Flemish Baroque painting was a style of painting in the Southern Netherlands during Spanish control in the 16th and 17th centuries . The period roughly begins when the Dutch Republic was split from the Habsburg Spain regions to the south with the Spanish recapturing of Antwerp in 1585 and goes until about 1700, when Spanish Habsburg authority ended with the death of King Charles II . Antwerp, home to the prominent artists Peter Paul Rubens , Anthony van Dyck , and Jacob Jordaens , was the artistic nexus, while other notable cities include Brussels and Ghent .
95-799: Rubens, in particular, had a strong influence on seventeenth-century visual culture. His innovations helped define Antwerp as one of Europe's major artistic cities, especially for Counter-Reformation imagery, and his student Van Dyck was instrumental in establishing new directions in English portraiture. Other developments in Flemish Baroque painting are similar to those found in Dutch Golden Age painting , with artists specializing in such areas as history painting , portraiture , genre painting , landscape painting , and still life . Artists Clergy Monarchs Popes "Flemish", in
190-511: A genre called tronies ("faces"). Brouwer's art was recognized in his own lifetime and had a powerful impact on Flemish art. Rubens owned more works by him at the time of his death than any other painter, and artists such as David Teniers the Younger , Jan van de Venne , Joos van Craesbeeck and David Ryckaert III continued to work in a similar manner. Paintings of elegant couples in the latest fashions, often with underlying themes of love or
285-466: A landscape painter decorating Roman villas and creating small cabinet paintings . Jan Wildens and Lucas van Uden painted natural landscapes inspired by Rubens, and frequently collaborated with figure painters or animal specialists to paint the backgrounds. Rubens turned to landscape painting in the 1630s, focusing on the area around his chateau, Het Steen. A well-known example is the Landscape with
380-768: A neutral background. Osias Beert , Clara Peeters , Cornelis Mahu and Jacob Foppens van Es ( c . 1596–1666) were all artists who made these types of painting. More elaborate are the pronk , or "sumptuous", still life. This style developed in the Dutch Republic, and was brought to Antwerp by Jan Davidsz de Heem . They show, on a larger scale than earlier works, complex compositions of expensive items, rare foods, and fleshy, peeling fruit. These paintings are related to vanitas and transience motifs. Frans Snyders (1579–1657) painted large still lifes focusing on dead game and animals. His compositions, along with those of his follower Adriaen van Utrecht (1599–1652). look back to
475-716: A par with the 39 books found in the Masoretic Text . This reaffirmed the previous Council of Rome and Synods of Carthage (both held in the 4th century AD), which had affirmed the Deuterocanon as scripture. The council also commissioned the Roman Catechism , which served as authoritative Church teaching until the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1992). While the traditional fundamentals of
570-425: A portrait. He also painted genre -style scenes representing the five senses or the seven deadly sins . Janssens affixed the signature "Janssens van Nuyssen" to several of his pictures. It is believed that 'van Nuyssen' was the family name of his mother and that Janssens added it to his signature to distinguish himself from his namesakes as the family name Janssens was very common in 17th-century Flanders. It
665-522: A saint, set an example by visiting the remotest parishes and instilling high standards. The 1559–1967 Index Librorum Prohibitorum was a directory of prohibited books which was updated twenty times during the next four centuries as books were added or removed from the list by the Sacred Congregation of the Index . It was divided into three classes. The first class listed heretical writers,
760-881: A specific parish or area like a vicar or canon. In Italy, the first congregation of regular clergy was the Theatines founded in 1524 by Gaetano and Cardinal Gian Caraffa . This was followed by the Somaschi Fathers in 1528, the Barnabites in 1530, the Ursulines in 1535, the Jesuits , canonically recognised in 1540, the Clerics Regular of the Mother of God of Lucca in 1583, the Camillians in 1584,
855-676: A spiritual revival in Europe, incubated by the rise of preaching friars , the standardization of the Paris Bible , lay spiritual movements (such as the devotio moderna ), the examples of nascent saints such as Catherine of Bologna , Antoninus of Florence , Rita of Cascia and Catherine of Genoa , printing, Christian humanism , an urbanized laity who could not flee the towns for monasteries, and other reasons. A series of ecumenical councils were held with reformist agendas: The kinds of positive reforms considered were not necessarily
950-574: A strong reliance on Raphael. This is clear in the composition Mount Olympus ( Alte Pinakothek , Munich ) which shows the combination of Janssens's study of the Antique and of Michelangelo, during his stay in Italy and through prints which he could access in Antwerp. From 1606 onwards, his style started to show the influence of Caravaggio. It is believed that this was a response to new tendencies in
1045-511: A student of both Otto van Veen and Adam van Noort, spent eight years in Italy (1600–1608), during which time he studied examples of classical antiquity , the Italian Renaissance , and contemporaries Adam Elsheimer and Caravaggio . Following his return to Antwerp he set up an important studio, training students such as Anthony van Dyck, and generally exerting a strong influence on the direction of Flemish art. Most artists active in
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#17327649451151140-413: A view of 'Het Steen' ( National Gallery of London ). Small seascapes ( zeekens ) were another popular theme. Artists such as Bonaventura Peeters painted shipwrecks and atmospheric views of ships at sea, as well as imaginary views of exotic ports. Hendrik van Minderhout , who was from Rotterdam and settled in Antwerp, continued this latter theme contemporaneous with developments of marine painting in
1235-482: A vigorous campaign of reform, inspired by earlier Catholic reform movements: humanism , devotionalism , and observantism . The council, by virtue of its actions, repudiated the pluralism of the secular Renaissance that had previously plagued the Church: the organization of religious institutions was tightened, discipline was improved, and the parish was emphasized. The appointment of bishops for political reasons
1330-407: Is difficult to determine the chronology of Janssens's oeuvre, as he only dated or documented a few of his works. His earliest works are steeped in late 16th-century Mannerism and are characterized by an artificial design and a palette composed of dispersing colours. An example is his earliest dated picture Diana and Callisto of 1601 ( Museum of Fine Arts , Budapest ), which demonstrates that at
1425-533: Is misleading: it cannot rightly be applied, logically or chronologically, to that sudden awakening as of a startled giant, that wonderful effort of rejuvenation and reorganization, which in a space of thirty years gave to the Church an altogether new appearance. … The so-called 'counter-reformation' did not begin with the Council of Trent, long after Luther; its origins and initial achievements were much anterior to
1520-585: Is not a significant subject in the south, although artists such as Jan Siberechts explored these themes to some degree. Flemish genre painting is strongly tied to the traditions of Pieter Bruegel the Elder and was a style that continued directly into the 17th century through copies and new compositions made by his sons Pieter Brueghel the Younger and Jan Brueghel the Elder . Many of these are kermis paintings and scenes of peasants taking part in other outdoor enjoyments viewed from an elevated viewpoint. Artists in
1615-602: The Visitation and Presentation in the Temple , and exterior panels showing St. Christopher and the Hermit —is an important reflection of Counter-Reformation ideas about art combined with Baroque naturalism, dynamism and monumentality. Roger de Piles explains that "the painter has entered so fully into the expression of his subject that the sight of this work has the power to touch a hardened soul and cause it to experience
1710-632: The Adorno Fathers in 1588, and finally the Piarists in 1621. At the end of the 1400s, a reform movement inspired by St Catherine of Genoa 's hospital ministry started spreading: in Rome, starting 1514, the Oratory of Divine Love attracted an aristocratic membership of priests and laymen to perform anonymous acts of charity and to discuss reform; the members subsequently became the key players in
1805-518: The Antwerp school of painting around this time. He painted in this style for about five to six years. His composition Scaldis and Antverpia (also referred to as Allegory of the Scheldt ) of 1609 ( Royal Museum of Fine Arts Antwerp ) is a key work of Janssens's Caravaggesque period. It was commissioned by the Antwerp city magistrate to decorate the chimney in the city hall 's Assembly Room where
1900-655: The Bamboccianti . The Bamboccianti comprised mostly Dutch and Flemish artists who had brought existing traditions of depicting peasant subjects from sixteenth-century Netherlandish art with them to Italy, and generally created small cabinet paintings or etchings of the everyday life of the lower classes in Rome and its countryside. The Dutch painter Pieter van Laer who was nicknamed "Il Bamboccio" (meaning "ugly doll" or "puppet" in Italian) had started this type of genre painting in Rome. In general, genre painting
1995-495: The Capuchins , recognized by the pope in 1619. This order was well known to the laity and played an important role in public preaching. To respond to the new needs of evangelism, clergy formed into religious congregations , taking special vows but with no obligation to assist in a monastery's religious offices. These regular clergy taught, preached and took confession but were under a bishop's direct authority and not linked to
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#17327649451152090-565: The Caravaggisti , while the treatment of the subjects inspired Dutch artists like Jan Steen . Another popular type of painting invented in the Low Countries was landscapes with historical and fictional battles, as well as skirmishes and robberies. Sebastiaen Vrancx and his pupil Peter Snayers specialized in this genre, and Snayer's student Adam-Frans van der Meulen continued painting them in Antwerp, Brussels and Paris until
2185-721: The Catholic Revival , was the period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to, and as an alternative to, the Protestant Reformations at the time. It is frequently dated to have begun with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and to end with the conclusion of the European wars of religion in 1648, though this is controversial. The broader term Catholic Reformation (Latin: Reformatio Catholica ) also encompasses reforms and movements within
2280-649: The French Jansenist theologian Pasquier Quesnel (1634–1719). Jansenism was a Protestant-leaning or mediating movement within Catholicism, in France and the Spanish Netherlands, that was criticized for being crypto-Calvinist, denying that Christ died for all, promoting that Holy Communion should be received very infrequently, and more. After Jansenist propositions were condemned it led to
2375-486: The Jesuit painter Daniel Seghers , also painted many of these types of works for an international clientele. In later versions, the fleshy Madonna and Child gave way to sculptural niches and even pagan themes. The ontbijtje , or "little breakfast", is a type of still life that was popular in both the northern and southern Netherlands showing a variety of eating and drinking vessels and foods such as cheese and bread against
2470-606: The Observantist faction of the monastic orders (that less slackness regarding external observances would aid fervour in internal piety) or to promote a top-down ("head and body") institution-centric focus that reform needed to start at and from the Pope, or bishops, or councils, or princes, or canon law. There was considerable support for the evangelical counsels ' ideal of poverty as a way to short-circuit careerism, though John Wycliffe 's doctrine of mandatory apostolic poverty
2565-584: The Twelve Years' Truce between Spain and the Dutch Republic was signed on 9 April 1609. Rubens also received a commission for the same occasion. It was hoped that the Truce would bring new prosperity and trade to Antwerp, for which the city had traditionally relied on the river Scheldt . The subject of the work is therefore Scaldis (the river Scheldt) and Antverpia (the city of Antwerp). This work
2660-527: The five senses , were commonly painted by Hieronymus Francken the Younger , Louis de Caullery , Simon de Vos , David Teniers the Younger and David Ryckaert III . Rubens's Garden of Love ( c . 1634–5; Prado Museum ) belongs to these traditions. Whereas elegant company scenes and works by Brouwer and his followers were often small in scale, other artists looked to Caravaggio for inspiration and painted large-scale, theatrically inspired scenes in which musicians, cardplayers, and fortune tellers are pushed to
2755-419: The flower garland . Other types of paintings closely associated with Flemish Baroque include the monumental hunting scenes by Rubens and Snyders, and gallery paintings by artists such as Willem van Haecht and David Teniers the Younger . History painting, which includes biblical, mythological and historical subjects, was considered by seventeenth-century theoreticians as the most noble art. Abraham Janssens
2850-571: The medieval church , its sacramental system, religious orders, and doctrine . It recommended that the form of Mass should be standardised, and this took place in 1570, when Pope Pius V made the Tridentine Mass obligatory. It rejected all compromise with Protestants, restating basic tenets of the Catholic Faith . The council upheld salvation appropriated by grace through faith and works of that faith (not just by faith , as
2945-576: The veduta in Italy and the galleries of Giovanni Paolo Pannini . Jan Brueghel the Elder was one of the important innovators of the floral still life around 1600. These paintings, which presented immaculately observed arrangements and compositions, were imaginary creations of flowers that bloom at different times of the years. They were popular with leading patrons and nobility across Europe, and generally have an underlying Vanitas motif. The compositions of Brueghel's paintings were also influential on later Dutch flower pieces. Brueghel's sons Jan Brueghel
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3040-857: The "Red Book". This launched the Liturgical Struggle , which pitted John III of Sweden against his younger brother Charles . During this time, Jesuit Laurentius Nicolai came to lead the Collegium regium Stockholmense . This theatre of the Counter-Reformation was called the Missio Suetica . The 1578 Defensio Tridentinæ fidei was the Catholic response to the Examination of the Council of Trent . The 1713 papal bull Unigenitus condemned 101 propositions of
3135-740: The 14th century. The 'Benedictine Bull' of 1336 reformed the Benedictines and Cistercians . In 1523, the Camaldolese Hermits of Monte Corona were recognized as a separate congregation of monks. In 1435, Francis of Paola founded the Poor Hermits of Saint Francis of Assisi, who became the Minim Friars. In 1526, Matteo de Bascio suggested reforming the Franciscan rule of life to its original purity, giving birth to
3230-458: The 1620s in Amsterdam and Haarlem , where he came under the influence of Frans and Dirk Hals and other artists working in a loose painterly manner. Upon his return to Antwerp around 1631 or 1632 he introduced a new, influential format in which the subjects were painted as interior, instead of exterior, scenes. He also painted expressive facial studies like The Bitter Drink (illustrated),
3325-614: The 17th century. Rubens introduced the monumental hunt to Flemish art, depicting on a large scale a close battle inspired by his study of classical antiquity and Leonardo da Vinci 's Battle of Anghiari . These works show both noble hunts, such as the Wolf and Fox Hunt ( Metropolitan Museum of Art ), and exotic hunts, such as the Lion Hunt ( Alte Pinakothek , Munich ). Frans Snyders and Paul de Vos created similarly large paintings which are distinct from Rubens's works in their focus on
3420-507: The Church in the periods immediately before Protestantism or Trent and lasting later. Initiated in part to address the challenges of the Protestant Reformations, the Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort arising from the decrees of the Council of Trent. The effort produced apologetic and polemical documents, heresy trials, anti-corruption efforts, spiritual movements, the promotion of new religious orders, and
3515-531: The Church were reaffirmed, there were noticeable changes to answer complaints that the Counter-Reformers were, tacitly, willing to admit were legitimate. Among the conditions to be corrected by Catholic reformers was the growing divide between the clerics and the laity; many members of the clergy in the rural parishes had been poorly educated. Often, these rural priests did not know Latin and lacked opportunities for proper theological training. Addressing
3610-603: The Council of Trent attempted to improve the discipline and administration of the Church. The worldly excesses of the secular Renaissance Church, epitomized by the era of Alexander VI (1492–1503), intensified during the Reformation under Pope Leo X (1513–1521), whose campaign to raise funds for the construction of Saint Peter's Basilica by supporting use of indulgences served as a key impetus for Martin Luther 's 95 Theses . The Catholic Church responded to these problems by
3705-509: The Counter-Reformation was a mission to reach parts of the world that had been colonized as predominantly Catholic and also try to reconvert nations such as Sweden and England that once were Catholic from the time of the Christianisation of Europe , but had been lost to the Reformation. Various Counter-Reformation theologians focused only on defending doctrinal positions such as the sacraments and pious practices that were attacked by
3800-585: The Dutch Republic, such as the Flemish-born David Vinckboons and Roelandt Savery , also made similar works, popularizing rustic scenes of everyday life closely associated with Dutch and Flemish painting. Adriaen Brouwer (1605 or 1606–1638) typically painted small scenes of ragged peasants fighting, gaming, drinking and generally expressing exaggerated and rude behaviour. Born in the Southern Netherlands, Brouwer spent
3895-465: The Dutch Republic. Interior architectural views, usually of churches, developed out of the late sixteenth-century works of Hans Vredeman de Vries . Many were actual locations. Pieter Neeffs I , for example, made numerous interiors of the Cathedral of Our Lady, Antwerp . Hendrik van Steenwijk II , on the other hand, followed Vredeman's precedent in painting imaginary interiors. The genre continued in
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3990-436: The Elder in depicting "low-life" peasant themes, although elegant "high-life" subjects featuring fashionably-dressed couples at balls or in gardens of love are also common. Adriaen Brouwer , whose small paintings often show peasants fighting and drinking, was particularly influential on subsequent artists. Images of woman performing household tasks, popularized in the northern Netherlands by Pieter de Hooch and Jan Vermeer ,
4085-634: The Hail Mary with the Pater Noster prayer, and made available vernacular French versions of the Gospels and Epistles. Conservative and reforming parties still survived within the Catholic Church even as the Protestant Reformations spread. Protestants decisively broke from the Catholic Church in the 1520s. The two distinct dogmatic positions within the Catholic Church solidified in the 1560s. The regular orders made their first attempts at reform in
4180-599: The Protestant reformers, up to the Second Vatican Council in 1962–1965. 'Counter-Reformation’ is a translation of German : Gegenreformation . Protestant historians have tended to speak in terms of Catholic reform as part of the Counter-Reformation, itself a response to the Reformation. In nineteenth-century Germany, the term became part of the German : Kulturkampf : ‘Counter-Reformation’
4275-530: The Protestants insisted) because "faith without works is dead", as the Epistle of James states (2:22–26). Transubstantiation , according to which the consecrated bread and wine are held to have been transformed really and substantially into the body , blood , soul and divinity of Christ, was also reaffirmed, as were the traditional seven sacraments of the Catholic Church . Other practices that drew
4370-547: The Younger and Ambrosius Brueghel were also flower specialists. Osias Beert (1580–1624) was another flower painter at the beginning of the 17th century. His paintings share many similarities with northern contemporaries such as Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder . Closely related to the flower still life is the flower garland genre of painting that was invented by Jan Brueghel in collaboration with cardinal Federico Borromeo in Milan . The early versions of these paintings, such as
4465-700: The Younger , and artists who were also inspired by Late Baroque theatricality such as Theodoor Boeyermans and Jan-Erasmus Quellinus . Additionally, a Flemish variant of Caravaggism was expressed by Theodoor Rombouts and Gerard Seghers . Rubens is closely associated with the development of the Baroque altarpiece . Painted for the Arquebusiers' guild , the Descent from the Cross triptych (1611–14; Cathedral of Our Lady, Antwerp )—with side wings depicting
4560-424: The animals and absence of human participation. Small, intricate paintings, usually depicting history and biblical subjects, were produced in great numbers in the Southern Netherlands throughout the 17th century. Many were created by anonymous artists, however artists such as Jan Brueghel the Elder , Hendrik van Balen , Frans Francken the Younger and Hendrik de Clerck were all successful cabinet painters during
4655-522: The archduke's collection of Italian paintings in Brussels as gallery painters as well as in a printed catalogue–the Theatrum Pictorium . Flemish Gallery and art collection paintings have been interpreted as a kind of visual theory of art. Such paintings continued to be made in Antwerp by Gerard Thomas (1663–1721) and Balthasar van den Bossche (1681–1715), and foreshadow the development of
4750-548: The church handling the Reformation. In 1548, then-layman Philip Neri founded a Confraternity of the Most Holy Trinity of Pilgrims and Convalescents : this developed into the relatively-free religious community the Oratorians , who were given their constitutions in 1564 and recognized as a religious order by the pope in 1575. They used music and singing to attract the faithful. The 1530 Confutatio Augustana
4845-471: The city during the first half of the 17th century were directly influenced by Rubens. Flemish art is notable for the large amount of collaboration that took place between independent masters, which was partly related to the local tendency to specialize in a particular area. Frans Snyders , for example, was an animal painter and Jan Brueghel the Elder was admired for his landscapes and paintings of plants. Both artists worked with Rubens, who often usually painted
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#17327649451154940-406: The collaboration by Breughel and Rubens in Munich ( Alte Pinakothek , Munich ) show the Virgin Mary and Christ child surrounded by a garland of flowers. They have been interpreted as distinctly Counter Reformation images, with the flowers emphasizing the delicacy of the Virgin and Child–images of which were destroyed in large numbers during the iconoclastic outbreaks of 1566. Brueghel's student,
5035-431: The colour of the garments of the female protagonists in Rubens' Samson and Delilah (c. 1609–10; National Gallery , London). Other works dating to this overtly Caravaggesque period are the Allegory of the burdens of time ( Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium , 1609), Peace and plenty (Wolverhampton Art Gallery, 1614), which was also commissioned for the Antwerp city hall's Assembly Room, and The dead Christ in
5130-416: The context of this and artistic periods such as the "Flemish Primitives" (in English now Early Netherlandish painting ), often includes the regions not associated with modern Flanders , including the Duchy of Brabant and the autonomous Prince-Bishopric of Liège . By the seventeenth century, however, Antwerp was the main city for innovative artistic production, largely due to the presence of Rubens. Brussels
5225-443: The development of the Old Catholic Church of the Netherlands . When the Calvinists took control of various parts of the Netherlands in the Dutch Revolt , the Catholics led by Philip II of Spain fought back. The king sent in Alexander Farnese as Governor-General of the Spanish Netherlands from 1578 to 1592. Abraham Janssens Abraham Janssens I , Abraham Janssen I or Abraham Janssens van Nuyssen (1575–1632)
5320-707: The dominant force for large altarpieces in the Antwerp market, Janssens had to find commissions for large monumental works from provincial patrons. Janssens joined in 1610 the Confrerie of Romanists , a society of Antwerp humanists and artists who had travelled to Rome. The diversity and high positions held by the Confrerie's membership offered him a good opportunity to meet with potential patrons. Janssens died in Antwerp. His pupils included his son Abraham Janssens II, Giovanni di Filippo del Campo , Michele Desubleo , Nicolas Régnier , Gerard Seghers , Theodoor Rombouts and Steven Wils. Janssens painted both religious, mythological and allegorical scenes, and occasionally
5415-467: The education of priests had been a fundamental focus of the humanist reformers in the past. Parish priests were to be better educated in matters of theology and apologetics , while Papal authorities sought to educate the faithful about the meaning, nature and value of art and liturgy, particularly in monastic churches (Protestants had criticised them as "distracting"). Handbooks became more common, describing how to be good priests and confessors. Thus,
5510-411: The end of the century. Following a time-honoured tradition, many northern artists travelled to Italy in the 17th century. Flemish artists such as Jan Miel (1599–1664), Michael Sweerts (1618–1664), Anton Goubau (1616–1698) and Willem Reuter (c.1642–1681) went to Rome where they worked for a period of time. Here they were influenced by the works of the genre painters active in Rome referred to as
5605-403: The fame of Wittenberg. It was undertaken, not by way of answering the 'reformers,' but in obedience to demands and principles that are part of the unalterable tradition of the Church and proceed from her most fundamental loyalties. The Italian historian Massimo Firpo has distinguished "Catholic Reformation" from "Counter-Reformation" by their issues. In his view, the general "Catholic Reformation"
5700-399: The figures, and other artists to create collaborative pieces. Flower still life painting, which developed around 1600 by artists such as Jan Brueghel the Elder, was partially a Flemish innovation, echoed in the Dutch Republic in the works of the Antwerp-born Ambrosius Bosschaert (1573–1621). In Antwerp, however, this new genre also developed into a specifically Catholic type of painting,
5795-850: The first half of the 17th century. These artists, as well as followers of Adam Elsheimer like David Teniers the Elder , remained partly shaped by continued mannerist stylistic tendencies. However, Rubens influenced a number of later artists who incorporated his Baroque style into the small context of these works. Among them are Frans Wouters , Jan Thomas van Ieperen , Simon de Vos , Pieter van Lint , and Willem van Herp . These small paintings were traded widely throughout Europe, and by way of Spain to Latin America . Counter-Reformation Artists Clergy Monarchs Popes Electors of Saxony Holy Roman Emperors Building Literature Theater Liturgies Hymnals Monuments Calendrical commemoration The Counter-Reformation ( Latin : Contrareformatio ), also sometimes called
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#17327649451155890-402: The flourishing of new art and musical styles. Such policies (e.g., by the Imperial Diets of the Holy Roman Empire ) had long-lasting effects in European history with exiles of Protestants continuing until the 1781 Patent of Toleration , although smaller expulsions took place in the 19th century. Such reforms included the foundation of seminaries for the proper training of priests in
5985-419: The foreground of the composition. These paintings, like others by Caravaggisti , are generally illuminated by strong lighting effects. Adam de Coster , Gerard Seghers and Theodoor Rombouts were the main exponents of this popular style in the early 17th century, which was popularized by Italian followers of Caravaggio like Bartolomeo Manfredi and Utrecht Caravaggisti like Gerrit van Honthorst . Rombouts
6080-551: The half-century before the reformation, the phenomenon of Bishops closing down decadent monasteries or convents had become more common, as had programs to educate parish priests. In the half-century before the Council of Trent, various evangelical Catholic leaders had experimented with reforms that came to be associated with Protestants: for example, Guillaume Briçonnet (bishop of Meaux) in Paris, with his former teacher Jacques Lefèvre d’Etaples , had statues other than Christ removed from his churches (though not destroyed ), replaced
6175-436: The ire of Protestant reformers, such as pilgrimages , the veneration of saints and relics , the use of venerable images and statuary , and the veneration of the Virgin Mary were strongly reaffirmed as spiritually commendable practices. The council, in the Canon of Trent , officially accepted the Vulgate listing of the Old Testament Bible, which included the deuterocanonical works (called apocrypha by Protestants) on
6270-438: The later seventeenth century by Anton Ghering and Wilhelm Schubert van Ehrenberg , but the Flemish examples do not demonstrate the same level of innovation found in the Dutch perspectives of Pieter Jansz Saenredam or Emanuel de Witte . Gallery paintings appeared in Antwerp around 1610, and developed—like architectural interiors—from the compositions of Hans Vredeman de Vries . One of the earliest innovators of this new genre
6365-445: The leading history painter active in the Low Countries. His fame was not immediately eclipsed by Rubens' return as he was still able to obtain important commissions such as that for his masterpiece Scaldis and Antverpia commissioned by the Antwerp city magistrate to decorate the chimney in the city hall 's Assembly Room where the Twelve Years' Truce between Spain and the Dutch Republic was signed on 9 April 1609. After Rubens became
6460-416: The ones that pre-occupied the Hussites (e.g., communion under both kinds , married priests) and later Protestants (e.g., indulgences , justification). Ending schism and war (especially papal war) was regarded by some prelates as the pre-condition for reformation. At times, the reform talk in the councils tended to lack enough specificity to result in an effective program—except for a tendency to follow
6555-442: The second class listed heretical works, and the third class listed forbidden writings which were published without the name of the author. The Index was finally suspended on 29 March 1967. The 1566 Roman Catechism provided material in Latin to help the clergy catechize in the vernacular. The 1575 Nova ordinantia ecclesiastica was an addendum to the Liturgia Svecanæ Ecclesiæ catholicæ & orthodoxæ conformia , also called
6650-442: The second half of the century, history painters combined a local influence from Rubens with knowledge of classicism and Italian Baroque qualities. Artists in the vein include Erasmus Quellinus the Younger , Jan van den Hoecke , Pieter van Lint , Cornelis Schut , and Thomas Willeboirts Bosschaert . Later in the century, many painters turned to Anthony van Dyck as a major influence. Among them were Pieter Thijs , Lucas Franchoys
6745-442: The series of the five senses created by Jan Brueghel the Elder and Rubens ( Prado Museum , Madrid ). Willem van Haecht (1593–1637) developed another variation in which illustrations of actual artworks are displayed in a fantasy art gallery, while connoisseurs and art lovers admire them. Later in the century, David Teniers the Younger , working in the capacity of court painter to Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria , documented
6840-458: The sixteenth-century paintings of Pieter Aertsen and Joachim Beuckelaer , but instill that tradition with a High Baroque monumentality. Subsequent artists, Jan Fyt and Pieter Boel further elaborated on this type by including a noticeable mixture of living animals and dead game. These latter paintings are closely related to images of the hunt, which came into fashion in Flemish painting during
6935-532: The spiritual life and the theological traditions of the Church, the reform of religious life by returning orders to their spiritual foundations, and new spiritual movements focusing on the devotional life and a personal relationship with Christ , including the Spanish mystics and the French school of spirituality . It also involved political activities and used the regional Inquisitions . A primary emphasis of
7030-401: The stage for the local Baroque. Between 1585 and the early 17th century they made many new altarpieces to replace those destroyed during the iconoclastic outbreaks of 1566 . Also during this time Frans Francken the Younger and Jan Brueghel the Elder became important for their small cabinet paintings , often depicting mythological and history subjects. Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640),
7125-641: The subject. The term ‘Catholic Reformation’ appealed to Catholic historians because it offered them the possibility of avoiding the term ‘Counter-Reformation’, with its problematic connotation of a mere reaction to Protestantism. But it was rejected by Protestant historians – largely because they did not want the term ‘Reformation’ to be used for anything other than the Protestant Reformation. Catholic historians tend to emphasize them as different. The French historian Henri Daniel-Rops wrote: The term ('counter-reformation'), however, though common,
7220-602: The sufferings endured by Jesus Christ in order to redeem it." Although not predominately a portrait painter, Rubens's contributions include early works such as his Portrait of Brigida Spinola-Doria (1606, National Gallery of Art , Washington, D.C. ), paintings of his wives (the Honeysuckle Bower and Het Pelsken ), and numerous portraits of friends and nobility. He also exerted a strong influence on Baroque portraiture through his student Anthony van Dyck . Van Dyck became court painter for Charles I of England and
7315-546: The time he was less influenced by Italian painting than by the late Mannerist style that was at the time being developed in Utrecht and Haarlem and drew inspiration from the work of the Flemish painter Bartholomeus Spranger . The work Diana and Callisto does, however, rely on Italian sculpture of both Antiquity and the Renaissance, as does his later work. Following his return to Antwerp in 1602 Janssens's work displayed
7410-468: The time of her death: Maria Anna , who also became a painter and married Jan Brueghel the Younger , Sara, Catharina, Lucretia and Abraham II. In 1607 he became the dean of the Antwerp Guild of St Luke. This is also the time when he received his first major commissions, which initiated the most important period of his career. Until the return of Rubens to Antwerp in 1608, Janssens was considered
7505-406: The tomb with two angels ( Metropolitan Museum of Art , c. 1610). The latter painting was likely commissioned as an altarpiece. This Caravaggesque composition predates comparable Dutch works such as Dirck van Baburen 's Roman charity by a decade. Janssens's later work is regarded as less convincing. After 1612 his painting style, like that of his other colleagues in Antwerp, came under
7600-518: The use of strong contrasts of light and shadow ( chiaroscuro ) to create expressive power, while the influence of the School of Bologna can be found in his search for noble classicism. The preference of Janssens for sculptural form impairs the drama of the work as the figures are represented in frozen poses and expression. Still it remains possible that this impressive work had some influence on Rubens' painting as there are, for example, similarities in
7695-523: The year 1567, but it is now more generally assumed that his date of birth was 1575. Janssens studied under Jan Snellinck and was registered as a pupil in the local Guild of Saint Luke in 1585. He travelled to Italy where he resided mainly in Rome between 1597 and 1602. After returning to his home country he became a master in the Antwerp Guild in the guild year 1601–1602. On 1 May 1602 he married Sara Goetkint (died in Antwerp on 7 April 1644) with whom he had 8 children, five of whom were still alive at
7790-480: Was Frans Francken the Younger , who introduced the type of work known as the Preziosenwand (wall of treasures). In these, prints, paintings, sculptures, drawings, as well as collectable objects from the natural world like shells and flowers are collected together in the foreground against a wall that imitates encyclopedic cabinets of curiosities . A similar variation of these collections of artistic wealth are
7885-418: Was "centered on the care of souls ..., episcopal residence, the renewal of the clergy, together with the charitable and educational roles of the new religious orders", whereas the specific "Counter-Reformation" was "founded upon the defence of orthodoxy, the repression of dissent, the reassertion of ecclesiastical authority". Other relevant terms that may be encountered: The 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries saw
7980-493: Was a Flemish painter , who is known principally for his large religious and mythological works, which show the influence of Caravaggio . He was the leading history painter in Flanders prior to the return of Rubens from Italy. Abraham Janssens was born in Antwerp as the son of Jan Janssens and Roelofken van Huysen or Nuyssen. There is some uncertainty regarding his year of birth. He was previously thought to have been born in
8075-584: Was also influenced by his teacher Abraham Janssens , who began incorporating Caravaggesque influences into his history paintings from first decade of the 17th century . Jacob Jordaens, who became Antwerp's most important artist after Rubens's death in 1640, is well known for his monumental genre paintings of subjects such as The King Drinks and As the Old Sing, So Pipe the Young . Many of these paintings use compositional and lighting influences similar to those of
8170-520: Was an important history painter in Antwerp between 1600 and 1620, although after 1609 Rubens was the leading figure. Both Van Dyck and Jacob Jordaens were active painting monumental history scenes. Following Rubens's death, Jordaens became the most important Flemish painter. Other notable artists working in the idiom of Rubens include Gaspar de Crayer , who was active in Brussels, Artus Wolffort , Cornelis de Vos , Jan Cossiers , Theodoor van Thulden , Abraham van Diepenbeeck , and Jan Boeckhorst . During
8265-641: Was an innovative landscape painter in Antwerp in the late 16th century, who introduced a more natural view instead of the traditional world landscape popularized by earlier painters such as Joachim Patiner . He left a strong influence on northern landscape painting in general through his period in Amsterdam and as a founding member of the Frankenthal School . Forest and mountain landscapes were painted by Abraham Govaerts , Alexander Keirincx , Gijsbrecht Leytens , Tobias Verhaecht and Joos de Momper . Paul Bril settled in Rome, where he specialized as
8360-477: Was decisively rejected at the Council of Constance. Issues such as papal nepotism and the wealth, dioscese-absenteeism, and pre-occupation with secular power of important bishops were recognized as perennial and scandalous problems. These resisted serious reform (by successive popes and councils with those bishops, unable to compromise their own interests) for centuries, causing friction as radical reformers periodically arose in response, such as Savonarola . In
8455-465: Was important as the location of the court, attracting David Teniers the Younger later in the century. Although paintings produced at the end of the 16th century belong to general Northern Mannerist and Late Renaissance approaches that were common throughout Europe, artists such as Otto van Veen , Adam van Noort , Marten de Vos , and the Francken family were particularly instrumental in setting
8550-415: Was influential on subsequent English portraiture. Other successful portraitists include Cornelis de Vos and Jacob Jordaens . Although most Flemish portraiture is life-sized or monumental, Gonzales Coques and Gillis van Tilborch specialized in small-scale group portraiture. Genre paintings , or scenes of everyday life, are common in the 17th century. Many artists follow the tradition of Pieter Bruegel
8645-525: Was made when Janssens's artistic powers had reached their peak. The figure of Scaldis is inspired by the statute of the Tiber on the Capitoline Hill while the composition itself resembles Michelangelo's The Creation of Adam . This work shows how Janssens's style had developed towards a classic academic beauty, harmonious in form and with an unbroken palette. The influence of Caravaggio is seen in
8740-560: Was no longer tolerated. In the past, the large landholdings forced many bishops to be "absent bishops" who at times were property managers trained in administration. Thus, the Council of Trent combated " absenteeism ", which was the practice of bishops living in Rome or on landed estates rather than in their dioceses. The Council of Trent gave bishops greater power to supervise all aspects of religious life. Zealous prelates, such as Milan 's Archbishop Carlo Borromeo (1538–1584), later canonized as
8835-541: Was not well-accepted in Italy, especially by official organizations such as the Academy of St. Luke . Many of the painters were also members of the Bentvueghels , the society of mainly Flemish and Dutch artists working in Rome. It acted as a support network for Netherlandish artists in Rome who were in need but is better known for the " bohemian " lifestyle of its members and drunken festivities. Gillis van Coninxloo
8930-501: Was the Catholic response to the Lutheran Augsburg Confession . Pope Paul III (1534–1549) is considered the first pope of the Counter-Reformation, and he also initiated the Council of Trent (1545–1563), tasked with institutional reform, addressing contentious issues such as corrupt bishops and priests , the sale of indulgences , and other financial abuses. The council upheld the basic structure of
9025-423: Was used by Protestant historians as a negative and one-dimensional concept that stressed the aspect of reaction and resistance to Protestantism and neglected that of reform within Catholicism. The term was understandably shunned by Catholic historians. Even when the Protestant historian Wilhelm Maurenbrecher introduced the term ‘Catholic Reformation’ in 1880, German historiography remained confessionally divided on
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