in the Argonne-Meuse sector in October 1914. The flamethrower

13447-675: Was discharged within a second, to a second and a half, producing a flame with a 14-metre (15 yd) range. One defensive installation found in Italy included seven of the weapons, carefully concealed and wired to a central control point. During the Winter War Finland adopted the Italian Lanciafiamme Modello 35 as the Liekinheitin M/40; 176 flamethrowers were ordered but only 28 arrived before

13566-526: Was first used in World War I on 26 February 1915 when it was briefly used against the French outside Verdun. On 30 July 1915 it was first used in a concerted action, against British trenches at Hooge , where the lines were 4.5 m (4.9 yd) apart—even there, the casualties were caused mainly by soldiers being flushed into the open and then shot rather than from the fire itself. After two days of fighting

13685-444: Was killed when his flamethrower was hit by grenade shrapnel during the battle for Hill 875 . The pressurizer is filled with a non-flammable gas that is under high pressure. If this tank ruptures, it might knock the operator forward as it was expended in the same way a pressurized aerosol can bursts outward when punctured. The fuel mixture in the containers is difficult to light, which is why magnesium-filled igniters are required when

13804-515: Was made in 917, written by Wu Renchen in his Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms . In 919, the siphon projector-pump was used to spread the ' fierce fire oil ' that could not be doused with water, as recorded by Lin Yu (林禹) in his Wu-Yue Beishi (吳越備史), hence the first credible Chinese reference to the flamethrower employing the chemical solution of Greek fire. Lin Yu mentioned also that

13923-543: Was required to ignite the flames. The Chinese applied the use of double- piston bellows to pump petrol out of a single cylinder (with an upstroke and a downstroke), lit at the end by a slow-burning gunpowder match to fire a continuous stream of flame (as referred to in the Wujing Zongyao manuscript of 1044). In the suppression of the Southern Tang state by 976 AD, early Song naval forces confronted them on

14042-494: Was run on distillate, it ran better when both it and the air it inhaled were warmer rather than at ambient temperature. Dieselization with dedicated diesel engines (high-compression with mechanical fuel injection and compression ignition) replaced such systems and made more efficient use of the diesel fuel being burned. Poor quality diesel fuel has been used as an extraction agent for liquid–liquid extraction of palladium from nitric acid mixtures. Such use has been proposed as

14161-517: Was to mix cream and a propellant from two sources to make whipped cream at home—not a true aerosol in that sense. Moreover, in 1949, he disclaimed his first four claims, which were the foundation of his following patent claims. It was not until 1941 that the aerosol spray can was first put to effective use by Americans Lyle Goodhue and William Sullivan of the United States Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine , who are credited as

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