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58-561: Tomatoes have a short shelf-life in which they remain firm and ripe . This lifetime may be shorter than the time needed for them to reach market when shipped from winter growing areas to markets in the north, and the softening process can also lead to more of the fruit being damaged during transit. If picked while ripe, tomatoes can spoil before reaching far-away consumers due to their short lifetime. To address this, tomatoes intended for shipping are often picked while they are unripe, or "green", and then prompted to ripen just before delivery through

116-443: A chemical company have resulted in controversies. The company once manufactured controversial products such as the insecticide DDT , PCBs , Agent Orange , and recombinant bovine growth hormone . In September 2016, German chemical company Bayer announced its intent to acquire Monsanto for US$ 66 billion in an all-cash deal. After gaining U.S. and EU regulatory approval, the sale was completed on June 7, 2018. The name Monsanto

174-404: A company that produced computer hardware and software designed to enable farmers to increase yield and productivity through more precise planting. Monsanto purchased San Francisco-based Climate Corp for $ 930 million in 2013. Climate Corp makes local weather forecasts for farmers based on data modelling and historical data; if the forecasts were wrong, the farmer was compensated. In May 2013,

232-532: A long-term agreement to cooperate in the research, development, and marketing of new plant biotechnology products. In 2008, Monsanto purchased Dutch seed company De Ruiter Seeds for €546 million, and sold its POSILAC bovine somatotropin brand and related business to Elanco Animal Health, a division of Eli Lilly & Co , in August for $ 300 million plus "additional contingent consideration". In 2012, Monsanto purchased for $ 210 million Precision Planting Inc. ,

290-528: A negative feedback cycle which keeps the production of ethylene in balance as the fruit develops. Ripening agents accelerate ripening. An important ripening agent is ethylene, a gaseous hormone produced by many plants. Many synthetic analogues of ethylene are available. They allow many fruits to be picked prior to full ripening, which is useful since ripened fruits do not ship well. For example, bananas are picked when green and artificially ripened after shipment by being exposed to ethylene . Calcium carbide

348-459: A new company, the "new Monsanto", focused on four key agricultural crops—soybeans, maize, wheat and cotton. Monsanto agreed to indemnify Pharmacia against potential liabilities from judgments against Solutia . As a result, the new Monsanto continued to be a party to numerous lawsuits over the prior Monsanto. Pharmacia was bought by Pfizer in 2003. In 2005, Monsanto acquired Emergent Genetics and its Stoneville and NexGen cotton brands. Emergent

406-582: A pioneer of optoelectronics in the 1970s. Between 1968 and 1974, the company sponsored the PGA Tour event in Pensacola, Florida, which was renamed the Monsanto Open . In 1974, Harvard University and Monsanto signed a 10-year research grant to support the cancer research of Judah Folkman , which became the largest such arrangement ever made; medical inventions arising from that research were

464-498: A premium price at the supermarket. The Flavr Savr also contained a kanamycin-resistance gene. This gene gave bacterial cells and chloroplasts resistance to multiple antibiotics, including kanamycin. The kanamycin-resistance gene was used during the tomato's creation phase to help scientists identify plants with the genes successfully added. Kanamycin is toxic to chloroplasts and is deadly for some plants. When researchers exposed tomato plants to high levels of kanamycin, only plants with

522-543: A soluble one by certain degrading enzymes. These enzymes include polygalacturonase . This means that the fruit will become less firm as the structure of the fruit is degraded. Enzymatic breakdown and hydrolysis of storage polysaccharides occurs during ripening. The main storage polysaccharides include starch. These are broken down into shorter, water-soluble molecules such as fructose, glucose and sucrose. During fruit ripening, gluconeogenesis also increases. Acids are broken down in ripening fruits and this contributes to

580-468: A type of gasoreceptor, that may vary between climacteric and non-climacteric fruits. Jasmonate is involved in multiple aspects of the ripening process in non-climacteric fruits. This class of hormones includes jasmonic acid and methyl jasmonate. Studies showed that the expression of genes involved in various pathways in ripening was increased with the addition of methyl jasmonate. This study found that methyl jasmonate led to an increase in red coloration and

638-556: A way to selectively synthesize enantiomers via asymmetric hydrogenation . This was the first method for the catalytic production of pure chiral compounds. Knowles' team designed the "first industrial process to chirally synthesize an important compound"— L‑dopa , which is used to treat Parkinson's disease . In 2001, Knowles and Ryōji Noyori won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry . In the mid-1960s, chemists at Monsanto developed

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696-463: A worldwide protest against Monsanto corporation, called March Against Monsanto , was held in over 400 cities. A second protest took place in May 2014. Monsanto tried to acquire Swiss agro-biotechnology rival Syngenta for US$ 46.5 billion in 2015, but failed. In that year Monsanto was the world's biggest supplier of seeds, controlling 26% of the global seed market (Du Pont was second with 21%). Monsanto

754-480: Is Roundup , a glyphosate -based herbicide , developed in the 1970s. Later, the company became a major producer of genetically engineered crops. In 2018, the company ranked 199th on the Fortune 500 of the largest United States corporations by revenue. Monsanto was one of four groups to introduce genes into plants in 1983, and was among the first to conduct field trials of genetically modified crops in 1987. It

812-496: Is also used in some countries for artificially ripening fruit. When calcium carbide comes in contact with moisture, it produces acetylene gas, which is similar in its effects to the natural ripening agent, ethylene. Acetylene accelerates the ripening process. Catalytic generators are used to produce ethylene gas simply and safely. Ethylene sensors can be used to precisely control the amount of gas. Covered fruit ripening bowls or bags are commercially available. These containers increase

870-556: Is induced by ethylene and non-climacteric that occurs independently of ethylene. This distinction can be useful in determining the ripening processes of various fruits, since climacteric fruits continue ripening after they are removed due to the presence of ethylene, while nonclimacteric fruits only ripen while still attached to the plant. In non-climacteric fruits, auxins act to inhibit ripening. They do this by repressing genes involved in cell modification and anthocyanin synthesis. Ripening can be induced by abscisic acid , specifically

928-473: Is still present at high concentrations in the sample, and hence the fruit has not fully started to ripen. Climacteric fruits undergo a number of changes during fruit ripening. The major changes include fruit softening, sweetening, decreased bitterness, and colour change. These changes begin in an inner part of the fruit, the locule, which is the gel-like tissue surrounding the seeds. Ripening-related changes initiate in this region once seeds are viable enough for

986-625: The Dayton Project , and later Mound Laboratories , and assisted in the development of the first nuclear weapons . In 1946, Monsanto developed and marketed "All" laundry detergent, which it sold to Lever Brothers in 1957. In 1947, its styrene factory was destroyed in the Texas City Disaster . In 1949, Monsanto acquired American Viscose Corporation from Courtaulds . In 1954, Monsanto partnered with German chemical giant Bayer to form Mobay and market polyurethanes in

1044-885: The Monsanto process for making acetic acid , which until 2000 was the most widely used production method. In 1964, Monsanto chemists invented AstroTurf (initially ChemGrass). In the 1960s and 1970s, Monsanto was a producer of Agent Orange for United States Armed Forces operations in Vietnam , and settled out of court in a lawsuit brought by veterans in 1984. In 1968, it became the first company to start mass production of (visible) light-emitting diodes (LEDs), using gallium arsenide phosphide . From 1968 to 1970, sales doubled every few months. Their products (discrete LEDs and seven-segment numeric displays) became industry standards. The primary markets then were electronic calculators , digital watches and digital clocks. Monsanto became

1102-556: The acidity of fruit increases as it ripens, the higher acidity level does not make the fruit seem tarter. This effect is attributed to the Brix-Acid Ratio . Climacteric fruits ripen after harvesting and so some fruits for market are picked green (e.g. bananas and tomatoes ). Underripe fruits are also fibrous , not as juicy, and have tougher outer flesh than ripe fruits (see Mouth feel ). Eating unripe fruit can lead to stomachache or stomach cramps , and ripeness affects

1160-454: The artificial sweetener saccharin , caffeine and vanillin . Monsanto expanded to Europe in 1919 in a partnership with Graesser's Chemical Works at Cefn Mawr , Wales. The venture produced vanillin, aspirin and its raw ingredient salicylic acid , and later rubber processing chemicals. In the 1920s, Monsanto expanded into basic industrial chemicals such as sulfuric acid and PCBs . Queeny's son Edgar Monsanto Queeny took over

1218-565: The maize seed business when it purchased 40% of Dekalb in 1996; it purchased the remainder of the corporation in 1998. In 1997, the company first published an annual report citing Monsanto's Law, a biotechnological take on Moore's Law , indicating its future directions and exponential growth in the use of biotechnology. In the same year, Californian GMO company Calgene was acquired. In 1998, Monsanto purchased Cargill 's international seed business, which gave it access to sales and distribution facilities in 51 countries. In 2005, it finalized

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1276-416: The palatability of fruit. Developing fruits produce compounds like alkaloids and tannins . These compounds are antifeedants , meaning that they discourage animals who would eat them while they are still ripening. This mechanism is used to make sure that fruit is not eaten before the seeds are fully developed. At the molecular level, a variety of different plant hormones and proteins are used to create

1334-401: The starch in the fruit has turned into sugar . For example, a drop of iodine on a slightly rotten part (not the skin) of an apple will stay yellow or orange, since starch is no longer present. If the iodine is applied and takes 2–3 seconds to turn dark blue or black, then the process of ripening has begun but is not yet complete. If the iodine becomes black immediately, then most of the starch

1392-403: The vine and still be shipped long distances without it going soft. Calgene scientists used the modified bacterial parasite Agrobacterium tumefaciens to transfer genetic material into Flavr Savr plant cells. The bacterium normally "infects" plants with foreign genes as a part of its life cycle. The harmful, parasitic genetic material was removed from the bacterial T-plasmid and was replaced by

1450-629: The "new" Pharmacia; Monsanto's medical research division, which included products such as Celebrex. PL Laboratories LKB-produkter AB (Acq 1968) Kabi Vitrum (Acq 1990) Farmitalia (Acq 1993) Upjohn (Merged 1995) Monsanto (Est 1901) Swann Chemical Company (Acq 1935) Thomas & Hochwalt Laboratories (Acq 1936) American Viscose (Acq 1949) G. D. Searle & Company (Acq 1985) Agracetus (Acq 1996) DeKalb Genetics Corporation (Acq 1998) Cargill (Seed div, Acq 1998) In 2000, Pharmacia spun off its agro-biotech subsidiary into

1508-527: The House Science and Technology Select Committee to conclude that his initial claim was "contradicted by his own evidence." In the intervening period, Sainsbury's and Safeway both pledged that none of their house brand products would contain genetically modified ingredients. Ripening Ripening is a process in fruits that causes them to become more palatable . In general, fruit becomes sweeter , less green, and softer as it ripens. Even though

1566-407: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Celebrex became a blockbuster drug and was often mentioned as a key reason for Pfizer 's acquisition of Monsanto's pharmaceutical business in 2002. In 1994, Monsanto introduced a recombinant version of bovine somatotropin , brand-named Posilac. Monsanto later sold this business to Eli Lilly and Company . In 1996, Monsanto purchased Agracetus ,

1624-522: The UK, Zeneca produced a tomato paste that used technology similar to the Flavr Savr. Don Grierson was involved in the research to make the genetically modified tomato. Due to the characteristics of the tomato, it was cheaper to produce than conventional tomato paste, resulting in the product being 20% cheaper. Between 1996 and 1999, 1.8 million cans, clearly labelled as genetically engineered, were sold in

1682-486: The United States. Monsanto began manufacturing DDT in 1944, along with some 15 other companies. This insecticide was used to kill malaria -transmitting mosquitoes, but it was banned in the United States in 1972 due to its harmful environmental impacts. In 1977, Monsanto stopped producing PCBs; Congress banned PCB production two years later. In the mid‑1960s, William Standish Knowles and his team invented

1740-430: The accumulation of lignin and anthocyanins, which can be used as ripening indicators. The genes they analyzed include those involved in anthocyanin accumulation, cell wall modification, and ethylene synthesis; all of which promote fruit ripening. ABA also plays an important role in the ripening of non-climacteric plants. It has been shown to increase the rate of ethylene production and anthocyanin concentrations. Ripening

1798-399: The added genes survived. The FDA stated that special labeling for these modified tomatoes was not necessary because they have the essential characteristics of non-modified tomatoes. Specifically, there was no evidence for health risks, and the nutritional content was unchanged. According to the existing policy at the time, genetically modified products were only required to be labeled if there

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1856-408: The amount of ethylene and carbon dioxide gases around the fruit, which promotes ripening. Climacteric fruits continue ripening after being picked, a process accelerated by ethylene gas. Non-climacteric fruits can ripen only on the plant and thus have a short shelf life if harvested when they are ripe. Iodine (I) can be used to determine whether fruits are ripening or rotting by showing whether

1914-429: The antisensed PG gene had a positive effect on shelf life, but not on the fruit's firmness. The Flavr Savr was too soft to be reliably machine-picked and transported when harvested while ripe, so the tomatoes still had to be harvested like any other unmodified vine-ripe tomato. An improved flavor, later achieved through traditional breeding of Flavr Savr and better tasting varieties, would contribute to selling Flavr Savr at

1972-399: The biotechnology company that had generated the first transgenic cotton, soybeans, peanuts and other crops, and from which Monsanto had been licensing technology since 1991. In 1997, Monsanto divested Solutia , a company created to carry off the responsibility for Monsanto's PCB business and associated liabilities, along with some related organic chemical production. Monsanto first entered

2030-460: The business of producing PCBs . In 1936, Monsanto acquired Thomas & Hochwalt Laboratories in Dayton, Ohio , to acquire the expertise of Charles Allen Thomas and Carroll A. Hochwalt. The acquisition became Monsanto's Central Research Department. Thomas spent the rest of his career at Monsanto, serving as President (1951–1960) and Board Chair (1960–1965). He retired in 1970. In 1943, Thomas

2088-652: The company in 1928. In 1926 the company founded and incorporated a town called Monsanto in Illinois (now known as Sauget ). It was formed to provide minimal regulation and low taxes for Monsanto plants at a time when local jurisdictions had most of the responsibility for environmental rules. It was renamed in honor of Leo Sauget, its first village president. In 1935, Monsanto bought the Swann Chemical Company in Anniston, Alabama , and thereby entered

2146-571: The environment. Some chefs and food distributors boycotted the Flavr Savr and refused to sell the tomatoes in their stores. Jeremy Rifkin , an anti-biotechnology activist, said that, "It may be benign, but [the Flavr Savr] may turn out to be toxic." He founded the Pure Food Campaign, which opposed the introduction of genetically-modified foods into consumer markets. Because of high research and production costs and low profits, Calgene

2204-458: The favored genes. The Flavr Savr was made more resistant to rotting by the addition of an antisense gene which interferes with the production of the enzyme Beta polygalacturonase . The enzyme normally contributes to spoilage by degrading pectin in cell walls and results in the softening of fruit which makes them more susceptible to being damaged by fungal infections. Flavr Savr turned out to disappoint researchers in that respect, as

2262-453: The first for which Harvard allowed its faculty to submit patent application . Monsanto scientists were among the first to genetically modify a plant cell, publishing their results in 1983. Five years later the company conducted the first field tests of genetically modified crops . Increasing involvement in agricultural biotechnology dates from the installment of Richard Mahoney as Monsanto's CEO in 1983. This involvement increased under

2320-439: The leadership of Robert Shapiro , appointed CEO in 1995, leading ultimately to the disposition of product lines unrelated to agriculture. In 1985, Monsanto acquired G.D. Searle & Company , a life sciences company that focused on pharmaceuticals, agriculture and animal health. In 1993, its Searle division filed a patent application for Celebrex , which in 1998 became the first selective COX‑2 inhibitor to be approved by

2378-747: The longer term. In June 2007, Monsanto purchased Delta and Pine Land Company , a major cotton seed breeder, for $ 1.5 billion. As a condition for approval from the Department of Justice , Monsanto was obligated to divest its Stoneville cotton business, which it sold to Bayer , and to divest its NexGen cotton business, which it sold to Americot . Monsanto also exited the pig-breeding business by selling Monsanto Choice Genetics to Newsham Genetics LC in November, divesting itself of "any and all swine-related patents, patent applications, and all other intellectual property". In 2007, Monsanto and BASF announced

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2436-584: The major supermarket chains Sainsbury's and Safeway UK . At one point the paste outsold normal tomato paste but sales fell in the autumn of 1998. The House of Commons of the United Kingdom published a report in which they stated that the decline in sales during this period was linked to changing consumer perceptions of genetically modified crops . The report identified several possible factors, including product labeling and perception of choice, lobbying campaigns, and media attention. It concluded that

2494-416: The phenotypic changes seen during ripening. Colour change is the result of pigments, which were always present in the fruit, becoming visible when chlorophyll is degraded. However, additional pigments are also produced by the fruit as it ripens. In fruit, the cell walls are mainly composed of polysaccharides including pectin. During ripening, a lot of the pectin is converted from a water-insoluble form to

2552-481: The process of sucrose accumulation as well as color acquisition and firmness. While ethylene plays a major role in the ripening of climacteric plants, it still has effects in non-climacteric species as well. In strawberries, it was shown to stimulate color and softening processes. Studies found that the addition of exogenous ethylene induces secondary ripening processes in strawberries, stimulating respiration. They suggested that this process involves ethylene receptors,

2610-454: The process to continue, at which point ripening-related changes occur in the next successive tissue of the fruit called the pericarp. As this ripening process occurs, working its way from the inside towards outer most tissue of the fruit, the observable changes of softening tissue, and changes in color and carotenoid content occur. Specifically, this process activates ethylene production and the expression of ethylene-response genes affiliated with

2668-406: The purchase of Seminis Inc , a leading global vegetable and fruit seed company, for $ 1.4 billion. This made it the world's largest conventional seed company. In 1999, Monsanto sold off NutraSweet Co. In December of the same year, Monsanto agreed to merge with Pharmacia & Upjohn , in a deal valuing the transaction at $ 27 billion. The agricultural division became a wholly owned subsidiary of

2726-534: The sweeter rather than sharp tastes associated with unripe fruits. In some fruits such as guava, there is a steady decrease in vitamin C as the fruit ripens. This is mainly as a result of the general decrease in acid content that occurs when a fruit ripens. Different fruits have different ripening stages. In tomatoes the ripening stages are: This is an incomplete list of fruits that ripen after picking ( climacteric ) and those that do not ( non-climacteric ). There are two patterns of fruit ripening: climacteric that

2784-455: The tone of media reports on the subject underwent a "fundamental shift" in response to a high-profile incident in which Dr. Arpad Pusztai , a researcher for Rowett Research Institute, was fired after making a televised claim about detrimental health effects in lab rats fed a diet of genetically modified potatoes (see the Pusztai affair ). Subsequent peer review and testimony by Dr. Pusztai led

2842-445: The use of ethylene gas which acts as a plant hormone . The downside to this approach is that the tomato does not complete its natural growing process, and the final flavor suffers as a result. Through genetic engineering, Calgene hoped to slow down the ripening process of the tomato and thus prevent it from softening too early, while still allowing the tomato to retain its natural color and flavor. This would allow it to fully ripen on

2900-406: Was a significant alteration made. Most GMOs were not subjected to mandatory labeling, which allowed for the vast majority of commercially-sold genetically modified foods to remain unlabeled. Flavr Savr tomatoes were still labeled as genetically altered, even though it was not a requirement. The FDA's no-label policy was criticized because people believed that consumers deserved the right to know what

2958-854: Was called to a meeting in Washington, D.C., with Leslie Groves , commander of the Manhattan Project , and James Conant , president of Harvard University and chairman of the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC). They urged Thomas to become co-director of the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos with Robert Oppenheimer , but Thomas was reluctant to leave Dayton and Monsanto. He joined the NDRC, and Monsanto's Central Research Department began to conduct related research. To that end, Monsanto operated

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3016-509: Was enhanced, as seen with the accelerated fruit coloration and softening. This occurs because ABA acts as a regulator of ethylene production, increasing synthesis similarly to climacteric fruits. Monsanto The Monsanto Company ( / m ɒ n ˈ s æ n t oʊ / ) was an American agrochemical and agricultural biotechnology corporation founded in 1901 and headquartered in Creve Coeur, Missouri . Monsanto's best-known product

3074-507: Was founded in St. Louis, Missouri, as a chemical company . The founder was John Francis Queeny , who, at age 42, was a 30‑year veteran of the nascent pharmaceutical industry. He funded the firm with his own money and capital from a soft drink distributor. He used for the company name the maiden name of his wife, Olga Méndez Monsanto, who was a scioness of the Monsanto family . The company's first products were commodity food additives, such as

3132-540: Was in their food. Safety concerns were also cited. Thousands of comments were sent to the FDA asking for a change to the labeling guidelines. However, the FDA still did not implement mandatory labeling of foods derived from biotechnology until January 2022. Some did not trust the tomato's safety. Because some members of the public were misinformed on genetic technology, people feared the Flavr Savr and other genetically modified products to be potentially hazardous to human health or

3190-514: Was no longer used, but Monsanto's previous product brand names were maintained. In June 2020, Bayer agreed to pay numerous settlements in lawsuits involving ex-Monsanto products Roundup , PCBs and Dicamba . Owing to the massive financial and reputational blows caused by ongoing litigation concerning Monsanto's herbicide Roundup, the Bayer-Monsanto merger is considered one of the worst corporate mergers in history. In 1901, Monsanto

3248-587: Was one of the top-ten U.S. chemical companies until it divested most of its chemical businesses between 1997 and 2002, through a process of mergers and spin-offs that focused the company on biotechnology . Monsanto was one of the first companies to apply the biotechnology industry business model to agriculture, using techniques developed by biotech drug companies. In this business model, companies recoup R&D expenses by exploiting biological patents . Monsanto's roles in agricultural changes, biotechnology products, lobbying of government agencies, and roots as

3306-564: Was sold to the Monsanto Corporation in 1997 for more than $ 200 million. Monsanto acquired all of Calgene's products, including the Flavr Savr. The company was more interested in Calgene's patents to certain key technologies, and the Flavr Savr has since been shelved and is currently out of production. The failure of the Flavr Savr has been attributed to Calgene's inexperience in the business of growing and shipping tomatoes. In

3364-544: Was the third-largest U.S. cotton seed company, with about 12% of the U.S. market. Monsanto's goal was to obtain "a strategic cotton germplasm and traits platform". Also in 2005, Monsanto purchased Seminis , the California-based world leader in vegetable seed production, for $ 1.4 billion. Seminis developed new vegetable varieties using advanced cross-pollination methods. Monsanto indicated that Seminis would continue with non-GM development, while not ruling out GM in

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