A parson-naturalist was a cleric (a " parson ", strictly defined as a country priest who held the living of a parish, but the term is generally extended to other clergy), who often saw the study of natural science as an extension of his religious work. The philosophy entailed the belief that God, as the creator of all things, wanted man to understand his creations and thus to study them by collecting and classifying organisms and other natural phenomena.
41-408: The Reverend John Lightfoot (9 December 1735 – 20 February 1788) was an English parson-naturalist , spending much of his free time as a conchologist and botanist . He was a systematic and effective curator of the private museum of Margaret Bentinck, Duchess of Portland . He is best known for his Flora Scotica which pioneered the scientific study of the plants and fungi of Scotland. He was elected
82-522: A Fellow of the Royal Society for his scientific work. He was an excellent scholar in many branches of literature; but after the study of his profession, he addicted himself chiefly to that of botany and conchyliologie [sic]. He excelled in both. Lightfoot was born in Newent , Gloucestershire. His father Stephen Lightfoot was a yeoman farmer. He was educated at Pembroke College, Oxford . He gained
123-617: A stole embroidered with butterflies for the service he holds in a Northamptonshire woodland "to bless the forest rides". Woolmer wrote the book The Grand Surprise: Butterflies and the Kingdom of Heaven . Fern The ferns ( Polypodiopsida or Polypodiophyta ) are a group of vascular plants (plants with xylem and phloem ) that reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers . They differ from mosses by being vascular, i.e., having specialized tissues that conduct water and nutrients, and in having life cycles in which
164-410: A BA in 1756 and an MA in 1766. He was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1785. Lightfoot was Rector of Gotham, and the chaplain and librarian for Margaret Bentinck, Duchess of Portland . He was also curate of Colnbrook , Buckinghamshire and then of Uxbridge , Middlesex, a position he held for the rest of his life. With plenty of free time from his light duties as a clergyman, he curated
205-734: A class Equisetopsida ( Embryophyta ) encompassing all land plants. This is referred to as Equisetopsida sensu lato to distinguish it from the narrower use to refer to horsetails alone, Equisetopsida sensu stricto . They placed the lycopods into subclass Lycopodiidae and the ferns, keeping the term monilophytes, into five subclasses, Equisetidae, Ophioglossidae, Psilotidae, Marattiidae and Polypodiidae, by dividing Smith's Psilotopsida into its two orders and elevating them to subclass (Ophioglossidae and Psilotidae). Christenhusz et al. (2011) followed this use of subclasses but recombined Smith's Psilotopsida as Ophioglossidae, giving four subclasses of ferns again. Christenhusz and Chase (2014) developed
246-634: A few species (e.g., Cyathea brownii on Norfolk Island and Cyathea medullaris in New Zealand ). Roots are underground non-photosynthetic structures that take up water and nutrients from soil . They are always fibrous and are structurally very similar to the roots of seed plants. As in all vascular plants , the sporophyte is the dominant phase or generation in the life cycle . The gametophytes of ferns, however, are very different from those of seed plants. They are free-living and resemble liverworts , whereas those of seed plants develop within
287-487: A new classification of ferns and lycopods. They used the term Polypodiophyta for the ferns, subdivided like Smith et al. into four groups (shown with equivalents in the Smith system), with 21 families, approximately 212 genera and 10,535 species; This was a considerable reduction in the number of families from the 37 in the system of Smith et al., since the approach was more that of lumping rather than splitting. For instance
328-462: A protective coating called an indusium . The arrangement of the sporangia is important in classification. In monomorphic ferns, the fertile and sterile leaves look morphologically the same, and both are able to photosynthesize. In hemidimorphic ferns, just a portion of the fertile leaf is different from the sterile leaves. In dimorphic (holomorphic) ferns, the two types of leaves are morphologically distinct . The fertile leaves are much narrower than
369-430: A short-lived structure anchored to the ground by rhizoids called gametophyte which produce gametes. When a mature fertile frond bears sori, and spores are released, the spores will settle on the soil and send out rhizoids , while it develops into a prothallus . The prothallus bears spherical antheridia ( s.g. antheridium ) which produce antherozoids (male gametophytes) and archegonia ( s.g. archegonium ) which release
410-812: A significant input to the nitrogen nutrition of rice paddies . They also play certain roles in folklore. Extant ferns are herbaceous perennials and most lack woody growth. When woody growth is present, it is found in the stem. Their foliage may be deciduous or evergreen , and some are semi-evergreen depending on the climate. Like the sporophytes of seed plants, those of ferns consist of stems, leaves and roots. Ferns differ from spermatophytes in that they reproduce by spores rather than having flowers and producing seeds. However, they also differ from spore-producing bryophytes in that, like seed plants, they are polysporangiophytes , their sporophytes branching and producing many sporangia. Also unlike bryophytes, fern sporophytes are free-living and only briefly dependent on
451-568: A single oosphere . The antherozoid swims up the archegonium and fertilize the oosphere, resulting in a zygote, which will grow into a separate sporophyte, while the gametophyte shortly persists as a free-living plant. Carl Linnaeus (1753) originally recognized 15 genera of ferns and fern allies, classifying them in class Cryptogamia in two groups, Filices (e.g. Polypodium ) and Musci (mosses). By 1806 this had increased to 38 genera, and has progressively increased since ( see Schuettpelz et al (2018) ). Ferns were traditionally classified in
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#1732788077754492-500: Is polyphyletic , the term fern allies should be abandoned, except in a historical context. More recent genetic studies demonstrated that the Lycopodiophyta are more distantly related to other vascular plants , having radiated evolutionarily at the base of the vascular plant clade , while both the whisk ferns and horsetails are as closely related to leptosporangiate ferns as the ophioglossoid ferns and Marattiaceae . In fact,
533-512: Is covered, but included among his algae. Scottish Fungi note that "While his classification might be a bit wonky by today's understanding, most of the species he recorded can be traced to modern taxa", and that he provided the first British records for the chanterelle and the summer truffle . The book has an "English and Scotch Index of the Names of Plants" which however is entirely in English,
574-578: Is intermediate between the eusporangiate ferns and the leptosporangiate ferns. Rai and Graham (2010) broadly supported the primary groups, but queried their relationships, concluding that "at present perhaps the best that can be said about all relationships among the major lineages of monilophytes in current studies is that we do not understand them very well". Grewe et al. (2013) confirmed the inclusion of horsetails within ferns sensu lato , but also suggested that uncertainties remained in their precise placement. Other classifications have raised Ophioglossales to
615-656: Is named after John Lightfoot. The following were named after Robert M. Lightfoot of the South African Museum (Cape Town): Parson-naturalist The natural theologians John Ray (1627–1705) and William Paley (1743–1805) argued that the elaborate complexity of the world of nature was evidence for the existence of a creator. Accordingly, a parson-naturalist frequently made use of his insights into philosophy and theology when interpreting what he observed in natural history . The tradition of clerical naturalists may be traced back to some monastic writings of
656-646: The Cretaceous , contemporaneous with the rise of flowering plants that came to dominate the world's flora. Ferns are not of major economic importance, but some are used for food, medicine, as biofertilizer , as ornamental plants, and for remediating contaminated soil. They have been the subject of research for their ability to remove some chemical pollutants from the atmosphere. Some fern species, such as bracken ( Pteridium aquilinum ) and water fern ( Azolla filiculoides ), are significant weeds worldwide. Some fern genera, such as Azolla , can fix nitrogen and make
697-466: The Middle Ages , although some argue that their writings about animals and plants cannot be correctly classified as natural history . Notable early parson-naturalists were William Turner (1508–1568), John Ray (1627–1705), William Derham (1657–1735), and Gilbert White (1720–1793). The 19th century witnessed the wide proliferation of the tradition, which continued into the 20th century. Among
738-479: The class Filices, and later in a Division of the Plant Kingdom named Pteridophyta or Filicophyta. Pteridophyta is no longer recognised as a valid taxon because it is paraphyletic . The ferns are also referred to as Polypodiophyta or, when treated as a subdivision of Tracheophyta (vascular plants), Polypodiopsida, although this name sometimes only refers to leptosporangiate ferns. Traditionally, all of
779-426: The liverworts , recognising only the genera Marchantia , Jungermannia , Targionia , Riccia and Ryssus , but including also " Lichen " as "Algae Terrestres", terrestrial algae. Only nine genera of fungi are recognised in the book: Agaricus , Boletus , Hydnum , Phallus , Helvella , Peziza , Clavaria , Lycoperdon , and Mucor (listed on page 645); a tenth fungal genus, Tremella
820-539: The "Erse Index" of Gaelic names following the list of English ones. There is also a Latin index to the genera (but not to individual species). The plant genus Lightfootia , in the Campanulaceae (bellflower family), was named after him by the French botanist Charles Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle . The World Register of Marine Species lists the following species named after individuals named Lightfoot but none
861-456: The 19th century parson-naturalists were for instance George Thomas Rudd (1795-1847), John Stevens Henslow (1796–1861), Leonard Jenyns (1800–1893), William Darwin Fox (1805–1880), Charles William Benson (1836–1919) and Francis Linley Blathwayt (1875–1953). Charles Darwin aspired to be a parson-naturalist until his return from his voyage aboard Beagle . Parson-naturalism declined in
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#1732788077754902-542: The Duchess's museum collection or "Cabinet of Curiosities" expertly, leading ultimately to a detailed and accurate inventory and description of her private "Portland Museum", published as an auction catalogue after her death. Among the collection that Lightfoot had curated was the ancient " Portland Vase " now named after her family. By 1770 Lightfoot had a close and useful friendship with the leading botanist in England at
943-676: The Linnaean method, of the native plants of Scotland and the Hebrides , published in London in 1777 as a bulky book of two volumes for a total of 1151 pages, is Lightfoot's greatest work. Many of the illustrations are drawn by Pennant's artist, Moses Griffith , and engraved by Peter Mazell ; some are both drawn and engraved by Mazell. As well as flowering plants, the "Cryptogamia", including ferns ("filices"), mosses ("musci"), algae and fungi, are covered, starting on page 643. Lightfoot covers
984-485: The branched sporophyte is the dominant phase. Ferns have complex leaves called megaphylls that are more complex than the microphylls of clubmosses . Most ferns are leptosporangiate ferns . They produce coiled fiddleheads that uncoil and expand into fronds . The group includes about 10,560 known extant species. Ferns are defined here in the broad sense, being all of the Polypodiopsida , comprising both
1025-581: The daughter of William Burton Raynes, a wealthy miller from Uxbridge. They had two sons and three daughters. He died in Uxbridge and is buried at Cowley , Middlesex. His considerable library was auctioned by the publisher and bookseller Benjamin White and Son in 1789. Part of his plant collection survives at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew . The Flora Scotica: or, a systematic arrangement, in
1066-431: The fronds are branched more than once, it can also be a combination of the pinnatifid are pinnate shapes. If the leaf blades are divided twice, the plant has bipinnate fronds, and tripinnate fronds if they branch three times, and all the way to tetra- and pentapinnate fronds. In tree ferns, the main stalk that connects the leaf to the stem (known as the stipe), often has multiple leaflets. The leafy structures that grow from
1107-494: The inclusion of Equisetaceae in the ferns, notably relating to the construction of their sperm and peculiarities of their roots. The leptosporangiate ferns are sometimes called "true ferns". This group includes most plants familiarly known as ferns. Modern research supports older ideas based on morphology that the Osmundaceae diverged early in the evolutionary history of the leptosporangiate ferns; in certain ways this family
1148-502: The journey led to an acclaimed book by Pennant, and provided most of the materials for Lightfoot's Flora Scotica (2 vols, 1777), which he published at his own expense. Apart from Banks and Solander, Lightfoot also knew many of the other founders of the Linnaean Society , including William Hudson , James Dickson , James Edward Smith , Gilbert White , John Sibthorpe and James Bolton ; Lightfoot lived just long enough to see
1189-446: The leptosporangiate ( Polypodiidae ) and eusporangiate ferns , the latter group including horsetails , whisk ferns , marattioid ferns , and ophioglossoid ferns . The fern crown group , consisting of the leptosporangiates and eusporangiates, is estimated to have originated in the late Silurian period 423.2 million years ago, but Polypodiales , the group that makes up 80% of living fern diversity, did not appear and diversify until
1230-474: The leptosporangiate ferns. The Marattiaceae are a primitive group of tropical ferns with large, fleshy rhizomes and are now thought to be a sibling taxon to the leptosporangiate ferns. Several other groups of species were considered fern allies: the clubmosses , spikemosses , and quillworts in Lycopodiophyta ; the whisk ferns of Psilotaceae ; and the horsetails of Equisetaceae . Since this grouping
1271-555: The maternal gametophyte . The green , photosynthetic part of the plant is technically a megaphyll and in ferns, it is often called a frond . New leaves typically expand by the unrolling of a tight spiral called a crozier or fiddlehead into fronds . This uncurling of the leaf is termed circinate vernation . Leaves are divided into two types: sporophylls and tropophylls. Sporophylls produce spores; tropophylls do not. Fern spores are borne in sporangia which are usually clustered to form sori . The sporangia may be covered with
John Lightfoot (biologist) - Misplaced Pages Continue
1312-430: The rank of a fifth class, separating the whisk ferns and ophioglossoid ferns. The ferns are related to other groups as shown in the following cladogram: Lycophytes [REDACTED] Ferns [REDACTED] Gymnosperms [REDACTED] Angiosperms [REDACTED] The classification of Smith et al. in 2006 treated ferns as four classes: In addition they defined 11 orders and 37 families. That system
1353-617: The society founded in 1788. Apart from the Flora Scotica , for which he is chiefly remembered, Lightfoot wrote An Account of Some Minute British Shells, Either not Duly Observed, or Totally Unnoticed by Authors (1786), and described a number of species including the reed warbler in 1785. He travelled in Wales at the instigation of Joseph Banks, but his manuscript on the Welsh flora was never published. In November 1780 Lightfoot married
1394-476: The spore producing vascular plants were informally denominated the pteridophytes , rendering the term synonymous with ferns and fern allies . This can be confusing because members of the division Pteridophyta were also denominated pteridophytes ( sensu stricto ). Traditionally, three discrete groups have been denominated ferns: two groups of eusporangiate ferns, the families Ophioglossaceae ( adder's tongues , moonworts , and grape ferns) and Marattiaceae ; and
1435-417: The spore wall and are dependent on the parent sporophyte for their nutrition. A fern gametophyte typically consists of: The lifecycle of a fern involves two stages, as in club mosses and horsetails . In stage one, the spores are produced by sporophytes in sporangia , which are clustered together in sori ( s.g. sorus ), developing on the underside of fertile fronds. In stage two, the spores germinate into
1476-496: The sterile leaves, and may have no green tissue at all, as in the Blechnaceae and Lomariopsidaceae . The anatomy of fern leaves can be anywhere from simple to highly divided, or even indeterminate (e.g. Gleicheniaceae , Lygodiaceae ). The divided forms are pinnate , where the leaf segments are completely separated from one other, or pinnatifid (partially pinnate), where the leaf segments are still partially connected. When
1517-463: The stipe are known as pinnae and are often again divided into smaller pinnules. Fern stems are often loosely called rhizomes , even though they grow underground only in some of the species. Epiphytic species and many of the terrestrial ones have above-ground creeping stolons (e.g., Polypodiaceae ), and many groups have above-ground erect semi-woody trunks (e.g., Cyatheaceae , the scaly tree ferns). These can reach up to 20 meters (66 ft) tall in
1558-631: The time, Joseph Banks , and with a pupil of the Swedish botanist Carl von Linné (Linnaeus) , Daniel Solander . It was an age for scientists to go on journeys of carefully documented discovery: Banks and Solander accompanied Captain James Cook on a voyage of exploration to the Pacific Ocean. Lightfoot travelled from Chester to Scotland with the Welsh author Thomas Pennant and the Rev. J. Stewart;
1599-500: The twentieth century. Armstrong covers two men, the ornithologist Charles Earle Raven (1885–1964) and his own father, Edward Allworthy Armstrong (1900–1978), whom he describes as an authority on "bird behaviour and bird song". The Times publishes a letter every year from the Reverend Prebendary John Woolmer recording the status of the dung-feeding forest butterfly, the purple emperor . Woolmer has
1640-477: The whisk ferns and ophioglossoid ferns are demonstrably a clade , and the horsetails and Marattiaceae are arguably another clade. Smith et al. (2006) carried out the first higher-level pteridophyte classification published in the molecular phylogenetic era, and considered the ferns as monilophytes, as follows: Molecular data, which remain poorly constrained for many parts of the plants' phylogeny, have been supplemented by morphological observations supporting
1681-844: Was a consensus of a number of studies, and was further refined. The phylogenetic relationships are shown in the following cladogram (to the level of orders). This division into four major clades was then confirmed using morphology alone. Lycopodiophytes (club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts) Spermatophytes (seed plants) Equisetales (horsetails) [REDACTED] Ophioglossales (grapeferns etc.) Psilotales (whisk ferns) [REDACTED] Marattiales [REDACTED] Osmundales [REDACTED] Hymenophyllales (filmy ferns) [REDACTED] Gleicheniales [REDACTED] Schizaeales Salviniales (heterosporous) Cyatheales (tree ferns) [REDACTED] Polypodiales [REDACTED] Subsequently, Chase and Reveal considered both lycopods and ferns as subclasses of