79-539: In aviation , a flight level ( FL ) is an aircraft's altitude as determined by a pressure altimeter using the International Standard Atmosphere . It is expressed in hundreds of feet or metres . The altimeter setting used is the ISA surface pressure of 1013 hPa or (29.92 inHg ). The actual surface pressure may vary from this at different locations and times. Therefore, by using
158-477: A buffer of minimum 1,000 ft (300 m) (depending on QNH) to the transition altitude. Therefore, aircraft may be flying at both transition level and transition altitude, and still be vertically separated by at least 1,000 ft (300 m). In those areas the transition layer will be 1,000–1,500 ft (300–460 m) thick, depending on QNH. In summary, the connection between "transition altitude" (TA), "transition layer" (TLYR), and "transition level" (TL)
237-583: A busy terminal area or using a major airport), and in many areas, such as northern Canada and low altitude in northern Scotland, air traffic control services are not available even for IFR flights at lower altitudes. Like all activities involving combustion , operating powered aircraft (from airliners to hot air balloons) releases soot and other pollutants into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) are also produced. In addition, there are environmental impacts specific to aviation: for instance, Another environmental impact of aviation
316-433: A calibrated barometer . An altimeter measures ambient air pressure, which decreases with increasing altitude following the barometric formula . It displays the corresponding altitude. If aircraft altimeters were not calibrated consistently, then two aircraft could be flying at the same altitude even though their altimeters appeared to show that they are at different altitudes. Flight levels require defining altitudes based on
395-507: A civil aviation authority must approve an aircraft suitable for safe flight operations. MRO firms are responsible for this process, thoroughly checking and documenting all components' repairs while tracking mechanical, propulsion, and electronic parts. Aviation regulators oversee maintenance practices in the country of aircraft registration, manufacture, or current location. All aircraft maintenance activities must adhere to international regulations that mandate standards. An aviation accident
474-456: A feat made possible by their invention of three-axis control and in-house development of an engine with a sufficient power-to-weight ratio . Only a decade later, at the start of World War I , heavier-than-air powered aircraft had become practical for reconnaissance, artillery spotting, and even attacks against ground positions. Aircraft began to transport people and cargo as designs grew larger and more reliable. The Wright brothers took aloft
553-524: A few hundred miles, was diminishing as airplane design advanced. The "Golden Age" of the airships ended on May 6, 1937. That year the Hindenburg caught fire, killing 36 people. The cause of the Hindenburg accident was initially blamed on the use of hydrogen instead of helium as the lift gas. An internal investigation by the manufacturer revealed that the coating used in the material covering the frame
632-459: A multiple of 500 ft. Therefore, a pressure altitude of 32,000 ft (9,800 m) is referred to as "flight level 320". In metre altitudes the format is Flight Level xx000 metres. Flight levels are usually designated in writing as FLxxx , where xxx is a two- or three-digit number indicating the pressure altitude in units of 100 feet (30 m). In radio communications, FL290 would be stated as "flight level two nine(r) zero". While use of
711-592: A pressure altimeter using the International Standard Atmosphere . It is expressed in hundreds of feet or metres . The altimeter setting used is the ISA surface pressure of 1013 hPa or (29.92 inHg ). The actual surface pressure may vary from this at different locations and times. Therefore, by using a standard pressure setting, every aircraft has the same altimeter setting, and vertical clearance can be maintained. Flight levels are used to ensure safe vertical separation between aircraft. Historically, altitude has been measured using an altimeter , essentially
790-403: A standard altimeter setting. All aircraft operating at flight levels set 1013 hPa or 29.92 inHg. On the descent when descending through the published transition level, the altimeter is set to the local surface pressure, to display the correct altitude above sea level. Flight levels are described by a number, which is the nominal altitude, or pressure altitude , in hundreds of feet, and
869-430: A standard pressure setting, every aircraft has the same altimeter setting, and vertical clearance can be maintained. Flight levels are used to ensure safe vertical separation between aircraft. Historically, altitude has been measured using an altimeter , essentially a calibrated barometer . An altimeter measures ambient air pressure, which decreases with increasing altitude following the barometric formula . It displays
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#1732798225514948-468: A standardised pressure setting facilitates separation of aircraft from each other, it does not provide the aircraft's actual altitude above sea level. Below the Transition level (which varies worldwide), the altimeter is set to the local altimeter setting, which can be directly compared to the known elevation of the terrain. The pressure setting to achieve this varies with local atmospheric pressure. It
1027-516: A transition to using the International System of Units since 1979 with a recommendation on using metres (m) for reporting flight levels. China, Mongolia, Russia and many CIS countries have used flight levels specified in metres for years. Aircraft entering these areas normally make a slight climb or descent to adjust for this, although Russia and some CIS countries started using feet above transition altitude and introduced RVSM at
1106-442: A transition to using the International System of Units since 1979 with a recommendation on using metres (m) for reporting flight levels. China, Mongolia, Russia and many CIS countries have used flight levels specified in metres for years. Aircraft entering these areas normally make a slight climb or descent to adjust for this, although Russia and some CIS countries started using feet above transition altitude and introduced RVSM at
1185-578: Is TL = TA + TLYR The semicircular rule (also known as the hemispheric rule ) applies, in slightly different version, to IFR flights in the UK inside controlled airspace and generally in the rest of the world. The standard rule defines an East/West track split: At FL 290 and above, if Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) are not in use, 4,000 ft intervals are used to separate same-direction aircraft (instead of 2,000 ft intervals below FL 290), and only odd flight levels are assigned, independent of
1264-524: Is noise pollution , mainly caused by aircraft taking off and landing. Sonic booms were a problem with supersonic aircraft such as the Concorde . [REDACTED] This article incorporates text by Wirths, Oliver; Tóth,Zsófia; Diaz Ruiz, Carlos available under the CC BY 4.0 license. Transition altitude In aviation , a flight level ( FL ) is an aircraft's altitude as determined by
1343-697: Is 18,000 ft (5,500 m). In Europe, the transition altitude varies and can be as low as 3,000 ft (900 m). There are discussions to standardize the transition altitude within the Eurocontrol area. In the United Kingdom, different airports have different transition altitudes, between 3000 and 6000 feet. On 25 November 2004 the Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand raised New Zealand's transition altitude from 11,000 to 13,000 feet (3,400 to 4,000 m) and changed
1422-509: Is a firm that ensures airworthiness or air transport. According to a 2024 article, "maintenance (M) involves inspecting, cleaning, oiling, and changing aircraft parts after a certain number of flight hours. Repair (R) is restoring the original function of parts and components. Overhaul (O) refers to extensive maintenance, the complete refurbishment of the aircraft, and upgrades in avionics, which can take several weeks to complete." Airlines are legally obligated to certify airworthiness, meaning that
1501-453: Is available from various sources, including air traffic control and the local airport weather frequency or a METAR -issuing station. The transition altitude (TA) is the altitude above sea level at which aircraft change from the use of local pressure to the use of standard pressure. When operating at or below the TA, aircraft altimeters are usually set to show the altitude above sea level. Above
1580-430: Is called QNH ("barometric pressure adjusted to sea level"), or " altimeter setting ", the current local value is available from various sources, including air traffic control and the local airport weather frequency or a METAR -issuing station. The transition altitude (TA) is the altitude above sea level at which aircraft change from the use of local pressure to the use of standard pressure. When operating at or below
1659-458: Is defined by the Convention on International Civil Aviation Annex 13 as an occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft which takes place between the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight until such time as all such persons have disembarked, in which a person is fatally or seriously injured, the aircraft sustains damage or structural failure or the aircraft
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#17327982255141738-759: Is especially important for aircraft flying under instrument flight rules (IFR), when they may be in weather conditions that do not allow the pilots to see other aircraft. However, in very high-traffic areas, especially near major airports, aircraft flying under visual flight rules (VFR) are also required to follow instructions from ATC. In addition to separation from other aircraft, ATC may provide weather advisories, terrain separation, navigation assistance, and other services to pilots, depending on their workload. ATC do not control all flights. The majority of VFR (Visual Flight Rules) flights in North America are not required to contact ATC (unless they are passing through
1817-490: Is missing or is completely inaccessible. An accident in which the damage to the aircraft is such that it must be written off, or in which the plane is destroyed, is called a hull loss accident . The first fatal aviation accident occurred in a Wright Model A aircraft at Fort Myer, Virginia, US , on September 17, 1908, resulting in injury to the pilot, Orville Wright , and death of the passenger, Signal Corps Lieutenant Thomas Selfridge . The worst aviation accident in history
1896-458: Is private or commercial and on the type of equipment involved. Many small aircraft manufacturers serve the general aviation market, with a focus on private aviation and flight training. The most important recent developments for small aircraft (which form the bulk of the GA fleet) have been the introduction of advanced avionics (including GPS ) that were formerly found only in large airliners , and
1975-482: Is the airspace between the transition altitude and the transition level . According to these definitions the transition layer is 0–500 feet (0–150 m) thick. Aircraft are not normally assigned to fly at the "'transition level'" as this would provide inadequate separation from traffic flying on QNH at the transition altitude. Instead, the lowest usable "'flight level'" is the transition level plus 500 ft. However, in some countries, such as Norway for example,
2054-490: Is the lowest flight level above the transition altitude. The table below shows the transition level according to transition altitude and QNH. When descending below the transition level, the pilot starts to refer to altitude of the aircraft by setting the altimeter to the QNH for the region or airfield. The transition layer is the airspace between the transition altitude and the transition level . According to these definitions
2133-904: The September 11 attacks and the SARS pandemic have driven many older airlines to government-bailouts, bankruptcy or mergers. At the same time, low-cost carriers such as Ryanair , Southwest and WestJet have flourished. General aviation includes all non-scheduled civil flying, both private and commercial . General aviation may include business flights, air charter , private aviation, flight training, ballooning , paragliding , parachuting , gliding , hang gliding , aerial photography , foot-launched powered hang gliders , air ambulance, crop dusting, charter flights, traffic reporting , police air patrols and forest fire fighting. Each country regulates aviation differently, but general aviation usually falls under different regulations depending on whether it
2212-526: The 18th century with the development of the hot air balloon , an apparatus capable of atmospheric displacement through buoyancy . Some of the most significant advancements in aviation technology came with the controlled gliding flying of Otto Lilienthal in 1896; then a large step in significance came with the construction of the first powered airplane by the Wright brothers in the early 1900s. Since that time, aviation has been technologically revolutionized by
2291-546: The 1960s composite material airframes and quieter, more efficient engines have become available, and Concorde provided supersonic passenger service for more than two decades, but the most important lasting innovations have taken place in instrumentation and control. The arrival of solid-state electronics, the Global Positioning System , satellite communications , and increasingly small and powerful computers and LED displays, have dramatically changed
2370-771: The Earth's atmosphere. Meanwhile, the need to decarbonize the aviation industry to face the climate crisis has increased research into aircraft powered by alternative fuels, such as ethanol , electricity , hydrogen , and even solar energy , with flying prototypes becoming more common. Civil aviation includes all non-military flying, both general aviation and scheduled air transport . There are five major manufacturers of civil transport aircraft (in alphabetical order): Boeing, Airbus, Ilyushin and Tupolev concentrate on wide-body and narrow-body jet airliners , while Bombardier, Embraer and Sukhoi concentrate on regional airliners . Large networks of specialized parts suppliers from around
2449-528: The French War ministry. The report on the trials was not publicized until 1910, as they had been a military secret. In November 1906, Ader claimed to have made a successful flight on October 14, 1897, achieving an "uninterrupted flight" of around 300 metres (980 feet). Although widely believed at the time, these claims were later discredited. The Wright brothers made the first successful powered, controlled and sustained airplane flight on December 17, 1903,
Flight level - Misplaced Pages Continue
2528-524: The Hindenburg was the first to be captured on newsreel. In 1799, Sir George Cayley set forth the concept of the modern airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control. Otto Lilienthal was the first person to make well-documented, repeated, successful flights with gliders , therefore making the idea of " heavier than air " a reality. Newspapers and magazines published photographs of Lilienthal gliding, favorably influencing public and scientific opinion about
2607-462: The TA, aircraft altimeters are usually set to show the altitude above sea level. Above the TA, the aircraft altimeter pressure setting is changed to the standard pressure setting of 1013 hectopascals (equivalent to millibars) or 29.92 inches of mercury , with the aircraft altitude will be stated as a flight level instead of altitude. In the United States and Canada, the transition altitude
2686-472: The TA, the aircraft altimeter pressure setting is changed to the standard pressure setting of 1013 hectopascals (equivalent to millibars) or 29.92 inches of mercury , with the aircraft altitude will be stated as a flight level instead of altitude. In the United States and Canada, the transition altitude is 18,000 ft (5,500 m). In Europe, the transition altitude varies and can be as low as 3,000 ft (900 m). There are discussions to standardize
2765-651: The UK Quadrantal Rule is 500 ft ( note these are in geopotential foot units ). The level to be flown is determined by the magnetic track of the aircraft, as follows: Reduced vertical separation minima (RVSM) reduces the vertical separation between FL290 and FL410. This allows aircraft to safely fly more optimum routes, save fuel and increase airspace capacity by adding new flight levels. Only aircraft that have been certified to meet RVSM standards, with several exclusions, are allowed to fly in RVSM airspace. It
2844-530: The UK Quadrantal Rule is 500 ft ( note these are in geopotential foot units ). The level to be flown is determined by the magnetic track of the aircraft, as follows: Reduced vertical separation minima (RVSM) reduces the vertical separation between FL290 and FL410. This allows aircraft to safely fly more optimum routes, save fuel and increase airspace capacity by adding new flight levels. Only aircraft that have been certified to meet RVSM standards, with several exclusions, are allowed to fly in RVSM airspace. It
2923-626: The United States) they may use radar to see aircraft positions. Becoming an air traffic controller in the United States typically requires an associate or bachelor's degree from the Air Traffic Collegiate Training Initiative. The FAA also requires extensive training, along with medical examinations and background checks. Some controllers are required to work weekend, night, and holiday shifts. There are generally four different types of ATC: ATC
3002-757: The Western standard. From February 2017, Russia is changing to use QNH and Feet below the Transition Level. The first airport to use this is ULLI/St. Petersburg. Most other airports still use QFE. Unlike Russia, North Korea uses metres below the TL based on QNH. Aviation Aviation includes the activities surrounding mechanical flight and the aircraft industry. Aircraft includes fixed-wing and rotary-wing types, morphable wings, wing-less lifting bodies, as well as lighter-than-air aircraft such as hot air balloons and airships . Aviation began in
3081-418: The aircraft's actual altitude above sea level. Below the Transition level (which varies worldwide), the altimeter is set to the local altimeter setting, which can be directly compared to the known elevation of the terrain. The pressure setting to achieve this varies with local atmospheric pressure. It is called QNH ("barometric pressure adjusted to sea level"), or " altimeter setting ", the current local value
3160-483: The appropriate transition altitude, whichever is the higher , and when below FL195 (19,500 ft above the 1013.2 hPa datum in the UK, or with the altimeter set according to the system published by the competent authority in relation to the area over which the aircraft is flying if such aircraft is not flying over the UK.) The rule was non-binding upon flights operating under visual flight rules (VFR). Minimum vertical separation between two flights abiding by
3239-482: The appropriate transition altitude, whichever is the higher , and when below FL195 (19,500 ft above the 1013.2 hPa datum in the UK, or with the altimeter set according to the system published by the competent authority in relation to the area over which the aircraft is flying if such aircraft is not flying over the UK.) The rule was non-binding upon flights operating under visual flight rules (VFR). Minimum vertical separation between two flights abiding by
Flight level - Misplaced Pages Continue
3318-418: The cockpits of airliners and, increasingly, of smaller aircraft as well. Pilots can navigate much more accurately and view terrain, obstructions, and other nearby aircraft on a map or through synthetic vision , even at night or in low visibility. On June 21, 2004, SpaceShipOne became the first privately funded aircraft to make a spaceflight , opening the possibility of an aviation market capable of leaving
3397-636: The connection between "transition altitude" (TA), "transition layer" (TLYR), and "transition level" (TL) is TL = TA + TLYR The semicircular rule (also known as the hemispheric rule ) applies, in slightly different version, to IFR flights in the UK inside controlled airspace and generally in the rest of the world. The standard rule defines an East/West track split: At FL 290 and above, if Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) are not in use, 4,000 ft intervals are used to separate same-direction aircraft (instead of 2,000 ft intervals below FL 290), and only odd flight levels are assigned, independent of
3476-420: The corresponding altitude. If aircraft altimeters were not calibrated consistently, then two aircraft could be flying at the same altitude even though their altimeters appeared to show that they are at different altitudes. Flight levels require defining altitudes based on a standard altimeter setting. All aircraft operating at flight levels set 1013 hPa or 29.92 inHg. On the descent when descending through
3555-840: The direction of flight: Conversely, RVSM equipped aircraft are able to continue separation in 2,000 ft intervals as outlined in the semicircular rules. Both non-RVSM and RVSM equipped aircraft use a separation of 4,000 ft above FL 410. Countries where the major airways are oriented north/south (e.g., New Zealand; Italy; Portugal) have semicircular rules that define a North/South rather than an East/West track split. In Italy, France, Portugal and recently also in Spain (AIP ENR 1.7-3), for example, southbound traffic uses odd flight levels; in New Zealand, southbound traffic uses even flight levels. In Europe commonly used International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) separation levels are as per
3634-728: The direction of flight: Conversely, RVSM equipped aircraft are able to continue separation in 2,000 ft intervals as outlined in the semicircular rules. Both non-RVSM and RVSM equipped aircraft use a separation of 4,000 ft above FL 410. Countries where the major airways are oriented north/south (e.g., New Zealand; Italy; Portugal) have semicircular rules that define a North/South rather than an East/West track split. In Italy, France, Portugal and recently also in Spain (AIP ENR 1.7-3), for example, southbound traffic uses odd flight levels; in New Zealand, southbound traffic uses even flight levels. In Europe commonly used International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) separation levels are as per
3713-433: The first jet aircraft and the first liquid-fueled rockets . After World War II, especially in North America, there was a boom in general aviation , both private and commercial, as thousands of pilots were released from military service and many inexpensive war-surplus transport and training aircraft became available. Manufacturers such as Cessna , Piper , and Beechcraft expanded production to provide light aircraft for
3792-642: The first aircraft to transport passengers and cargo over great distances. The best known aircraft of this type were manufactured by the German Zeppelin company. The most successful Zeppelin was the Graf Zeppelin . It flew over one million miles, including an around-the-world flight in August 1929. However, the dominance of the Zeppelins over the airplanes of that period, which had a range of only
3871-409: The first passenger, Charles Furnas, one of their mechanics, on May 14, 1908. During the 1920s and 1930s great progress was made in the field of aviation, including the first transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown in 1919, Charles Lindbergh 's solo transatlantic flight in 1927, and Charles Kingsford Smith 's transpacific flight the following year. One of the most successful designs of this period
3950-571: The first untethered human lighter-than-air flight on November 21, 1783, of a hot air balloon designed by the Montgolfier brothers . The usefulness of balloons was limited because they could only travel downwind. It was immediately recognized that a steerable, or dirigible , balloon was required. Jean-Pierre Blanchard flew the first human-powered dirigible in 1784 and crossed the English Channel in one in 1785. Rigid airships became
4029-702: The following table: The quadrantal rule is defunct. It was used in the United Kingdom but was abolished in 2015 to bring the UK in line with the semi-circular rule used around the world. The quadrantal rule applied to IFR flights in the UK both in and outside of controlled airspace except that such aircraft may be flown at a level other than required by this rule if flying in conformity with instructions given by an air traffic control unit, or if complying with notified en-route holding patterns or holding procedures notified in relation to an aerodrome. The rule affected only those aircraft operating under IFR when in level flight above 3,000 ft above mean sea level, or above
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#17327982255144108-699: The following table: The quadrantal rule is defunct. It was used in the United Kingdom but was abolished in 2015 to bring the UK in line with the semi-circular rule used around the world. The quadrantal rule applied to IFR flights in the UK both in and outside of controlled airspace except that such aircraft may be flown at a level other than required by this rule if flying in conformity with instructions given by an air traffic control unit, or if complying with notified en-route holding patterns or holding procedures notified in relation to an aerodrome. The rule affected only those aircraft operating under IFR when in level flight above 3,000 ft above mean sea level, or above
4187-415: The format is Flight Level xx000 metres. Flight levels are usually designated in writing as FLxxx , where xxx is a two- or three-digit number indicating the pressure altitude in units of 100 feet (30 m). In radio communications, FL290 would be stated as "flight level two nine(r) zero". While use of a standardised pressure setting facilitates separation of aircraft from each other, it does not provide
4266-631: The government of the Russian Federation issued decree No.743, pertaining to the changes in the rules of use of the country's airspace. The new rules came into force on 17 November 2011, introducing a flight level system similar to the one used in the West. RVSM has also been in force since this date. The following table is true for IFR flights: The new system would eliminate the need to perform climbs and descents in order to enter or leave Russian airspace from or to jurisdictions following
4345-511: The government of the Russian Federation issued decree No.743, pertaining to the changes in the rules of use of the country's airspace. The new rules came into force on 17 November 2011, introducing a flight level system similar to the one used in the West. RVSM has also been in force since this date. The following table is true for IFR flights: The new system would eliminate the need to perform climbs and descents in order to enter or leave Russian airspace from or to jurisdictions following
4424-406: The introduction of composite materials to make small aircraft lighter and faster. Ultralight and homebuilt aircraft have also become increasingly popular for recreational use, since in most countries that allow private aviation, they are much less expensive and less heavily regulated than certified aircraft. Simple balloons were used as surveillance aircraft as early as the 18th century. Over
4503-531: The introduction of the jet which permitted a major form of transport throughout the world. The word aviation was coined by the French writer and former naval officer Gabriel La Landelle in 1863. He originally derived the term from the verb avier (an unsuccessful neologism for "to fly"), itself derived from the Latin word avis ("bird") and the suffix -ation . There are early legends of human flight such as
4582-497: The new middle-class market. By the 1950s, the development of civil jets grew, beginning with the de Havilland Comet , though the first widely used passenger jet was the Boeing 707 , because it was much more economical than other aircraft at that time. At the same time, turboprop propulsion started to appear for smaller commuter planes, making it possible to serve small-volume routes in a much wider range of weather conditions. Since
4661-412: The operation of aircraft, are reduced and controlled to an acceptable level. It encompasses the theory, practice, investigation, and categorization of flight failures, and the prevention of such failures through regulation, education, and training. It can also be applied in the context of campaigns that inform the public as to the safety of air travel. A maintenance, repair, and overhaul organization (MRO)
4740-551: The possibility of flying machines becoming practical. Lilienthal's work led to him developing the concept of the modern wing. His flight attempts in Berlin in 1891 are seen as the beginning of human flight and the " Lilienthal Normalsegelapparat " is considered to be the first airplane in series production, making the Maschinenfabrik Otto Lilienthal in Berlin the first air plane production company in
4819-403: The published transition level, the altimeter is set to the local surface pressure, to display the correct altitude above sea level. Flight levels are described by a number, which is the nominal altitude, or pressure altitude , in hundreds of feet, and a multiple of 500 ft. Therefore, a pressure altitude of 32,000 ft (9,800 m) is referred to as "flight level 320". In metre altitudes
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#17327982255144898-766: The same time on 17 November 2011. The flight levels below apply to Kyrgyzstan , Kazakhstan , Tajikistan and Uzbekistan and 6,000 m or below in Turkmenistan (where feet is used for FL210 and above). Flight levels are read as e.g. "flight level 7,500 metres": and every 2,000 metres thereafter. and every 2,000 metres thereafter. The flight levels below apply to Mongolia and People's Republic of China , not including Hong Kong. To distinguish flight levels in feet, flight levels are read without "flight level", e.g. "one two thousand six hundred metres" or for 12,600 m (Chinese only available in Chinese airspace). RVSM
4977-651: The same time on 17 November 2011. The flight levels below apply to Kyrgyzstan , Kazakhstan , Tajikistan and Uzbekistan and 6,000 m or below in Turkmenistan (where feet is used for FL210 and above). Flight levels are read as e.g. "flight level 7,500 metres": and every 2,000 metres thereafter. and every 2,000 metres thereafter. The flight levels below apply to Mongolia and People's Republic of China , not including Hong Kong. To distinguish flight levels in feet, flight levels are read without "flight level", e.g. "one two thousand six hundred metres" or for 12,600 m (Chinese only available in Chinese airspace). RVSM
5056-615: The stories of Icarus in Greek myth, Jamshid and Shah Kay Kāvus in Persian myth, and the flying automaton of Archytas of Tarentum (428–347 BC). Later, somewhat more credible claims of short-distance human flights appear, such as the winged flights of Abbas ibn Firnas (810–887, recorded in the 17th century), Eilmer of Malmesbury (11th century, recorded in the 12th century), and the hot-air Passarola of Bartholomeu Lourenço de Gusmão (1685–1724). The modern age of aviation began with
5135-405: The transition altitude within the Eurocontrol area. In the United Kingdom, different airports have different transition altitudes, between 3000 and 6000 feet. On 25 November 2004 the Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand raised New Zealand's transition altitude from 11,000 to 13,000 feet (3,400 to 4,000 m) and changed the transition level from FL130 to FL150. The transition level (TL)
5214-416: The transition layer is 0–500 feet (0–150 m) thick. Aircraft are not normally assigned to fly at the "'transition level'" as this would provide inadequate separation from traffic flying on QNH at the transition altitude. Instead, the lowest usable "'flight level'" is the transition level plus 500 ft. However, in some countries, such as Norway for example, the transition level is determined by adding
5293-403: The transition level from FL130 to FL150. The transition level (TL) is the lowest flight level above the transition altitude. The table below shows the transition level according to transition altitude and QNH. When descending below the transition level, the pilot starts to refer to altitude of the aircraft by setting the altimeter to the QNH for the region or airfield. The transition layer
5372-416: The transition level is determined by adding a buffer of minimum 1,000 ft (300 m) (depending on QNH) to the transition altitude. Therefore, aircraft may be flying at both transition level and transition altitude, and still be vertically separated by at least 1,000 ft (300 m). In those areas the transition layer will be 1,000–1,500 ft (300–460 m) thick, depending on QNH. In summary,
5451-603: The world support these manufacturers, who sometimes provide only the initial design and final assembly in their own plants. The Chinese ACAC consortium has also recently entered the civil transport market with its Comac ARJ21 regional jet. Until the 1970s, most major airlines were flag carriers , sponsored by their governments and heavily protected from competition. Since then, open skies agreements have resulted in increased competition and choice for consumers, coupled with falling prices for airlines. The combination of high fuel prices, low fares, high salaries, and crises such as
5530-426: The world. Lilienthal is often referred to as either the "father of aviation" or "father of flight". Early dirigible developments included machine-powered propulsion ( Henri Giffard , 1852), rigid frames ( David Schwarz , 1896) and improved speed and maneuverability ( Alberto Santos-Dumont , 1901) There are many competing claims for the earliest powered, heavier-than-air flight. The first recorded powered flight
5609-442: The years, military aircraft have been built to meet ever increasing capability requirements. Manufacturers of military aircraft compete for contracts to supply their government's arsenal. Aircraft are selected based on factors like cost, performance, and the speed of production. Aviation safety means the state of an aviation system or organization in which risks associated with aviation activities, related to, or in direct support of
5688-470: Was carried out by Clément Ader on October 9, 1890, in his bat-winged, fully self-propelled fixed-wing aircraft , the Ader Éole . It was reportedly the first manned, powered, heavier-than-air flight of a significant distance (50 m (160 ft)) but insignificant altitude from level ground. Seven years later, on October 14, 1897, Ader's Avion III was tested without success in front of two officials from
5767-415: Was highly flammable and allowed static electricity to build up in the airship. Changes to the coating formulation reduced the risk of further Hindenburg type accidents. Although there have been periodic initiatives to revive their use, airships have seen only niche application since that time. There had been previous airship accidents that were more fatal, for instance, a British R38 on 23 August 1921, but
5846-538: Was implemented in China at 16:00 UTC on 21 November 2007, and in Mongolia at 00:01 UTC on 17 November 2011. Aircraft flying in feet according to the table below will have differences between the metric readout of the onboard avionics and ATC cleared flight level; however, the differences will never be more than thirty metres. and every 1,200 metres thereafter. and every 1,200 metres thereafter. On 5 September 2011
5925-430: Was implemented in China at 16:00 UTC on 21 November 2007, and in Mongolia at 00:01 UTC on 17 November 2011. Aircraft flying in feet according to the table below will have differences between the metric readout of the onboard avionics and ATC cleared flight level; however, the differences will never be more than thirty metres. and every 1,200 metres thereafter. and every 1,200 metres thereafter. On 5 September 2011
6004-527: Was introduced into the UK in March 2001. On 20 January 2002, it entered European airspace. The United States, Canada and Mexico transitioned to RVSM between FL 290 and FL 410 on 20 January 2005, and Africa on 25 September 2008. At FL 410 and above, 4,000 ft intervals are resumed to separate same-direction aircraft and only odd Flight Levels are assigned, depending on the direction of flight: The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has recommended
6083-475: Was introduced into the UK in March 2001. On 20 January 2002, it entered European airspace. The United States, Canada and Mexico transitioned to RVSM between FL 290 and FL 410 on 20 January 2005, and Africa on 25 September 2008. At FL 410 and above, 4,000 ft intervals are resumed to separate same-direction aircraft and only odd Flight Levels are assigned, depending on the direction of flight: The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has recommended
6162-551: Was the Douglas DC-3 , which became the first airliner to be profitable carrying passengers exclusively, starting the modern era of passenger airline service. By the beginning of World War II, many towns and cities had built airports, and there were numerous qualified pilots available. During World War II one of the first jet engines was developed by Hans con Ohain, and accomplished the world's first jet-powered flight in 1939. The war brought many innovations to aviation, including
6241-821: Was the Tenerife airport disaster on March 27, 1977, when 583 people died when two Boeing 747 jumbo jets, operated by Pan Am and KLM collided on a runway in Los Rodeos airport, now known as Tenerife North. An aviation incident is defined as an occurrence, other than an accident, associated with the operation of an aircraft that affects or could affect the safety of operations. Air traffic control (ATC) involves communication with aircraft to help maintain separation – that is, they ensure that aircraft are sufficiently far enough apart horizontally or vertically for no risk of collision. Controllers may co-ordinate position reports provided by pilots, or in high traffic areas (such as
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