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69-526: The Refuge is an important resting area for waterfowl migrating through Kansas . Thousands of mallards , blue-winged teal , Canada geese , and snow geese can be seen on the Refuge during their spring and fall migrations. The Refuge also provides valuable habitat for shorebirds , bald eagles , wild turkey , bobwhite quail , bobcats , white-tailed deer , and many species of warblers . The Refuge has been designated as an Important Bird Area and serves as

138-578: A certain amount of time and resources, but it can also be detrimental to the female if too much maternal investment is expected. Natural and/or sexual selection on traits that influence the fitness of either male or female give rise to fundamental phenotypic and behavioral differences between them referred to as sexual dimorphism . Selective pressures on such traits give rise to differences in expression of these genes either at transcriptional or translational level. In certain cases these differences are as dramatic as genes not being expressed at all in either of

207-597: A consequence of sexual conflict between males and females, resulting in coevolutionary process that reduce fit, or that functions to decrease ease of having sex. The Anseriformes and the Galliformes ( pheasants , etc.) belong to a common group, the Galloanserae . They are the most primitive neognathous birds, and as such they should follow the palaeognathae ( ratites and tinamous ) in bird classification systems. Several unusual extinct families of birds like

276-409: A considerable number of mainly Late Cretaceous and Paleogene fossils have been described where it is uncertain whether or not they are anseriforms. This is because almost all orders of aquatic birds living today either originated or underwent a major radiation during that time, making it hard to decide whether some waterbird-like bone belongs into this family or is the product of parallel evolution in

345-412: A counter-adaptation, that is, a favorable trait that reduces the direct costs implemented by males. This is known as female resistance. After this event, females' fitness depression decreases, and the cycle starts again. Interlocus sexual conflict reflects interactions among mates to achieve their optimal fitness strategies and can be explained through evolutionary concepts. Sensory exploitation by males

414-1191: A different lineage due to adaptive pressures. Living Anseriformes based on the work by John Boyd. Anhima [REDACTED] Chauna [REDACTED] Anseranas [REDACTED] Dendrocygna [REDACTED] Thalassornis [REDACTED] Plectropterus [REDACTED] Stictonetta Nettapus [REDACTED] Biziura [REDACTED] Heteronetta [REDACTED] Nomonyx Oxyura [REDACTED] Malacorhynchus [REDACTED] Coscoroba Cereopsis [REDACTED] Sthenelides [REDACTED] Cygnus [REDACTED] Branta [REDACTED] Anser [REDACTED] Merganetta [REDACTED] Chloephaga [REDACTED] Oressochen Neochen [REDACTED] Radjah [REDACTED] Tadorna [REDACTED] Alopochen [REDACTED] Histrionicus † Camptorhynchus [REDACTED] Clangula [REDACTED] Polysticta [REDACTED] Somateria [REDACTED] Melanitta [REDACTED] Bucephala [REDACTED] Mergellus [REDACTED] Sexual conflict Sexual conflict or sexual antagonism occurs when

483-419: A female's opportunity to choose with which sperm to fertilize her eggs. It has been suggested that males may have developed this aggressive mate tactic as a result of the female sperm storage organ. Toxic semen is most associated with Drosophila melanogaster fruit flies. Drosophila fruit flies exhibit toxic semen along with intra-genitalic traumatic insemination. The male places his intromittent organ within

552-515: A high female fecundity as it means that females can produce more offspring and have a higher potential for reproduction. It is important to note that females also benefit from high fecundity, and thus this trait is probably more affected by classical natural selection. Maternal investment: In many species, males benefit from high maternal investment as it allows them to preserve more energy and time for additional matings rather than investing their resources on one offspring. Females are expected to invest

621-567: A location in Lyon County, Kansas is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article related to a protected area in Kansas is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Waterfowl Anseriformes is an order of birds also known as waterfowl that comprises about 180 living species of birds in three families: Anhimidae (three species of screamers), Anseranatidae (the magpie goose), and Anatidae ,

690-413: A needle-like intromittent organ . Examples include bed bugs, bat bugs and spiders. In bed bugs Cimex lectularius , for example, males initiate mating by climbing onto the female and piercing her abdomen. The male will then directly inject his sperm along with the accessory gland fluids into the female's blood. As a result, the female will have a distinct melanized scar in the region the male pierced. It

759-448: A result, the conflict lies in adapting to be more adept at striking and parrying and avoiding being stabbed. Also the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris show behavior where both parts try to make sure as much sperm as possible is absorbed by their partner. To do this they use 40 to 44 copulatory setae to pierce into the partner's skin, causing substantial damage. There are cases where hermaphrodites can fertilize their own eggs, but this

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828-605: A side effect of the other functions of Acps (e.g. male-male competition or increased egg production). Drosophila males may benefit from transferring toxic semen but it is not likely that their main reproductive benefit is directly from reducing female lifespan. After Acps are transferred to the female, they cause various changes in her behavior and physiology. Studies have revealed that females who received Acps from males suffered decreased lifespan and fitness. Currently it has been estimated that there are more than 100 different Acps in D. melanogaster . Acp genes have been found in

897-457: A third phenomenon also explains the differences in gene expressions between two sexes – sexual antagonism. Sexual antagonism represents an evolutionary conflict at a single or multiple locus that contribute differentially to the male and female fitness. The conflict occurs as the spread of an allele at one locus in either male or female that lowers the fitness of the other sex. This gives rise to different selection pressure on males and females. Since

966-529: A variety of species and genera. Acps have been described as displaying a conservation function because they reserve protein biochemical classes within the seminal fluid. Drosophila hibisci use mating plugs rather than traumatic insemination. The mating plugs of Drosophila hibisci are gelatinous, hard composites that adhere to the uterus of the female in the event of copulation. A study tested two hypotheses concerning mating plugs: a) that they were nutritional gifts for females to digest to provide maintenance of

1035-547: A wide range of detrimental effects from males. This may include: a) longevity reduction, b) distortion in feeding behaviors (which could increase food intake as seen in Drosophila fruit flies) c) increased risk of infection, d) wound repair through energy consumption, e) male manipulation of female reproductive schedules, f) susceptibility to predators, and g) reduced female immune response. Hermaphrodites are organisms that have both male and female reproductive organs. It

1104-501: A wide range of species in order to provide explanations for the interactions between sexes. The conflict between the interactions of male and females can be described as an ongoing evolutionary arms race. According to Darwin (1859), sexual selection occurs when some individuals are favored over others of the same sex in the context of reproduction. Sexual selection and sexual conflict are related because males usually mate with multiple females while females typically mate with fewer males. It

1173-543: A wintering area for bald eagles and dozens of red-tailed hawks , northern harriers , and rough-legged hawks . [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service . This article about a location in Coffey County, Kansas is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about

1242-519: Is a by-product of male adaptation in the context of sperm competition. The advantages to males may include: a) a decrease in the likelihood of females remating, b) the ability to produce more offspring, c) sperm maintenance, and d) sperm storage. These advantages are seen throughout all variations of mate traits such as toxic sperm, spiky genitalia, forced copulation, sexual cannibalism, penis fencing, love darts, mate guarding, harassment/aggressive behavior, and traumatic insemination. Females can experience

1311-470: Is an evolutionary concept developed by Geoff Parker (1970) and describes a mechanism by which different males will compete to fertilize a female's egg. Sperm competition selects for both offensive and defensive traits. Offensive sperm competition consists of males displacing sperm from the previous male as well as the use of toxic sperm to destroy rival sperm. Conversely, defensive sperm competition consists of males preventing females from remating by prolonging

1380-559: Is costly to both sides, and counter-adaptations have evolved in the affected sex ranging from cooperative defense of their young to loss minimization strategies such as aborting existing offspring upon the arrival of a new male (the Bruce effect ). Traumatic insemination describes the male's tactics of piercing a female and depositing sperm in order to ensure paternity success. Traumatic insemination in this sense incorporates species which display extra-genitalic traumatic insemination. Males have

1449-401: Is described as having spines that are used to pierce the reproductive tract of the female. Males which had multiple copulations with the same female caused greater damage to her genitals. However, those same males transferred a small quantity of ejaculate compared to the virgin males. It was also observed that males that participated in copulation with females sometimes deposit no sperm through

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1518-480: Is hypothesized that both chase away selection and sexual conflict may be the result of males use of sensory exploitation. Males are able to exploit females' sensory biases due to the existence of female choice . For example, females may behave in ways that are considerably biased towards mating and fertilization success due to the attractiveness of males who exhibit a deceptive or exaggerated secondary sex characteristic . Since some male traits are detrimental to females,

1587-417: Is offset by a countering trait in the other sex. Similarly, interlocus sexual conflict can be the result of what is called a perpetual cycle. The perpetual cycle begins with the traits that favor male reproductive competition, which eventually manifests into male persistence. These favorable traits will cause a reduction in the fitness of females due to their persistence. Following this event, females may develop

1656-440: Is one mechanism that involves males attempting to overcome female reluctance. It can result in chase-away selection, which then leads to a co-evolutionary arms race. There are also other mechanisms involved in sexual conflict such as traumatic insemination , forced copulation , penis fencing , love darts and others. Female resistance traditionally includes reducing negative effects to mechanisms implemented by males, but outside

1725-441: Is possible for there to be sexual conflict within a species that is entirely hermaphroditic. An example of such is seen in some hermaphroditic flatworms such as Pseudobiceros bedfordi . Their mating ritual involves penis fencing in which both try to stab to inseminate the other and at the same time avoid being stabbed. Being inseminated represents a cost because striking and hypodermic insemination can cause considerable injury; as

1794-445: Is usually rare. Most hermaphrodites take on the role of a male or female to reproduce. Sexual conflict over mating can cause hermaphrodites to either cooperate or display aggressive behavior in the context of gender choice. Infanticide is a behavior that occurs in many species in which an adult kills the younger individuals, including eggs. Sexual conflict is one of the most common causes, although there are exceptions as demonstrated by

1863-548: The Mesozoic alongside the other dinosaurs, and in fact were among the very few birds to survive their extinction, along with their cousins the galliformes . These two groups only occupied two ecological niches during the Mesozoic, living in water and on the ground, while the toothed enantiornithes were the dominant birds that ruled the trees and air. The asteroid that ended the Mesozoic destroyed all trees as well as animals in

1932-469: The Neotropical spider, Paratrechalea ornata , displays nuptial gift -giving behaviors during courtship as a part of their male mating efforts. These nuptials gifts allow the male to control copulation duration and to increase the speed of female oviposition. Degree of female fidelity: Because female fidelity depends on the species' particular mating system, therefore they are in the middle section of

2001-404: The albatross-like pseudotooth birds and the giant flightless gastornithids and mihirungs have been found to be stem-anseriforms based on common features found in the skull region, beak physiology and pelvic region. The genus Vegavis for a while was found to be the earliest member of the anseriform crown group but a recent 2017 paper has found it to be just outside the crown group in

2070-400: The allele is beneficial for one sex and detrimental to the other, counter adaptations in the form of suppressor alleles at different genetic loci can develop that reduce the effects of deleterious allele, giving rise to differences in gene expression. Selection on such traits in males would select for suppressor alleles in females thus increasing the chances of retaining the deleterious allele in

2139-500: The alleles only in homozygous state. In case of partial or completely dominant sex linked traits which are detrimental to male, the probability of selecting for the allele would be 2/3 as compared to selecting against probability of 1/3. Considering the above scenario it is likely that X and W chromosomes would harbor many sexually antagonistic alleles. However, recently Innocenti et al. identified sexually antagonistic candidate genes in Drosophila melanogaster that contributed about 8% of

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2208-449: The analysis of the various factors that affect sexual conflict. In situations involving a male and female, only the relative positions of the optimal trait values are important as it is their comparative positions that provide insight into the resulting conflict. The trait value bar at the bottom of the accompanying figure indicates the relative intensity of each trait. The left side represents the poorly developed end of intensity range, while

2277-405: The assumption can be made that male Drosophila melanogaster develop other male adaptations to compensate for mating plug insufficiency, including intra-genitalic traumatic insemination to directly deposit their sperm. Bruchid beetle or bean weevil Callosobruchus maculatus males are known to express extra-genitalic traumatic insemination on females. The male Bruchid beetle's intromittent organ

2346-425: The clutch is lost. This results in vicious battles where injury and even death can occur. Jacana jacana , a tropical wading bird , provides an example of infanticide by the female sex. Females guard a territory while males care for their young. As males are a limited resource, other females will commonly displace or kill their young. Males can then mate again and care for the young of the new female. This behavior

2415-499: The common ancestors of ducks, geese, swans, and screamers , the last group once thought to be galliformes, but now genetically confirmed to be closely related to geese. The first known duck fossils start to appear about 34 million years ago. Waterfowl are the best-known examples of sexually antagonistic genital coevolution in vertebrates, causing genital adaptations to coevolve in each sex to advance control over mating and fertilization. Sexually antagonistic coevolution (or SAC) occurs as

2484-533: The dabbling ducks or shelducks, is not fully resolved. See the Anatidae article for more information, and for alternate taxonomic approaches. Anatidae is traditionally divided into subfamilies Anatinae and Anserinae. The Anatinae consists of tribes Anatini , Aythyini , Mergini and Tadornini . The higher-order classification below follows a phylogenetic analysis performed by Mikko's Phylogeny Archive and John Boyd's website. Unassigned Anatidae: In addition,

2553-575: The distinct females. Female polymorphism could in fact be a result of evolution due to sexual conflict. Male spiders Harpactea sadistica perform extra-genitalic traumatic insemination with their needle-like intromittent organs that puncture the female's wall, resulting in direct insemination. Males also puncture females with their cheliceral fangs during courtship. Females have atrophied spermathecae (sperm-storage organs). The sperm storage organ removes sperm from males who mate later, which reflects cryptic female choice . Cryptic female choice refers to

2622-488: The duration of their own mating or by restricting the females' interest in other males. Sperm competition can be exhibited throughout behavioral, morphological and physiological male adaptations. Some examples of behavioral adaptations are mate guarding or forced copulation. Morphological adaptations may include male claspers, altered genitalia (e.g. spiky genitals) and copulatory plugs (i.e. mating plugs ). Physiological adaptations may consist of toxic sperm or other chemicals in

2691-533: The eggs during maturation, or b) that they could serve as a chastity device to prevent sperm of rivals. The study found that mating plugs had no effect on female nutrition and serve as an enforcement device against rival males. Although this species of fruit flies ( Drosophila hibisci ) found success in mating plugs, they are ineffective for other Drosophila species. A study found that males who insert their mating plugs within females were unable to prevent females from remating just four hours after mating. Therefore,

2760-489: The evolutionary distinction between male and female. The development of an evolutionary arms race can also be seen in the chase-away sexual selection model , which places inter-sexual conflicts in the context of secondary sexual characteristic evolution, sensory exploitation, and female resistance. According to chase-away selection, continuous sexual conflict creates an environment in which mating frequency and male secondary sexual trait development are somewhat in step with

2829-473: The examples of sexual conflict in the water strider and pygmy fish. Male water striders exhibit forced copulation on the female. As a result, the female will struggle with the male to reduce the detrimental effects. Female struggle is a by-product of female resistance. The population of pygmy fish Xiphophorus pygmaeus or pygmy sword-tail fish initially consisted of small males. A study tested female choice using large hetero-specific males. They found that

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2898-457: The family Vegaviidae . Below is the general consensus of the phylogeny of anseriforms and their stem relatives. † Pelagornithidae (pseudo-tooth birds) [REDACTED] † Gastornithidae [REDACTED] † Dromornithidae (mihirungs) [REDACTED] † Vegaviidae Anseriformes (screamers and waterfowl) [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Anatidae systematics, especially regarding placement of some "odd" genera in

2967-423: The female becomes insensitive to these traits. Sexually antagonistic co-evolution entails the cyclic process between the exaggerated (persistent) traits and the resistant traits by the sexes. If male traits that decrease female fitness spread, then female preference will change. Female resistance is an evolutionary concept where females develop traits to counter the males' influence. This concept can be supported by

3036-415: The female genitalia, following the piercing of her inner wall, to inject toxic semen. Frequent mating in D. melanogaster is associated with a reduction in female lifespan. This cost of mating in D. melanogaster females is not due to receipt of sperm but is instead mediated by accessory gland proteins (Acps) . Acps are found in male seminal fluid. The toxic effects of Acps on females may have evolved as

3105-414: The female pigmy swordtail fish favored larger sized males, indicating that females changed their preference from small males to large males. This pattern of female preference for larger male body size disappeared in populations consisting of smaller males. The study concluded that this behavior is caused by female resistance and not due to a general preference for larger body size males. Sperm competition

3174-400: The female's degree of resistance. It has primarily been studied in animals , though it can in principle apply to any sexually reproducing organism, such as plants and fungi . There is some evidence for sexual conflict in plants. Sexual conflict takes two major forms: Sexual conflict may lead to antagonistic co-evolution , in which one sex (usually male) evolves a favorable trait that

3243-483: The first copulation were lacking nutrition as they do not drink or eat. The ejaculate that was provided after the second copulation was nutritionally beneficial and lengthened female longevity, allowing them to produce more offspring. Females which mated with virgin males were less likely to suffer genital damage compared to those which mated with sexually experienced males. It was suggested that factors contributing to male virgins being less harmful were ejaculate size and

3312-539: The gay subjects. An evolutionary model explained this finding in terms of increased fertility of the females in maternal lines, hence adding to net fitness gain. Combined data from coding sequence studies in C. elegans , Drosophila , Humans and Chimps show a similar pattern of molecular evolution in sex-biased genes, i.e. most of the male- and female-biased genes when compared to genes equally expressed in both had higher Ka/Ks ratio . Male-biased genes show greater divergence than female-biased genes. The Ka/Ks ratio

3381-654: The hypothesis, as males were able to displace the mating plugs of other males. There is no direct conflict between males and females, but males may evolve manipulative traits to counter the removal of their mating plugs. Males also develop different behaviors for paternity assurance. A study of sperm competition revealed that there was a positive relationship between testis size and levels of sperm competition within groups. Higher levels of sperm competition were correlated to larger accessory reproductive glands, seminal vesicles, and interior prostates. Larger mating plugs were less likely to be removed. Males inflicting harm on females

3450-509: The largest family, which includes over 170 species of waterfowl, among them the ducks , geese , and swans . Most modern species in the order are highly adapted for an aquatic existence at the water surface. With the exception of screamers, males have penises , a trait that has been lost in the Neoaves . Due to their aquatic nature, most species are web-footed. Anseriformes are one of only two types of modern bird to be confirmed present during

3519-529: The male bass eating their own juvenile descendants. Although males usually exhibit such behavior, females can also behave in the same way. Infanticide has been extensively studied in vertebrates such as hanuman langurs , big cats, house sparrows and mice . However, this behavior also occurs in the invertebrates . For example, in the spider Stegodyphus lineatus , males invade female nests and toss out their egg sacs. Females only have one clutch in their lifetime, and experience reduced reproductive success if

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3588-412: The norm may include sexual cannibalism , increased fitness in females on offspring and increased aggression to males. Some regard sexual conflict as a subset of sexual selection (which was traditionally regarded as mutualistic ), while others suggest it is a separate evolutionary phenomenon. The differences between male and female general evolutionary interests can be better understood through

3657-422: The open wound. The same environmental microbes that were found on the male's genital were also found within the female. A study found a total of nine microbes, with five microbes actually causing mortality of females during copulation. African bat bugs Afrocimex constrictus also perform extra-genitalic traumatic insemination. Males will puncture the female outside her genitals and ultimately inseminate them. It

3726-549: The open, a condition that took centuries to recover from. The anseriformes and galliformes are thought to have survived in the cover of burrows and water, and not to have needed trees for food and reproduction. The earliest known stem anseriform is the presbyornithid Teviornis from the Nemegt Formation of Mongolia . Some members apparently surviving the KT extinction event , including presbyornithids , thought to be

3795-454: The population in interlocus sexual conflict . The retention of such antagonistic alleles in a population could also be explained in terms of increase in the net fitness of the maternal line, for example, the locus for male sexual orientation in humans was identified on subtelomeric regions of X chromosomes after studies conducted on 114 families of homosexual men. Same sex orientation was found to be higher in maternal uncles and male cousins of

3864-409: The right side represents the strongly developed end of the range. Males and females differ in the following general components of fitness, thus leading to sexual conflict. Refer to the accompanying figure in this section. Mating rate: Males generally increase their fitness by mating with multiple mates, while females are on the middle section of the range because they do not favor a particular side of

3933-425: The role of positive selection and showed that male-biased genes undergo frequent adaptive evolution. Although positive evolution is associated with most of the male and female-biased genes, it's difficult to isolate genes which shown bias solely due to sexual conflict/antagonism. Nevertheless, since sexually antagonistic genes give rise to biased expression and most biased genes are under positive selection we can argue

4002-932: The same in favor of sexually antagonistic genes. A similar trend as seen in coding sequence evolution was seen with gene expression levels. Interspecific expression divergence was higher than intraspecific expression polymorphism. Positive selection in Accessory gland proteins (Acps) (produced by males) and Female Reproductive Tract Proteins (Frtps) has also been reported previously. Although X chromosomes have been considered as hot spots for accumulating sexually antagonistic alleles, other autosomal locations have also been reported to harbor sexually antagonistic alleles. The XY, XX and ZW, ZZ system of sex determination allows accelerated fixation of alleles that are sex-linked recessive, male-beneficial and female-detrimental due to constant exposure to positive selection acting on heterogametic sex (XY, ZW) as compared to purifying selection removing

4071-427: The seminal fluid that delays a female's ability to remate. Sexual conflict is exhibited when males target other males through sperm competition. For example, Iberian rock lizard ( Lacerta monticola ) males create hard mating plugs. These mating plugs are placed within the female cloaca instantly after copulation, which was hypothesized to function as a " chastity belt ." However, the study found no evidence to support

4140-616: The sexes. These differences in gene expression are the result of either natural selection on reproductive potential and survival traits of either sex or sexual selection on traits relevant to intra-sexual competition and inter-sexual mate choice. Sex-biased genes could either be male- or female-biased and sequence analysis of these protein coding genes have revealed their faster rate of evolution which has been attributed to their positive selection vs. reduced selective constraint. Apart from sex specific natural selection and sexual selection that includes both intersexual and intrasexual selection,

4209-521: The spectrum. For instance, females tend to be the choosier sex, but the presence of female sexual promiscuity in Soay sheep show that females might not have an established mating preference. However, Soay sheep are a breed of domestic sheep, ergo might not be a subject to traditional evolutionary mechanisms due to human interference. Female stimulation threshold: Generally, females benefit from being more selective than males would like them to be. For example,

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4278-474: The spectrum. However, males seeking mates have different preferences depending on whether they are unpaired or paired. Paired males benefit from high female fidelity, while unpaired males benefit from low female fidelity in order to increase their mating frequencies. Toxicity of seminal fluid: Females benefit from low seminal fluid toxicity, while males benefit from a high toxicity level as it increases their competitive edge. Female fecundity: Males benefit from

4347-406: The total genes. These were distributed on X, second and third chromosomes. Accessory gland proteins which are male-biased and shows positive selection reside entirely on autosomes. They are partially sexually antagonistic as they are not expressed in females and dominant in nature and hence under represented on X. Interlocus sexual conflict involves numerous evolutionary concepts that are applied to

4416-411: The two sexes have conflicting optimal fitness strategies concerning reproduction , particularly over the mode and frequency of mating, potentially leading to an evolutionary arms race between males and females . In one example, males may benefit from multiple matings, while multiple matings may harm or endanger females due to the anatomical differences of that species. Sexual conflict underlies

4485-413: The wounds they created on the females. Females which mated with more than one male suffered higher mortality. Females had a decrease in longevity as a result of receiving a large single ejaculate from males. However, females which received a total of two ejaculates were less likely to die compared to those that received just one ejaculate. The assumption could be made that females that mated 48 hours after

4554-504: Was higher for male-biased genes which are expressed exclusively in reproductive tissues e.g. testis in primate lineages. In C. elegans , which is an androdioecious species (a population consisting of only hermaphrodites and males), the rate of evolution for genes expressed during spermatogenesis was higher in males than in hermaphrodites. In Drosophila , interspecies divergence was found to be higher than intraspecific polymorphism at non synonymous sites of male-biased genes which elucidated

4623-467: Was observed that H. sonorensis females died in a period of 24 to 48 hours after mating with H. cochimiensis males. When examining the females, it was evident that their abdomens were blackened and swollen due to an enormous number of immunoreactions. There is a direct relationship between the increase of mating and the decrease in female's lifespan. Female bed bug mortality rate due to traumatic insemination could be related more to STDs rather than just

4692-469: Was observed that both males and females suffer from traumatic insemination. Males suffer from traumatic insemination because they expressed female like genitals, and were often at times mistaken for females. Females also displayed polymorphism because some females had distinct "female-like" genitals while others had a "male-like" appearance. The results showed that males along with females who had "male-like" genitals suffer less traumatic insemination compared to

4761-414: Was observed that males not only pierce females but also other males and nymphs. The females may suffer detrimental effects which can include blood leaking, wounds, the risk of infection, and the immune system having difficulty fighting off sperm in the blood. A study focused on the mating effects of bed bugs of other species such as female Hesperocimex sonorensis and a male Hesperocimex cochimiensis . It

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