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117-406: The Bitterroot Salish are known by various names including Salish, Selish, and Flathead. The name "Flathead" was a term used to identify any Native tribes who had practiced head flattening . The Salish, however, deny that their ancestors engaged in this practice. Instead, they believe that this name caught on because of the sign language which was used to identify their people: Pressing both sides of

234-525: A Bitterroot reservation was left in limbo when Congress failed to ratify the treaty until 1859. In the meantime, Stevens ordered only a cursory survey of the valley, instructing R. H. Lansdale to ride around the two proposed reservations. Stevens instructed Lansdale, "weight must be given to the fact that a large number of Indians prefer the Flathead River reservation." After riding around the valleys, Lansdale obediently reported, "the northern district

351-761: A Mississippi River expedition led by Laclède, who searched for a location to base the company's fur trading operations. Though Ste. Genevieve was already established as a trading center, he sought a place less prone to flooding. He found an elevated area overlooking the flood plain of the Mississippi River, not far south from its confluence with the Missouri and Illinois rivers. In addition to having an advantageous natural drainage system, there were nearby forested areas to supply timber and grasslands which could easily be converted for agricultural purposes. Laclède declared that this place "might become, hereafter, one of

468-484: A cave of Huichay, two leagues from Tarma , and which is, at this moment, in our collection. Professor d'Outrepont , of great Celebrity in the department of obstetrics, has assured us that the foetus is one of seven months' age. It belongs, according to a very clearly defined formation of the cranium, to the tribe of the Huancas . We present the reader with a drawing of this conclusive and interesting proof in opposition to

585-543: A cow, and they would receive rations until the move or until they received money from the sale of their Bitterroot lands. At first, the Salish rejected Carrington's offers and refused to sign the agreement. They asked for the "literal execution" of the Hellgate treaty, but Carrington did not acknowledge their request. Finally, Charlot signed Carrington's agreement on November 3, 1889. The Salish were forced to accept removal to

702-526: A customs house was constructed in the Greek Revival style in 1852, but was demolished and replaced in 1873 by the U.S. Customhouse and Post Office . Because much of the city's commercial and industrial development was centered along the riverfront, many pre-Civil War buildings were demolished during construction of the Gateway Arch. The city's remaining architectural heritage of the era includes

819-417: A familial characteristic. For example, Rivero and Tschudi describe an Inca mummy containing a fetus with an elongated skull, describing it thus: the same formation [i.e. absence of the signs of artificial pressure] of the head presents itself in children yet unborn; and of this truth we have had convincing proof in the sight of a foetus, enclosed in the womb of a mummy of a pregnant woman, which we found in

936-539: A funeral march. Some historians have nicknamed this event Montana's Trail of Tears or the Salish Trail of Tears. During and after the removal to the Flathead, the Salish had to contend with broken government promises. They received insufficient rations. They never received the promised assistance with plowing and fencing or the promised cows. In 1910, the Flathead reservation was opened to white homesteaders through

1053-543: A greater population than New Orleans. Settled by many Southerners in a slave state , the city was split in political sympathies and became polarized during the American Civil War . In 1861, 28 civilians were killed in a clash with Union troops . The war hurt St. Louis economically, due to the Union blockade of river traffic to the south on the Mississippi River. The St. Louis Arsenal constructed ironclads for

1170-523: A key role in Maya society, aimed at creating a skull shape that is aesthetically more pleasing or associated with desirable cultural attributes. For example, in the Na'ahai -speaking area of Tomman Island and the south south-western Malakulan (Australasia), a person with an elongated head is thought to be more intelligent, of higher status , and closer to the world of the spirits. Historically, there have been

1287-608: A mission, returning to the Bitterroot in September 1841 with five more Jesuit priests. They established St. Mary's Mission . Many Salish people chose to adopt elements of Catholicism that were complementary to their own beliefs, including ideas of "generosity, community, obedience, and respect for family." The Salish also found power in Catholic "chant, prayer, and devotional hymns; a sacred calendar associated with sacred colors;

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1404-503: A multi-block district of cobblestone streets and brick and cast-iron warehouses called Laclede's Landing . Now popular for its restaurants and nightclubs, the district is located north of Gateway Arch along the riverfront. Other industrial buildings from the era include some portions of the Anheuser-Busch Brewery , which date to the 1860s. St. Louis saw a vast expansion in variety and number of religious buildings during

1521-406: A number of various theories regarding the motivations for these practices. It has also been considered possible that the practice of cranial deformation originates from an attempt to emulate those groups of the population in which elongated head shape was a natural condition. The skulls of some Ancient Egyptians are among those identified as often being elongated naturally and macrocephaly may be

1638-542: A pan-tribal alliance to counter British control over the region but received little support from the indigenous residents of St. Louis. By 1765, the city began receiving visits from representatives of the British, French, and Spanish governments. St. Louis was transferred to the French First Republic in 1800 (although all of the colonial lands continued to be administered by Spanish officials), then sold by

1755-595: A public corridor of 300 feet fronting the river, but later this area was released for private development. For the city's first few years, it was not recognized by any governments. Although the settlement was thought to be under the control of the Spanish government, no one asserted any authority over it, and thus St. Louis had no local government. This vacuum led Laclède to assume civil control, and all problems were disposed in public settings, such as communal meetings. In addition, Laclède granted new settlers lots in town and

1872-607: A recount of the votes in November, officially did so in March 1877. The 1877 St. Louis general strike caused significant upheaval, in a fight for the eight-hour day and the banning of child labor. Industrial production continued to increase during the late 19th century. Major corporations such as the Anheuser-Busch brewery, Ralston Purina company and Desloge Consolidated Lead Company were established at St. Louis which

1989-535: A single reservation, thereby making way for white settlement on as much land as possible. Stevens attempted to convince the chiefs to sign the Hellgate treaty , relinquishing their territories in exchange for $ 120,000. The treaty provided for the Flathead Indian Reservation in the lower Flathead River Valley, where the tribes would be moved. When Xweɫxƛ̣ ̓cín (Victor) refused to relinquish

2106-483: A single system for all forms observed. An example of an individual system is that of E. V. Zhirov, who described three main types of artificial cranial deformation—round, fronto-occipital, and sagittal—for occurrences in Europe and Asia, in the 1940s. According to one modern theory, cranial deformation was likely performed to signify group affiliation or to demonstrate social status . Such motivations may have played

2223-401: A small group of Salish to the Flathead in 1873. Most of the people stayed in the Bitterroot with Charlo, and some received "permanently inalienable" patents to farms in the valley. The government viewed them as U.S. citizens who had severed tribal relations, but the people still saw themselves as an independent tribal community. The Bitterroot Salish continued to practice their seasonal round in

2340-495: A symbol of failure in public housing, and was torn down less than two decades after it was built. Since the 1980s, several revitalization efforts have focused on Downtown St. Louis . The urban revitalization projects that started in the 1980s continued into the new century. The city's old garment district , centered on Washington Avenue in the Downtown and Downtown West neighborhoods, experienced major development starting in

2457-879: A water route to the Pacific Ocean, but the party had to go overland in the Upper West. They reached the Pacific Ocean via the Columbia River in summer 1805. They returned, reaching St. Louis on September 23, 1806. Both Lewis and Clark lived in St. Louis after the expedition. Many other explorers, settlers, and trappers (such as Ashley's Hundred ) would later take a similar route to the West. The city elected its first municipal legislators (called trustees) in 1808. Steamboats first arrived in St. Louis in 1817, improving connections with New Orleans and eastern markets. Missouri

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2574-431: Is a form of body alteration in which the skull of a human being is deformed intentionally. It is done by distorting the normal growth of a child's skull by applying pressure. Flat shapes, elongated ones (produced by binding between two pieces of wood ), rounded ones (binding in cloth ), and conical ones are among those chosen or valued in various cultures. Typically, the alteration is carried out on an infant , when

2691-605: Is an independent city in the U.S. state of Missouri . It is located near the confluence of the Mississippi and the Missouri rivers. In 2020, the city proper had a population of 301,578, while its metropolitan area , which extends into Illinois , had an estimated population of over 2.8 million. It is the largest metropolitan area in Missouri and the second-largest in Illinois. The city's combined statistical area

2808-611: Is an example of the Polish Cathedral style . Among the other major designs of the period were St. Alphonsus Liguori (known as The Rock Church ) (1867) in the Gothic Revival and Second Presbyterian Church of St. Louis (1900) in Richardsonian Romanesque . By the 1900 census , St. Louis was the fourth largest city in the country. In 1904, the city hosted a world's fair at Forest Park called

2925-671: Is home to fifteen Fortune 1000 companies, seven of which are also Fortune 500 companies. Federal agencies headquartered in the city or with significant operations there include the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis , the U.S. Department of Agriculture , and the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency . Major research universities in Greater St. Louis include Washington University in St. Louis , Saint Louis University , and

3042-708: Is now present-day Montana, from when Coyote killed the nałisqelixw, which literally translates into people-eaters. Our story begins when the Creator put the animal people on this earth. He sent Coyote ahead as this world was full of evils and not yet fit for mankind. Coyote came with his brother Fox, to this big island, as the elders call this land, to free it of these evils. They were responsible for creating many geographical formations and providing good and special skills and knowledge for man to use. Coyote, however, left many faults such as greed, jealousy, hunger, envy, and many other imperfections that we know of today Within many of

3159-581: Is preferable." Distracted by the Civil War , the U.S. government delayed to settle the Bitterroot question. In the meantime, it failed to uphold its promise to keep settlers out of the valley. After the death of Victor (Xweɫxƛ̣ ̓cín) in 1870, his son Charlo (Sɫm̓xẹ Q̓woxq̣eys, Claw of the Small Grizzly Bear) was chosen as the next chief. White settlers and Montana's territorial delegate saw this transition of leadership as an opportunity to force

3276-470: Is the 20th-largest in the United States. The land that became St. Louis had been occupied by Native American cultures for thousands of years before European settlement . The city was founded on February 14, 1764, by French fur traders Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent , Pierre Laclède , and Auguste Chouteau . They named it for King Louis IX of France , and it quickly became the regional center of

3393-455: Is the Mississippi River, which separates Missouri from Illinois. The Missouri River forms the northern line of St. Louis County, except for a few areas where the river has changed its course. The Meramec River forms most of its southern line. The urban area of St. Louis has a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen : Cfa ); however, its metropolitan region even to the south may present a hot-summer humid continental climate ( Dfa ), which shows

3510-800: Is the tallest building in St. Louis. During the 1990s, St. Louis saw the construction of the largest United States courthouse by area, the Thomas F. Eagleton United States Courthouse (2000). The Eagleton Courthouse is home to the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri and the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit . The most recent high-rise buildings in St. Louis include two residential towers: One Hundred in

3627-675: The Caucasus , and in Scandinavia amongst the Sámi people. The reasons for the shaping of the head varied over time, from aesthetic to pseudoscientific ideas about the brain's ability to hold certain types of thought depending on its shape. In the region of Toulouse (France), these cranial deformations persisted sporadically up until the early twentieth century; however, rather than being intentionally produced as with some earlier European cultures, Toulousian deformations seemed to have been

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3744-669: The Illinois Country (also known as Upper Louisiana) were built by the French during the 1690s and early 1700s at Cahokia , Kaskaskia , and Fort de Chartres . Migrants from the French villages on the east side of the Mississippi River , such as Kaskaskia, also founded Ste. Genevieve in the 1730s. In 1764, after France lost the Seven Years' War , Pierre Laclède and his stepson Auguste Chouteau founded what

3861-810: The Kidarites . On their coins, the spectacular skulls came to replace the Sasanian -type crowns which had been current in the coinage of the region. This practice is also known among other peoples of the steppes, particularly the Huns , and as far as Europe, where it was introduced by the Huns themselves. In the Pontic steppe and the rest of Europe the Huns , including the Proto-Bulgarians , are also known to have practised similar cranial deformation, as were

3978-619: The Louisiana Purchase Exposition , also known as the St. Louis World's Fair, and the Summer Olympics . St. Louis is designated as one of 173 global cities by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network . The GDP of Greater St. Louis was $ 209.9 billion in 2022. St. Louis has a diverse economy with strengths in the service, manufacturing, trade, transportation, and aviation industries. It

4095-517: The Louisiana Purchase Exposition . Its architectural legacy is somewhat scattered. Among the fair-related cultural institutions in the park are the St. Louis Art Museum designed by Cass Gilbert , part of the remaining lagoon at the foot of Art Hill, and the Flight Cage at the St. Louis Zoo . The Missouri History Museum was built afterward, with the profit from the fair. But 1904 left other assets to

4212-683: The Missouri History Museum , and Tower Grove Park and the Botanical Gardens. After the Civil War, social and racial discrimination in housing and employment were common in St. Louis. In 1916, during the Jim Crow Era , St. Louis passed a residential segregation ordinance saying that if 75% of the residents of a neighborhood were of a certain race, no one from a different race was allowed to move in. That ordinance

4329-551: The Missouri River . The Chouteau brothers gained a monopoly from Spain on the fur trade with Santa Fe . French colonists used African slaves as domestic servants and workers in the city. During the negotiations for the 1763 Treaty of Paris , French negotiators agreed to transfer France's colonial territories west of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers to New Spain to compensate for Spanish territorial losses during

4446-763: The Paumotu group, and that it occurred most frequently on Mallicollo in the New Hebrides (today Malakula , Vanuatu ), where the skull was squeezed extraordinarily flat. It was also practiced at least into the 1930s on the island of New Britain in the Bismarck Archipelago of Papua New Guinea . In Africa, the Mangbetu elongated their heads. Traditionally, babies' heads were wrapped tightly with cloth, called "Limpombo", in order to give them this distinctive appearance. The practice began dying out in

4563-736: The St. Louis BattleHawks of the United Football League . The city's attractions include the 630-foot (192 m) Gateway Arch in Downtown St. Louis , the St. Louis Zoo , the Missouri Botanical Garden , the St. Louis Art Museum , and Bellefontaine Cemetery . [REDACTED]   Kingdom of France 1690s–1763 [REDACTED]   Kingdom of Spain 1763–1800 [REDACTED]   French First Republic 1800–1803 [REDACTED]   United States 1803–present The area that became St. Louis

4680-463: The Union Navy . Slaves worked in many jobs on the waterfront and on the riverboats. Given the city's location close to the free state of Illinois and others, some slaves escaped to freedom. Others, especially women with children, sued in court in freedom suits , and several prominent local attorneys aided slaves in these suits. About half the slaves achieved freedom in hundreds of suits before

4797-633: The University of Missouri–St. Louis . The Washington University Medical Center in the Central West End neighborhood hosts an agglomeration of medical and pharmaceutical institutions , including Barnes-Jewish Hospital . St. Louis has four professional sports teams : the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball , the St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League , St. Louis City SC of Major League Soccer , and

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4914-541: The medicine men and insisted they throw away their sacred bundles into a hole near the church. Much of the generational knowledge of the medicine men was lost due to Jesuit interference. In 1855, Isaac Stevens , the Governor and Superintendent of Indian Affairs for Washington Territory , invited Victor (Xweɫxƛ̣ ̓cín), head chief of the Bitterroot Salish; Tmɫxƛ̣ ̓cín (No Horses or Alexander), head chief of

5031-679: The 1950s. On the southern Japanese island of Tanegashima , from the third century to the seventh century, a group potentially bound the skulls of babies to flatten the back of the skull, possibly as an expression of group identity to facilitate the trade of shell goods. Cranial deformation was also practiced in the Neolithic period at the Houtaomuga Site in Northeast China . Most had fronto-occipital modification, but there were other types of modification discovered, also. It

5148-444: The 1970s, leading to a court challenge and interdistrict desegregation agreement. Students have been bused mostly from the city to county school districts to have opportunities for integrated classes, although the city has created magnet schools to attract students. St. Louis, like many Midwestern cities, expanded in the early 20th century due to industrialization, which provided jobs to new generations of immigrants and migrants from

5265-413: The 19th and 20th century, most major cities aggressively annexed surrounding areas as residential development occurred away from the central city; however, St. Louis was unable to do so. Several urban renewal projects were built in the 1950s, as the city worked to replace old and substandard housing. Some of these were poorly designed and resulted in problems. One prominent example, Pruitt–Igoe , became

5382-565: The Alchon kings engaged in skull modification, which was also practised by the Hun groups that appeared in Europe". The elongated skulls appear clearly in most of the portraits of rulers in the coinage of the Alchon Huns, and most visibly on the coinage of Khingila . These elongated skulls, which they obviously displayed with pride, distinguished them from other peoples, such as their predecessors

5499-537: The American Civil War. The printing press of abolitionist Elijah Parish Lovejoy was destroyed for the third time by townsfolk. He was murdered the next year in nearby Alton, Illinois . After the war, St. Louis profited via trade with the West, aided by the 1874 completion of the Eads Bridge , named for its design engineer. Industrial developments on both banks of the river were linked by the bridge,

5616-841: The Americas, the Maya , Inca , and certain tribes of North American natives performed the custom. In North America the practice was known, especially among the Chinookan tribes of the Northwest and the Choctaw of the Southeast. Contrary to common belief, there is no evidence that the Native American group known as the Flathead Indians engaged in this practice. Other tribes, including both Southeastern tribes like

5733-429: The Bitterroot Valley as long as possible. The devastation of the buffalo herds in the 1870s and 1880s forced them to turn to farming and ranching. They had some success with agriculture until an unprecedented drought in 1889. With food scarce, the people suffered and finally began to consider the U.S. government's offer of land on the Flathead Reservation. In October 1889, retired general Henry B. Carrington arrived in

5850-412: The Bitterroot Valley, Stevens inserted Article 11 into the agreement. This article designated approximately 1.7 million acres in the Bitterroot as a provisional reservation. According to the terms, the valley would be surveyed, after which the president would determine whether the Bitterroot reservation or the Flathead reservation would be "better adapted to the wants of the Flathead tribe." In the meantime,

5967-598: The Bitterroot and told the Salish about the "powerful medicine" of Catholicism . Remembering Xalíqs's prophecy, the Salish sent delegations in 1831, 1835, 1837, and 1839 to St. Louis asking for Black Robes to come to the valley. The 1839 delegation convinced Father Pierre-Jean DeSmet , S.J., to visit Salish territory. In the summer of 1840, 1,600 Salish and Pend d'Oreilles met DeSmet at Pierre's Hole . About 350 chose to be baptized, including several leaders: Tjolzhitsay (Big Face), Walking Bear, and Victor ( Xweɫxƛ̣ ̓cín or Many Horses). DeSmet traveled back east to get funding for

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6084-411: The Bitterroot in 1805, Xalíqs (Shining Shirt), a Salish prophet, foretold that fair-skinned men dressed in black robes would arrive in the valley to teach the people new morals and a new way to pray. These men, who wore crosses and did not take wives, would bring peace, but their coming would be the beginning of the end of all native people. By the 1830s, Jesuit -educated Iroquois trappers had settled in

6201-489: The Bitterroot to negotiate with the Salish and convince them to move to the Flathead once and for all. Carrington tried to gain Charlo's trust, first with gifts, then by bringing out the original 1872 Garfield agreement to address Charlo's claim that he never signed it. He also made many promises to the people: they would get to pick out good farms on the Flathead reservation, they would receive assistance with plowing and fencing their new farms, every family with children would get

6318-439: The Central West End neighborhood and One Cardinal Way in the Downtown neighborhood. The city is divided into 79 officially-recognized neighborhoods. According to the United States Census Bureau , St. Louis has a total area of 66 square miles (170 km ), of which 62 square miles (160 km ) is land and 4.1 square miles (11 km ) (6.2%) is water. The city is built on bluffs and terraces that rise 100–200 feet above

6435-401: The Choctaw and Northwestern tribes like the Chehalis and Nooksack Indians , practiced head flattening by strapping the infant's head to a cradleboard . The practice of cranial deformation was also practiced by the Lucayan people of the Bahamas and the Taínos of the Caribbean. The Visayans and the Bikolano people of the central islands of the Philippines practiced flattening

6552-426: The Coyote stories, there are vivid descriptions relating to the history of the geological events that had occurred near the last ice age. Stories that include "the extension of glaciers down what is now Flathead Lake, the flooding of western Montana beneath a great lake, the final retreat of the bitter cold weather as the ice age came to an end, the disappearance of large animals like giant beaver and their replacement by

6669-426: The Flathead, making the painful decision to give up their homeland in order to preserve their people and culture. They left the valley on October 15, 1891. Charlot organized the march himself and insisted that it take place without a white military escort. However, Salish oral histories and newspaper accounts indicate that troops were present during the removal. Elders later remembered the three-day, sixty-mile journey as

6786-411: The French Illinois Country . In 1804, the United States acquired St. Louis as part of the Louisiana Purchase . In the 19th century, St. Louis developed as a major port on the Mississippi River; from 1870 until the 1920 census, it was the fourth-largest city in the country. It separated from St. Louis County in 1877, becoming an independent city and limiting its political boundaries. In 1904, it hosted

6903-412: The French to the U.S. in 1803 as part of the Louisiana Purchase . St. Louis became the capital of, and gateway to, the new territory. Shortly after the official transfer of authority was made, the Lewis and Clark Expedition was commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson. The expedition departed from St. Louis in May 1804 along the Missouri River to explore the vast territory. There were hopes of finding

7020-415: The NFL in 2017, alleging the league breached its own relocation guidelines to profit at the expense of the city. In 2021, the NFL and Rams owner Stan Kroenke agreed to settle out of court with the city for $ 790 million. The architecture of St. Louis exhibits a variety of commercial, residential, and monumental architecture . St. Louis is known for the Gateway Arch , the tallest monument constructed in

7137-437: The Pend d'Oreilles; and Michelle, head chief of the Kootenais to a council in present-day Missoula, Montana . The tribal leaders were told that Stevens wanted to talk about a peace treaty; however, the chiefs and headmen were surprised and angered to discover Stevens's primary purpose was to discuss cession of Indian lands. Similar to other negotiations with Plateau tribes , Stevens's goal was to concentrate numerous tribes within

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7254-513: The Proto- Neolithic Homo sapiens component (9th millennium BCE) from Shanidar Cave in Iraq , The view that the Neanderthal skull was artificially deformed, thus representing the oldest example of such practices by tens of thousands of years, was common for a period. However, later research by Chech, Grove, Thorne, and Trinkaus, based on new cranial reconstructions in 1999, questioned the earlier findings and concluded: "we no longer consider that artificial cranial deformation can be inferred for

7371-420: The Salish onto the Flathead reservation. In 1871, President Ulysses S. Grant issued an executive order to remove the Salish from the Bitterroot. In 1872, Congressman James A. Garfield arrived to negotiate the removal. When Charlo refused to leave the valley, Garfield assumed the Salish would change their mind and proceeded "with the work in the same manner as though Charlo [Xweɫxƛ̣ ̓cín], first chief, had signed

7488-412: The South. It reached its peak population of 856,796 at the 1950 census. Suburbanization from the 1950s through the 1990s dramatically reduced the city's population, as did restructuring of industry and loss of jobs. The effects of suburbanization were exacerbated by the small geographical size of St. Louis due to its earlier decision to become an independent city, and it lost much of its tax base. During

7605-430: The U.S. government targeted the tribes for termination , the CSKT cultivated support from Montana politicians and successfully defended against the attack. In the later half of the twentieth century, Salish people completed academic degrees and expanded their political influence. At the same time in the 80s, Agnes Vanderburg established an annual camp to teach traditional skills to the next generation. Tribal management of

7722-443: The U.S. government was to keep white settlers out of the Bitterroot Valley. Father Adrian Hoecken, S.J., who observed the council proceedings, wrote, "What a ridiculous tragi-comedy the whole council proved. It would take too long to write it all down—ah well! Not a tenth of it was actually understood by either party, for Ben Kyser [the translator] speaks Flathead very badly and is no better at translating into English." The question of

7839-412: The United States at 630 feet (190 m). The Arch pays homage to Thomas Jefferson and St. Louis's position as the gateway to the West. Architectural influences reflected in the area include French Colonial , German , early American , and modern architectural styles. Several examples of religious structures are extant from the pre-Civil War period, and most reflect the common residential styles of

7956-450: The advocates of mechanical action as the sole and exclusive cause of the phrenological form of the Peruvian race. P. F. Bellamy makes a similar observation about the two elongated skulls of infants, which were discovered and brought to England by a "Captain Blankley" and handed over to the Museum of the Devon and Cornwall Natural History Society in 1838. According to Bellamy, these skulls belonged to two infants, female and male, "one of which

8073-460: The area encountered by early Europeans included the Siouan -speaking Osage people , whose territory extended west, and the Illiniwek . European exploration of the area was first recorded in 1673, when French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette traveled through the Mississippi River valley. Five years later, La Salle claimed the region for France as part of La Louisiane , also known as Louisiana . The earliest European settlements in

8190-446: The area, and parts of the city are karst in nature. This is particularly true of the area south of downtown, which has numerous sinkholes and caves. Most of the caves in the city have been sealed, but many springs are visible along the riverfront. Coal, brick clay , and millerite ore were once mined in the city. The predominant surface rock, known as St. Louis limestone , is used as dimension stone and rubble for construction. Near

8307-426: The bison at the National Bison Range was restored through legislative approval in 2020 and executive approval from Secretary of the Interior Deb Haaland under the Biden administration in 2021. Today, the Salish continue their efforts to preserve the tribe and to protect their interests. Artificial cranial deformation Artificial cranial deformation or modification , head flattening , or head binding

8424-484: The central corridor has seen major investment starting in the early 2010s. Between 2013 and 2018, over $ 50 million worth of residential construction has been built in the neighborhood. The population of the neighborhood has increased by 19% from the 2010 to 2020 Census. The St. Louis Rams of the National Football League controversially returned to Los Angeles in 2016. The city of St. Louis sued

8541-567: The city hosted the World's Fair and the Olympics , becoming the first non-European city to host the games. The formal name for the 1904 World's Fair was the Louisiana Purchase Exposition . Permanent facilities and structures remaining from the fair are located in Forest Park , and other notable structures within the park's boundaries include the St. Louis Art Museum , the St. Louis Zoo and

8658-434: The city, like Theodore Link 's 1894 St. Louis Union Station , and an improved Forest Park. One US Bank Plaza , the local headquarters for US Bancorp , was constructed in 1976 in the structural expressionist style. Several notable postmodern commercial skyscrapers were built downtown in the 1970s and 1980s, including the former AT&T building at 909 Chestnut Street (1986), and One Metropolitan Square (1989), which

8775-554: The construction of the Gateway Arch to publicize their effort to gain entry for African Americans into the skilled trade unions, where they were underrepresented. The Department of Justice filed the first suit against the unions under the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . Between 1900 and 1929, St. Louis, had about 220 automakers, close to 10 percent of all American carmakers, about half of which built cars exclusively in St. Louis. Notable names include Dorris, Gardner and Moon. In

8892-578: The contract." Although the original field copy of the agreement, which remains in the National Archives, has no "x" besides Charlo's name, the official copies that Congress had voted on had an "x" by his name. This only enraged the tribe and strengthened their resolve to not leave the Bitterroot Valley, despite declining conditions. In order to secure a signature on the agreement, government officials recognized Arlee as chief. Arlee led

9009-511: The early 19th century. The original St. Louis courthouse was built in 1826 and featured a Federal style stone facade with a rounded portico. However, this courthouse was replaced during renovation and expansion of the building in the 1850s. The Old St. Louis County Courthouse (known as the Old Courthouse ) was completed in 1864 and was notable for having a cast iron dome and for being the tallest structure in Missouri until 1894. Finally,

9126-698: The effect of the urban heat island in the city. The city experiences hot, humid summers and chilly to cold winters. It is subject to both cold Arctic air and hot, humid tropical air from the Gulf of Mexico . The average annual temperature recorded at nearby Lambert–St. Louis International Airport , is 57.4 °F (14.1 °C). 100 and 0 °F (38 and −18 °C) temperatures can be seen on an average 3 and 1 days per year, respectively. Precipitation averages 41.70 inches (1,100 mm), but has ranged from 20.59 in (523 mm) in 1953 to 61.24 in (1,555 mm) in 2015. The highest recorded temperature in St. Louis

9243-569: The efforts of Congressman Joseph M. Dixon . The Bitterroot Salish weathered all of these attacks and created a community on the reservation. In the 1920s, the tribes on the Flathead reservation forced the U.S. government to recognize their ownership interest in the Kerr Dam, or Seli’š Ksanka Qlispe’ Dam . The Salish joined the other tribes on the reservation to create the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes (CSKT). In 1953, when

9360-460: The eleventh century at Gotland, Sweden . Researchers have interpreted their presence as perhaps belonging to women who were not native to the island in a culture characterized as one having extensive trading relationships. The custom of binding babies' heads in Europe in the twentieth century, though dying out at the time, was still extant in France, and also found in pockets in western Russia ,

9477-597: The finest cities in America". He dispatched his 14-year-old stepson, Auguste Chouteau , to the site, with the support of 30 settlers in February 1764. Laclède arrived at the future town site two months later and produced a plan for St. Louis based on the New Orleans street plan. The default block size was 240 by 300 feet, with just three long avenues running parallel to the west bank of the Mississippi. He established

9594-414: The first part of the century, St. Louis had some of the worst air pollution in the United States . In April 1940, the city banned the use of soft coal mined in nearby states. The city hired inspectors to ensure that only anthracite was burned. By 1946, the city had reduced air pollution by about 75%. De jure educational segregation continued into the 1950s, and de facto segregation continued into

9711-409: The foreheads (and sometimes the back of the heads) widely in the pre-colonial period, particularly in the islands of Samar and Tablas . Other regions where remains with artificial cranial deformations have been found include Albay , Butuan , Marinduque , Cebu , Bohol , Surigao , and Davao . The pre-colonial standard of beauty among these groups were of broad faces and receding foreheads, with

9828-590: The head with your hands which meant "we the people". The people are an Interior Salish -speaking group of Native Americans . Their language is also called Salish , and is the namesake of the entire Salishan languages group. The Spokane language (npoqínišcn) spoken by the Spokane people , the Kalispel language (qlispé) spoken by the Pend d'Oreilles tribe and the Bitterroot Salish (séliš) languages are all dialects of

9945-548: The heads of children between two boards to horizontally flatten their skulls towards the back, and that they viewed this as a mark of beauty. Other historic sources confirmed the practice, further identifying it as also being a practice done by the nobility ( tumao ) as a mark of social status, although whether it was restricted to nobility is still unclear. People with flattened foreheads were known as tinangad . People with unmodified crania were known as ondo , which literally means "packed tightly" or "overstuffed", reflecting

10062-435: The ideal skull dimensions being of equal length and width. The devices used to achieve this include a comb-like set of thin rods known as tangad , plates or tablets called sipit , or padded boards called saop . These were bound to a baby's forehead with bandages and fastened at the back. They were first recorded in 1604 by the Spanish priest Diego Bobadilla. He reported that in the central Philippines, people placed

10179-501: The late 1990s as many of the old factory and warehouse buildings were converted into lofts. The American Planning Association designated Washington Avenue as one of 10 Great Streets for 2011. The Cortex Innovation Community , located within the city's Central West End neighborhood, was founded in 2002 and has become a multi-billion dollar economic engine for the region, with companies such as Microsoft and Boeing currently leasing office space. The Forest Park Southeast neighborhood in

10296-545: The late 19th century and early 20th century. The largest and most ornate of these is the Cathedral Basilica of St. Louis , designed by Thomas P. Barnett and constructed between 1907 and 1914 in the Neo-Byzantine style. The St. Louis Cathedral, as it is known, has one of the largest mosaic collections in the world. Another landmark in religious architecture of St. Louis is the St. Stanislaus Kostka , which

10413-423: The north, and the grounds of the Gateway Arch, to the south. Today the road deck has been restored, allowing vehicular and pedestrian traffic to cross the river. The St. Louis MetroLink light rail system has used the rail deck since 1993. An estimated 8,500 vehicles pass through it daily. On August 22, 1876, the city of St. Louis voted to secede from St. Louis County and become an independent city, and, following

10530-464: The peculiarities are as great in the child as in the adult, and indeed more in the younger than in the elder of the two specimens now produced: and the position is considerably strengthened by the great relative length of the large bones of the cranium; by the direction of the plane of the occipital bone , which is not forced upwards, but occupies a place in the under part of the skull; by the further absence of marks of pressure, there being no elevation of

10647-848: The people known as the Alans . In Late Antiquity (300–600 CE), the East Germanic tribes who were ruled by the Huns, the Gepids , Ostrogoths , Heruli , Rugii , and Burgundians adopted this custom. Among the Lombards , the Burgundians and the Thuringians , this custom seems to have comprised women only. In western Germanic tribes, artificial skull deformations rarely have been found. Elongated skulls of three women have been discovered among Viking -era burials during

10764-462: The plains. About the same time, smallpox swept through the tribe, causing a population decline . The people adapted, practicing a seasonal round and traveling across the continental divide once or twice each year to hunt buffalo. They sought alliances with tribes to the west in order to strengthen their defense against Plains tribes like the Blackfeet . Sometime before Lewis and Clark reached

10881-456: The present-day smaller versions of those creatures". Archaeologists have been able to document a continuous occupancy within some sites as far back as 12,600 years ago during the final retreat of the glaciers. Some stories suggest that occupancy can go far back as 40,000 years when the ice age had already begun. The Bitterroot Salish began to occupy the Bitterroot Valley in the 1700s when pressure from westward-moving Plains tribes pushed them off

10998-458: The same language. According to Salish history, the Salish speaking people originally lived as one large nation thousands of years ago. Tribal elders say that the tribes started to break into smaller groups as the population became too big to sustain its needs in just one central location. Centuries afterward, the Salish languages had branched into different dialects from various regions the tribes dispersed to. These regions stretched from Montana all

11115-661: The second in the Midwest over the Mississippi River after the Hennepin Avenue Bridge in Minneapolis. The bridge connects St. Louis, Missouri to East St. Louis, Illinois . The Eads Bridge became a symbolic image of the city of St. Louis, from the time of its erection until 1965 when the Gateway Arch Bridge was constructed. The bridge crosses the St. Louis riverfront between Laclede's Landing, to

11232-450: The skull is most pliable. In a typical case, head binding begins approximately a month after birth and continues for about six months. Intentional cranial deformation predates written history ; it was practiced commonly in a number of cultures that are widely separated geographically and chronologically, and still occurs today in a few areas, including Vanuatu . The earliest suggested examples were once thought to include Neanderthals and

11349-477: The social attitudes towards unshaped skulls (similar to the binatakan and puraw distinctions in Visayan tattooing ). People with flattened backs of the head were known as puyak , but it is unknown whether puyak were intentional. Other body modification practices associated with Philippine artificial cranial deformation include blackened and filed teeth, extensive tattooing ( batok , which

11466-550: The southern boundary of the city of St. Louis (separating it from St. Louis County ) is the River des Peres , practically the only river or stream within the city limits that is not entirely underground. Most of River des Peres was confined to a channel or put underground in the 1920s and early 1930s. The lower section of the river was the site of some of the worst flooding of the Great Flood of 1993 . The city's eastern boundary

11583-605: The specimen". It is thought elongated skulls found among Neolithic peoples in Southwest Asia were the result of artificial cranial deformation. The earliest written record of cranial deformation comes from Hippocrates in about 400 BCE. He described a group known as the Macrocephali or Long-heads, who were named for their practice of cranial modification. In the Old World , the practice of cranial deformation

11700-520: The surrounding countryside. In hindsight, many of these original settlers thought of these first few years as "the golden age of St. Louis". In 1763, the Native Americans in the region around St. Louis began expressing dissatisfaction with the victorious British, objecting to their refusal to continue to the French tradition of supplying gifts to Natives. Odawa chieftain Pontiac began forming

11817-686: The time. Among the earliest is the Basilica of St. Louis, King of France (referred to as the Old Cathedral ). The Basilica was built between 1831 and 1834 in the Federal style. Other religious buildings from the period include SS. Cyril and Methodius Church (1857) in the Romanesque Revival style and Christ Church Cathedral (completed in 1867, designed in 1859) in the Gothic Revival style. A few civic buildings were constructed during

11934-442: The unwanted result of an ancient medical practice among the French peasantry known as bandeau , in which a baby's head was tightly wrapped and padded in order to protect it from impact and accident shortly after birth. In fact, many of the early modern observers of the deformation were recorded as pitying these peasant children, whom they believed to have been lowered in intelligence due to the persistence of old European customs. In

12051-413: The veneration of sacramental objects and sacred sites; water used for purification"; and other practices. The Salish did not embrace all Catholic teachings, however. They rejected the doctrines of hell and sin. And, when the priests sought to teach them agriculture, most chose to continue their seasonal round. The Jesuits tried to stamp out Salish traditions that contradicted Catholic teachings; they gathered

12168-543: The vertex nor projection of either side; and by the fact of there being no instrument nor mechanical contrivance suited to produce such an alteration of form (as these skulls present) found in connexion with them. There is no statistically significant difference in cranial capacity between artificially deformed skulls and normal skulls in Peruvian samples. St. Louis St. Louis ( / s eɪ n t ˈ l uː ɪ s , s ən t -/ saynt LOO -iss, sənt- )

12285-522: The war. These areas remained under Spanish control until 1803, when they were transferred to the French First Republic . During the American Revolutionary War , St. Louis was unsuccessfully attacked by British-allied Native Americans in the 1780 Battle of St. Louis . The founding of St. Louis was preceded by a trading business between Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent and Pierre Laclède (Liguest) in late 1763. St. Maxent invested in

12402-661: The way to the Pacific Coast. Centuries following the dispersion, the separated groups of Salishan peoples became increasingly distinct which resulted in variations on the language. The Salish language had developed into sub-families with unique languages as well as their own unique dialects. The eastern sub-family is known as Interior Salish. The three dialects within Interior Salish are Flathead (Séliš), Kalispell (Qlispé) and Spokane. The tribes' oral history tells of having been placed in their Indigenous homelands, which

12519-609: The western banks of the Mississippi River, in the Midwestern United States just south of the Missouri -Mississippi confluence . Much of the area is a fertile and gently rolling prairie that features low hills and broad, shallow valleys. Both the Mississippi River and the Missouri River have cut large valleys with wide flood plains. Limestone and dolomite of the Mississippian epoch underlie

12636-538: Was a center of the Native American Mississippian culture , which built numerous temple and residential earthwork mounds on both sides of the Mississippi River. Their major regional center was at Cahokia Mounds , active from 900 to 1500. Due to numerous major earthworks within St. Louis boundaries, the city was nicknamed as the "Mound City". These mounds were mostly demolished during the city's development. Historic Native American tribes in

12753-423: Was admitted as a state in 1821. St. Louis was incorporated as a city in 1822, and continued to develop largely due to its busy port and trade connections. Immigrants from Ireland and Germany arrived in St. Louis in significant numbers starting in the 1840s, and the population of St. Louis grew from less than 20,000 inhabitants in 1840, to 77,860 in 1850, to more than 160,000 by 1860. By the mid-1800s, St. Louis had

12870-668: Was also a mark of status and beauty), genital piercings , circumcision , and ear plugs . Similar practices have also been documented among the Melanau of Sarawak , the Minahasans of Sulawesi , and some non-Islamized groups in Sumatra . Friedrich Ratzel reported in 1896 that deformation of the skull, both by flattening it behind and elongating it toward the vertex, was found in isolated instances in Tahiti , Samoa , Hawaii , and

12987-589: Was also home to several brass era automobile companies, including the Success Automobile Manufacturing Company ; St. Louis is the site of the Wainwright Building , a skyscraper designed in 1892 by architect Louis Sullivan . In 1900, the entire streetcar system was shut down by a several months-long strike , with significant unrest occurring in the city & violence against the striking workers. In 1904,

13104-601: Was brought to Bactria and Sogdiana by the Yuezhi , a tribe that created the Kushan Empire . Men with such skulls are depicted in various surviving sculptures and friezes of that time, such as the Kushan prince of Khalchayan . Alchon kings are generally recognized by their elongated skulls, a result of artificial skull deformation. Archaeologist Cameron Petrie wrote that "The depictions of elongated heads suggest that

13221-438: Was found that the practice had been practiced for thousands of years, some skulls being much older than others. Deformation usually begins just after birth for the next couple of years until the desired shape has been reached or the child rejects the apparatus. There is no broadly established classification system for cranial deformations, and many scientists have developed their own classification systems without agreeing on

13338-525: Was founded by B. F. Bowles in St. Louis, and at the time no other college in St. Louis County admitted black students. In the first half of the 20th century, St. Louis was a destination in the Great Migration of African Americans from the rural South seeking better opportunities. During World War II , the NAACP campaigned to integrate war factories. In 1964, civil rights activists protested at

13455-750: Was not more than a few months old, and the other could not be much more than one year." He writes, It will be manifest from the general contour of these skulls that they are allied to those in the Museum of the College of Surgeons in London, denominated Titicacans. Those adult skulls are very generally considered to be distorted by the effects of pressure; but in opposition to this opinion Dr. Graves has stated that "a careful examination of them has convinced him that their peculiar shape cannot be owing to artificial pressure;" and to corroborate this view, we may remark that

13572-518: Was struck down in a court challenge, by the NAACP, after which racial covenants were used to prevent the sale of houses in certain neighborhoods to "persons not of Caucasian race". Again, St. Louisans offered a lawsuit in challenge, and such covenants were ruled unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1948 in Shelley v. Kraemer . In 1926, Douglass University , a historically black university

13689-526: Was to become the city of St. Louis. (French lands east of the Mississippi had been ceded to Great Britain and the lands west of the Mississippi to Spain; Catholic France and Spain were 18th-century allies. Louis XV of France and Charles III of Spain were cousins, both from the House of Bourbon. ) The French families built the city's economy on the fur trade with the Osage, and with more distant tribes along

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