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133-796: Frances Eleanor Keegan was born on October 15, 1896, in West Newbury, Massachusetts , the third daughter among the four children of John L. Keegan and Margaret E. Costello. Her parents were first generation Irish: the Costellos from Tipperary and the Keegans from Kildare. John Keegan had a career as superintendent of machine tool manufacturing. At age eighty, he came out of retirement to help the war effort in World War II. Marquis graduated from high school in West Newbury in 1911. Because she

266-600: A Jehovah's Witness . Eisenhower, however, belonged to no organized church until 1952. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud , with whom he had two sons. During World War I , he was denied a request to serve in Europe and instead commanded a unit that trained tank crews. Between the wars he served in staff positions in the US and the Philippines, reaching the rank of brigadier general shortly before

399-531: A containment policy to stop Soviet expansion. In June 1943, a visiting politician had suggested to Eisenhower that he might become president after the war. Believing that a general should not participate in politics, Merlo J. Pusey wrote that "figuratively speaking, [Eisenhower] kicked his political-minded visitor out of his office". As others asked him about his political future, Eisenhower told one that he could not imagine wanting to be considered for any political job "from dogcatcher to Grand High Supreme King of

532-608: A very bloody large-scale battle , and the Germans finally surrendered on May 7, 1945. Throughout 1945, the allied armies liberated numerous Nazi concentration camps throughout Europe. As the allies learned the full extend of the Holocaust , Eisenhower anticipated that, in the future, attempts to recharacterize Nazi crimes as propaganda ( Holocaust denial ) would be made, and took steps against it by demanding extensive photo and film documentation of Nazi death camps . Following

665-546: A "hill-framed town that Lowell Thomas once described as 'the Garden of Eden of America,'" saying that as active farming faded away, West Newbury had become, "in its population and pattern of thinking ... virtually a suburb." Between 1820 and the early 1900s, an active Quaker community existed in West Newbury. The Quaker Meetinghouse stood at what is now 114 Turkey Hill Street and the Quaker Burial Ground, which

798-474: A 30 acre section of land around Indian Hill in current day West Newbury was purchased from an indigenous man Great Tom for three pounds. On February 18, 1819, the General Court of Massachusetts passed an act "to incorporate the town of Parsons." The initial proposals had been made in the late 18th century, but determined resistance from the town of Newbury, which had already lost Newburyport , blocked

931-657: A basic golf facility installed at Camp David, and he became close friends with the Augusta National Chairman Clifford Roberts , inviting Roberts to stay at the White House on numerous occasions. Roberts, an investment broker, also handled the Eisenhower family's investments. He began oil painting while at Columbia University, after watching Thomas E. Stephens paint Mamie's portrait. Eisenhower painted about 260 oils during

1064-618: A bob, twinkling blue eyes), demeanor ("dignity of assurance", "undertone of confidence", emphasis on a sense of humor), feminine attributes (nose powdering, lemon pie making); and mentioned her prior career. Deployment abroad compounded start-up problems facing the WAACs. Upon arrival in Algiers, it was discovered that the 149th's vehicles had been issued to a male unit and items ranging from kitchen equipment to typewriters had disappeared. Army historian Mattie Treadwell stated that an obvious problem

1197-854: A broken-down Tin Lizzie , loaded with paint, has been driven over it". Angels in the Outfield was Eisenhower's favorite movie. His favorite reading material for relaxation was the Western novels of Zane Grey . With his excellent memory and ability to focus, Eisenhower was skilled at cards. He learned poker, which he called his "favorite indoor sport", in Abilene. Eisenhower recorded West Point classmates' poker losses for payment after graduation and later stopped playing because his opponents resented having to pay him. A friend reported that after learning to play contract bridge at West Point, Eisenhower played

1330-464: A camp for thousands of troops and developing a full combat training schedule. After the war, Eisenhower reverted to his regular rank of captain and a few days later was promoted to major , a rank he held for 16 years. The major was assigned in 1919 to a transcontinental Army convoy to test vehicles and dramatize the need for improved roads. Indeed, the convoy averaged only 5 miles per hour (8.0 km/h) from Washington, D.C. to San Francisco; later

1463-405: A familiar officer, at least some of her troops would not have chosen her: they were "quite surprised at the designation of this 'stranger.'" According to Sergeant Vida Ganoni's memoir, a little over two weeks after their arrival in Algiers, on February 11, 1943, an announcement of promotions caused an uproar. Those not promoted felt that Marquis' decisions were based on favoritism, not ability. With

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1596-480: A family was $ 193,951. Males had a median income of $ 100,670 versus $ 80,189 for females. The per capita income for the town was $ 35,323. About 2.8% of families and 4.6% of the population were below the poverty line , including 3.8% of those under the age of 18 and 9.8% of those 65 and older. West Newbury and its residents were the models for Popperville, the setting of Virginia Lee Burton 's children's story Mike Mulligan and His Steam Shovel . The town hall where

1729-583: A ginger-ale salesman at the time; it was a second marriage for each of them. Articles profiling his wife called him a New York businessman and World War I veteran left home alone to carry on as she went off to war. Marquis held a number of executive positions, often relating to women's issues or women's improvement. She managed Boston's Franklin Square House, a non-profit residence hotel providing housing and social services for some 700 unmarried women students and wage earners. At Franklin Square House, women in

1862-466: A large number of the 149th did not plan to continue as WACs, he requested that a highly competent senior WAAC officer be sent immediately. In view of the troops' state of mind, this officer, then- Major Westray Boyce , acted swiftly. "The previous company officers and key cadre were returned to the United States in a body, since it appeared impossible to place individual responsibility or to restore

1995-610: A life-threatening stomach ailment but recovered fully. Eisenhower was promoted to the rank of permanent lieutenant colonel in 1936. He also learned to fly with the Philippine Army Air Corps at the Zablan Airfield in Camp Murphy under Capt. Jesus Villamor , making a solo flight over the Philippines in 1937, and obtained his private pilot's license in 1939 at Fort Lewis . Also around this time, he

2128-484: A man's character by the way he plays cards. Eisenhower is a calm and collected player and never whines at his losses. He is brilliant in victory but never commits the bridge player's worst crime of gloating when he wins." Bridge expert Oswald Jacoby frequently participated in the White House games and said, "The President plays better bridge than golf. He tries to break 90 at golf. At bridge, you would say he plays in

2261-473: A military mistake for him to attack Berlin and said orders to that effect would have to be explicit. The British backed down but then wanted Eisenhower to move into Czechoslovakia for political reasons. Washington refused to support Churchill's plan to use Eisenhower's army for political maneuvers against Moscow . The actual division of Germany followed the lines that Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin had previously agreed upon. The Soviet Red Army captured Berlin in

2394-563: A pessimistic assessment, stating he had an "uneasy feeling" about Chaney and his staff. On June 23, 1942, he returned to London as Commanding General, European Theater of Operations (ETOUSA), based in London and with a house in Coombe, Kingston upon Thames , and took over command of ETOUSA from Chaney. He was promoted to lieutenant general on July 7. In November 1942, Eisenhower was also appointed Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force of

2527-474: A railroad mechanic and then at a creamery. By 1898, the parents made a decent living and provided a suitable home for their large family. Eisenhower was born David Dwight Eisenhower in Denison, Texas, on October 14, 1890, the third of seven sons born to Ida and David. His mother soon reversed his two forenames after his birth to avoid the confusion of having two Davids in the family. He was named Dwight after

2660-604: A shoe factory operated where the West Newbury Pizza Company currently exists. The West Newbury Historical Society, a non-profit, maintains the Hills House Museum at the historic William Hills and Hannah Chase House. The home was built in 1780 and the property contains several outbuildings, one of which is a cobbler's shop. The museum boasts a collection of horn combs and adornments manufactured in West Newbury, along with cooper's tools original to

2793-408: A voracious reader on the subject. Other favorite subjects early in his education were arithmetic and spelling. Eisenhower's parents set aside specific times at breakfast and at dinner for daily family Bible reading. Chores were regularly assigned and rotated among all the children, and misbehavior was met with unequivocal discipline, usually from David. His mother, previously a member (with David) of

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2926-537: A wide range of professions from all over country lived under one roof. From 1919 through 1933, Frances Keegan Marquis fundraised for and then was a manager at The Town Hall in New York City. The Town Hall was an offshoot of New York's women's suffrage movement, specifically the League for Political Education . This wealthy and influential group determined to construct a public forum for debate that would overcome

3059-607: Is a part of Massachusetts' North Shore , as well as the Merrimack Valley regions of the state. It lies along the south banks of the Merrimack River , 10 miles (16 km) upstream from the Atlantic Ocean . The town is located approximately 13 miles (21 km) northeast of Lawrence and 34 miles (55 km) north of Boston . It is bordered by Merrimac and Amesbury to the north, Newburyport to

3192-519: Is home to Emery House, monastery guesthouse and sanctuary of the Society of St. John the Evangelist . Many farms remain in West Newbury. In 2019 the town, in conjunction with Essex County Greenbelt Association, purchased an agricultural preservation restriction for Brown Spring Farm, permanently eliminating rights to develop the farmland and making it affordable for a new farmer. Long Hill Orchard

3325-462: Is located in neighboring Newburyport; the nearest national air service is in Boston at Logan International Airport . Dwight D. Eisenhower Dwight David Eisenhower (born David Dwight Eisenhower ; October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969), also known by his nickname Ike , was the 34th president of the United States , serving from 1953 to 1961. During World War II , he was Supreme Commander of

3458-482: Is named, married Richard Nixon 's daughter Julie in 1968. Eisenhower was a golf enthusiast later in life, and he joined the Augusta National Golf Club in 1948. He played golf frequently during and after his presidency and was unreserved in his passion for the game, to the point of golfing during winter; he ordered his golf balls painted black so he could see them better against snow. He had

3591-1009: Is part of the Pentucket Regional School District . It also contains the Dr. John C. Page School . For elementary school, students also have the option of attending River Valley Charter School in Newburyport. For high school, students also have the options of attending Whittier Regional Vocational Technical High School in nearby Haverhill, and Essex North Shore Agricultural and Technical School in Danvers. Nearby private schools include The Governor's Academy in Byfield, Phillips Exeter Academy , Phillips Academy , Waring School , Central Catholic High School , St. John's Preparatory School , Pingree School , and Shore Country Day School . Interstate 95 crosses through

3724-441: Is the town's oldest continually-operating farm. A number of smaller farms exist in West Newbury, including Maple Crest Farm, several Christmas tree farms, and numerous horse stables and equestrian facilities. The town has two primary outdoor recreational areas, Mill Pond and Pipestave Hill, which offer walking trails, horseback riding trails, as well as space for canoeing, fishing, and kayaking. Equestrian events are regularly held by

3857-404: Is water. In 2000 the 4149 were distributed into 1,392 households, and 1,183 families. The racial makeup of the town was 98.5% White , 0.2% African American , 0.5% Asian , 0.4% from other races , and 0.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.7% of the population. In March 1952, Julian Steele , the sole African-American voter among some 1,500 residents at the time,

3990-679: The Allied forces 2 to 1. In December 1943, President Roosevelt decided that Eisenhower – not Marshall – would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. The following month, he resumed command of ETOUSA and the following month was officially designated as the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945. He

4123-814: The Army Industrial College in 1933 and later served on the faculty (it was later expanded to become the Industrial College of the Armed Services and is now known as the Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy). His primary duty was planning for the next war, which proved most difficult in the midst of the Great Depression . He then was posted as chief military aide to General Douglas MacArthur, Army Chief of Staff. In 1932, he participated in

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4256-689: The Bay of Pigs Invasion , which was left to John F. Kennedy to carry out. On the domestic front, Eisenhower governed as a moderate conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security . He covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege . He signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and sent Army troops to enforce federal court orders which integrated schools in Little Rock, Arkansas . His administration undertook

4389-546: The Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas, where he graduated first in a class of 245 officers. During the late 1920s and early 1930s, Eisenhower's career stalled somewhat, as military priorities diminished; many of his friends resigned for high-paying business jobs. He was assigned to the American Battle Monuments Commission directed by General Pershing, and with

4522-699: The Formosa Resolution . His administration provided major aid to help the French fight off Vietnamese Communists in the First Indochina War . After the French left, he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam . He supported regime-changing military coups in Iran and Guatemala orchestrated by his own administration. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, he condemned

4655-504: The French armed forces . The Allied leaders were "thunderstruck" by this from a political standpoint, though none had offered Eisenhower guidance with the problem in planning the operation. Eisenhower was severely criticized for the move. Darlan was assassinated on December 24 by Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle , a French antifascist monarchist. Eisenhower later appointed as High Commissioner General Henri Giraud , who had been installed by

4788-598: The Geneva Convention . Eisenhower followed the orders laid down by the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) in directive JCS 1067 but softened them by bringing in 400,000 tons of food for civilians and allowing more fraternization . In response to the devastation in Germany, including food shortages and an influx of refugees, he arranged distribution of American food and medical equipment. His actions reflected

4921-688: The Italian leader , had fallen in Italy, the Allies switched their attention to the mainland with Operation Avalanche . But while Eisenhower argued with President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill, who both insisted on unconditional surrender in exchange for helping the Italians, the Germans pursued an aggressive buildup of forces in the country. The Germans made the already tough battle more difficult by adding 19 divisions and initially outnumbering

5054-714: The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , Eisenhower was assigned to the General Staff in Washington , where he served until June 1942 with responsibility for creating the major war plans to defeat Japan and Germany. He was appointed Deputy Chief in charge of Pacific Defenses under the Chief of War Plans Division (WPD), General Leonard T. Gerow , and then succeeded Gerow as Chief of the War Plans Division. Next, he

5187-516: The Korean War and may have threatened China with nuclear attack if an armistice was not reached quickly. China did agree and an armistice resulted, which remains in effect. His New Look policy of nuclear deterrence prioritized "inexpensive" nuclear weapons while reducing funding for expensive Army divisions. He continued Harry S. Truman 's policy of recognizing Taiwan as the legitimate government of China, and he won congressional approval of

5320-663: The North African Theater of Operations (NATOUSA) through the new operational Headquarters Allied (Expeditionary) Force Headquarters (A(E)FHQ). The word "expeditionary" was dropped soon after his appointment for security reasons. The campaign in North Africa was designated Operation Torch and was planned in the underground headquarters within the Rock of Gibraltar . Eisenhower was the first non-British person to command Gibraltar in 200 years. French cooperation

5453-555: The Panama Canal Zone , where, joined by Mamie, he served until 1924. Under Conner's tutelage, he studied military history and theory (including Carl von Clausewitz 's On War ), and later cited Conner's enormous influence on his military thinking, saying in 1962 that "Fox Conner was the ablest man I ever knew." Conner's comment on Eisenhower was, "[He] is one of the most capable, efficient and loyal officers I have ever met." On Conner's recommendation, in 1925–1926 he attended

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5586-745: The River Brethren ( Brethren in Christ Church ) sect of the Mennonites , joined the International Bible Students Association , later known as Jehovah's Witnesses . The Eisenhower home served as the local meeting hall from 1896 to 1915, though Dwight never joined. His later decision to attend West Point saddened his mother, who felt that warfare was "rather wicked", but she did not overrule his decision. Speaking of himself in 1948, Eisenhower said he

5719-476: The Space Race . His two terms saw unprecedented economic prosperity except for a minor recession in 1958 . In his farewell address , he expressed his concerns about the dangers of massive military spending , particularly deficit spending and government contracts to private military manufacturers, which he dubbed "the military–industrial complex ". Historical evaluations of his presidency place him among

5852-509: The upper tier of American presidents . The Eisenhauer (German for "iron hewer" or "iron miner") family migrated from the German village of Karlsbrunn to the Province of Pennsylvania in 1741. Accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized . David Jacob Eisenhower, Eisenhower's father, was a college-educated engineer, despite his own father's urging to stay on

5985-494: The 149th, Ernie Pyle stated, "When a WAC takes over a switchboard from a soldier, efficiency goes up about 1000 percent." As the first to command an American women's expeditionary force , Frances Keegan Marquis became the subject of considerable attention. In the summer of 1943, she met with England's King George VI , discussing the work of the WAACs and British-American relations after the war. Nationwide news reports carried her photo; discussed her appearance (curly brown hair in

6118-554: The 70s." Eisenhower served initially in logistics and then the infantry at various camps in Texas and Georgia until 1918. When the US entered World War I , he immediately requested an overseas assignment but was denied and assigned to Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas . In February 1918, he was transferred to Camp Meade in Maryland with the 65th Engineers . His unit was later ordered to France, but, to his chagrin, he received orders for

6251-619: The AFHQ to the SHAEF. Many thought that victory in Europe would come by summer's end, but the Germans did not capitulate for almost a year. From then until the end of the war in Europe on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower, through SHAEF, commanded all Allied forces, and through his command of ETOUSA had administrative command of all US forces on the Western Front north of the Alps . He was ever mindful of

6384-668: The Allied Expeditionary Force in Europe and achieved the five-star rank as General of the Army . Eisenhower planned and supervised two of the most consequential military campaigns of World War II : Operation Torch in the North Africa campaign in 1942–1943 and the invasion of Normandy in 1944. Eisenhower was born in Denison, Texas , and raised in Abilene, Kansas . His family had a strong religious background, and his mother became

6517-735: The Allied command, on December 20, 1944, he was promoted to General of the Army , equivalent to the rank of Field Marshal in most European armies. In this and the previous high commands he held, Eisenhower showed his great talents for leadership and diplomacy. Although he had never seen action himself, he won the respect of front-line commanders. He interacted adeptly with allies such as Winston Churchill , Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery and General Charles de Gaulle . He had serious disagreements with Churchill and Montgomery over questions of strategy, but these rarely upset his relationships with them. He dealt with Soviet Marshal Zhukov , his Russian counterpart, and they became good friends. In December 1944,

6650-549: The Allies as Darlan's commander-in-chief. Operation Torch also served as a valuable training ground for Eisenhower's combat command skills; during the initial phase of Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel 's move into the Kasserine Pass , Eisenhower created some confusion in the ranks by interference with the execution of battle plans by his subordinates. He also was initially indecisive in his removal of Lloyd Fredendall , commanding II Corps . He became more adroit in such matters in later campaigns. In February 1943, his authority

6783-464: The American Woman's Association. Founded by Anne Morgan and other prominent New Yorkers, the American Woman's Association was created as a place where a working woman with drive and energy could network and develop leadership skills. In Morgan's view, although no women of the time were equipped to head a large corporation, "in time there will be plenty of such women—it requires only evolution." By 1930, when it constructed its own building in New York City,

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6916-465: The Cherbourg-Havre area have failed to gain a satisfactory foothold and I have withdrawn the troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based on the best information available. The troops, the air and the Navy did all that bravery and devotion to duty could do. If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt, it is mine alone. Every ground commander seeks the battle of annihilation; so far as conditions permit, he tries to duplicate in modern war

7049-463: The German unconditional surrender, Eisenhower was appointed military governor of the American-occupied zone of Germany, located primarily in Southern Germany , and headquartered in Frankfurt am Main . Upon discovery of the Nazi concentration camps , he ordered camera crews to document evidence for use in the Nuremberg Trials . He reclassified German prisoners of war (POWs) in US custody as Disarmed Enemy Forces (DEFs), who were no longer subject to

7182-435: The Germans launched a surprise counteroffensive, the Battle of the Bulge , which the Allies turned back in early 1945 after Eisenhower repositioned his armies and improved weather allowed the Army Air Force to engage. German defenses continued to deteriorate on both the Eastern Front with the Red Army and the Western Front with the Western Allies. The British wanted to capture Berlin , but Eisenhower decided it would be

7315-406: The Indian River, flow through the town. The southern corner of town is part of the Crane Pond Wildlife Management Area, and two other protected areas, the Riverbend Recreation Area and Mill Pond Recreation Area, are located in the northern part of town. The town's highest point is on Archelaus Hill in the center of town. Significant efforts have been made by residents to maintain the rural character of

7448-424: The Israeli, British, and French invasion of Egypt, and he forced them to withdraw. He also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. He deployed 15,000 soldiers during the 1958 Lebanon crisis . Near the end of his term, a summit meeting with the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev was cancelled when a US spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union. Eisenhower approved

7581-439: The July 1, 1943 enactment of legislation converting the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps to the Women's Army Corps (WACs), the women were given the summer to decide whether to apply to join the Army upon the September 1943 changeover. During this time, changes such as more dispersed housing assignments and the unit's absorption into the 6666th or 6667th Hq Co, WAC—which applied to all women in the theater—caused significant unhappiness in

7714-416: The New York City chapter and publicity chairman of the international organization of clubs, Marquis became Altrusa International's official United Nations observer and traveled about the country giving speeches on the workings of the United Nations. She served in that role, participating with U.N. observer status , for seven years. Marquis was also active in such organizations as Camp Fire Girls , serving as

7847-497: The Pacific. Eisenhower also insisted that the British give him exclusive command over all strategic air forces to facilitate Overlord, to the point of threatening to resign unless Churchill relented, which he did. Eisenhower then designed a bombing plan in France in advance of Overlord and argued with Churchill over the latter's concern with civilian casualties; de Gaulle interjected that the casualties were justified, and Eisenhower prevailed. He also had to skillfully manage to retain

7980-416: The Philippines, which was denied; because of the ongoing Mexican Revolution , he was posted to Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio , Texas, under the command of General Funston. In 1916, while stationed at Fort Sam Houston, Funston convinced him to become the football coach for Peacock Military Academy ; he later became the coach at St. Louis College, now St. Mary's University , and was an honorary member of

8113-417: The Second WAAC Training Center in Daytona, Florida, to the New York area. From there, this company of almost 200 sailed to North Africa, reporting to General Dwight Eisenhower's headquarters in Algiers on January 27, 1943. Women of the 149th, who volunteered for service abroad, comprised a hand-picked cadre of linguists and specialists who assumed secretarial, postal, switchboard, and other duties. Describing

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8246-508: The Sigma Beta Chi fraternity there. While Eisenhower was stationed in Texas, he met Mamie Doud of Boone, Iowa . They were immediately taken with each other. He proposed to her on Valentine's Day in 1916. A November wedding date in Denver was moved up to July 1 due to the impending American entry into World War I ; Funston approved 10 days of leave for their wedding. The Eisenhowers moved many times during their first 35 years of marriage. The Eisenhowers had two sons. In late 1917 while he

8379-492: The States in October 1943, Marquis was assigned to assist in the WAC recruiting drive with speeches and interviews describing her time in North Africa. Myriad problems ranging from counterproductive messaging to active obstruction from the War Manpower Commission afflicted WAC recruiting, but a slander campaign proved a largely unstoppable blow. Although many sources spawned and fed bad jokes and ugly rumors about military women, contemporaneous and historical accounts have focused on

8512-605: The Universe", and another that he could not serve as Army Chief of Staff if others believed he had political ambitions. In 1945, Truman told Eisenhower during the Potsdam Conference that if desired, the president would help the general win the 1948 election , and in 1947 he offered to run as Eisenhower's running mate on the Democratic ticket if MacArthur won the Republican nomination. As the election approached, other prominent citizens and politicians from both parties urged Eisenhower to run. In January 1948, after learning of plans in New Hampshire to elect delegates supporting him for

8645-465: The WAACs played a part in strengthening ties with the French: in July General Henri Giraud , commander of the French forces, reviewed Marquis' troops (finding them "inspiring") and later in the summer of 1943, the WACs and their French counterparts (one of whose officers was the wife of Colonel Gross) paraded together with a 1st Regiment Zouave color guard. Along with her WAC and overseas service ribbons, Marquis' Zouave medal became part of her uniform. On

8778-470: The West Newbury Historical Society mounted an exhibit of her military artifacts. West Newbury, Massachusetts West Newbury is a town in Essex County, Massachusetts , United States. Situated on the Merrimack River , its population was 4,500 at the 2020 census . Originally inhabited by Agawam or Naumkeag peoples, West Newbury was settled by English colonists in 1635 as part of neighboring Newbury . After 15 years of English colonization,

8911-401: The West Newbury Riding and Driving Club throughout the riding season. Additionally, the Myopia Hunt Club holds an annual fox hunt through the town during the fall. Efforts to maintain West Newbury's rural charm have been ongoing; the Town has purchased large swaths of land designated as Open Space by the West Newbury Open Space Committee. Along with neighboring Merrimac and Groveland , it

9044-528: The Women's City Club turned to women's duty to contribute to defense and the war effort. On July 20, 1942, Frances Keegan Marquis joined the first Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) officer training class at the Fort Des Moines Provisional Army Officer Training School . Chosen from some 30,000 applicants, she was one of 440 in her class, of whom 90% had attended college and 99% had successful civilian careers. She said she joined because "for eight years ... this country had neglected its obligations and 'when there

9177-441: The association (which was non-sectarian and was said to include every nationality) had a membership of some 4,000, representing over 150 businesses and professions. Along with a roof garden, numerous parlors, meeting rooms, and residential space, the association's building featured a premier fitness center including a swimming pool. In 1941, Marquis became executive secretary of the Women's City Club of New York . Like The Town Hall,

9310-404: The baseball team at West Point was one of the greatest disappointments of my life, maybe my greatest". He made the varsity football team and was a starter at halfback in 1912, when he tried to tackle the legendary Jim Thorpe of the Carlisle Indians . Eisenhower suffered a torn knee while being tackled in the next game, which was the last he played; he reinjured his knee on horseback and in

9443-456: The boxing ring, so he turned to fencing and gymnastics. Eisenhower later served as junior varsity football coach and cheerleader, which caught the attention of General Frederick Funston . He graduated from West Point in the middle of the class of 1915, which became known as " the class the stars fell on ", because 59 members eventually became general officers . After graduation in 1915, Second Lieutenant Eisenhower requested an assignment in

9576-495: The center and south of the front (respectively). Eisenhower worked tirelessly to address the demands of the rival commanders to optimize Allied forces, often by giving them tactical latitude; many historians conclude this delayed the Allied victory in Europe. However, due to Eisenhower's persistence, the pivotal supply port at Antwerp was successfully, albeit belatedly, opened in late 1944 . In recognition of his senior position in

9709-475: The classic example of Cannae . Once the coastal assault had succeeded, Eisenhower insisted on retaining personal control over the land battle strategy and was immersed in the command and supply of multiple assaults through France on Germany. Field Marshal Montgomery insisted priority be given to his 21st Army Group 's attack being made in the north, while Generals Bradley ( 12th US Army Group ) and Devers ( Sixth US Army Group ) insisted they be given priority in

9842-702: The clearing of the Bonus March encampment in Washington, D.C. Although he was against the actions taken against the veterans and strongly advised MacArthur against taking a public role in it, he later wrote the Army's official incident report, endorsing MacArthur's conduct. In 1935, he accompanied MacArthur to the Philippines, where he served as assistant military adviser to the Philippine government in developing their army. MacArthur allowed Eisenhower to handpick an officer whom he thought would contribute to

9975-488: The club had roots in the suffrage movement and owned a series of impressive clubhouses in Manhattan, moving during Marquis' tenure to the same building that housed the all-male City Club. The club advocated for civic betterment and particularly women's issues such as women's employment, birth control, and maternity care. Its leaders included Eleanor Roosevelt . As war raged abroad during Marquis' time as executive secretary,

10108-714: The development and construction of the Interstate Highway System , which remains the largest construction of roadways in American history. In 1957, following the Soviet launch of Sputnik , Eisenhower led the American response which included the creation of NASA and the establishment of a stronger, science-based education via the National Defense Education Act . The Soviet Union began to reinforce their own space program , escalating

10241-541: The east, Newbury to the southeast, Groveland to the southwest, and Haverhill to the west. The Rocks Village Bridge across the Merrimack River is the only access to the northern banks of the river in town; there is no direct route into Merrimac and Amesbury. West Newbury is separated from Newburyport by the Artichoke River and its upper and lower reservoirs. Several other rivers and brooks, including

10374-608: The eastern corner of town, with an exit lying just over the line in Newbury providing access to the town. Massachusetts Route 113 is the main road through town, roughly parallel to the contour of the Merrimack River. The town lies between the termini of two lines of the MBTA Commuter Rail , the Haverhill Line to the west and Newburyport/Rockport Line to the east. A small airstrip, Plum Island Airport (2B2),

10507-471: The entry of the US into World War II in 1941. After further promotion Eisenhower oversaw the Allied invasions of North Africa and Sicily before supervising the invasions of France and Germany . After the war ended in Europe, he served as military governor of the American-occupied zone of Germany (1945), Army Chief of Staff (1945–1948), president of Columbia University (1948–1953), and as

10640-439: The evangelist Dwight L. Moody . All of the boys were nicknamed "Ike", such as "Big Ike" ( Edgar ) and "Little Ike" (Dwight); the nickname was intended as an abbreviation of their last name. By World War II, only Dwight was still called "Ike". In 1892, the family moved to Abilene, Kansas, which Eisenhower considered his hometown. As a child, he was involved in an accident that cost his younger brother Earl an eye, for which he

10773-579: The eve of her departure from Algiers in late September 1943, the Franco-American Goodwill Society (Bonne Volontḗ Franco-Amḗricaine) held a luncheon to honor Marquis. At this event, the society's board of directors presented her with a medal honoring her contributions to French-American friendship. After leaving the military, Marquis undertook volunteer work. Having previously served Altrusa (an organization of professional women's clubs focused on community service) as president of

10906-667: The family farm. Eisenhower's mother, Ida Elizabeth (Stover) Eisenhower , of predominantly German Protestant ancestry, moved to Kansas from Virginia. She married David on September 23, 1885, in Lecompton, Kansas , on the campus of their alma mater, Lane University . David owned a general store in Hope, Kansas , but the business failed due to economic conditions and the family became impoverished. The Eisenhowers lived in Texas from 1889 until 1892, and later returned to Kansas, with $ 24 (equivalent to $ 814 in 2023) to their name. David worked as

11039-495: The first supreme commander of NATO (1951–1952). In 1952, Eisenhower entered the presidential race as a Republican to block the isolationist foreign policies of Senator Robert A. Taft , who opposed NATO . Eisenhower won that year's election and the 1956 election in landslides , both times defeating Adlai Stevenson II . Eisenhower's main goals in office were to contain the spread of communism and reduce federal deficits . In 1953, he considered using nuclear weapons to end

11172-742: The first to stop the Nazi advance at Medjez-El-Bab in Tunisia. Vastly outnumbered and equipped with World War I era rifles, the Zouaves beat back German and Italian forces in a 36-hour battle. When this North African victory helped turn the tide for the French, the Americans promised them modern supplies. By November 1943, a modernized, American-equipped French Army—notably including the Zouaves—was ready to invade Europe from North Africa. During this period,

11305-527: The first to use such a weapon." Initially, Eisenhower hoped for cooperation with the Soviets. He even visited Warsaw in 1945. Invited by Bolesław Bierut and decorated with the highest military decoration , he was shocked by the scale of destruction in the city. However, by mid-1947, as east–west tensions over economic recovery in Germany and the Greek Civil War escalated, Eisenhower agreed with

11438-417: The forthcoming Republican National Convention , Eisenhower stated through the Army that he was "not available for and could not accept nomination to high political office"; "life-long professional soldiers", he wrote, "in the absence of some obvious and overriding reason, [should] abstain from seeking high political office". Eisenhower maintained no political party affiliation during this time. Many believed he

11571-544: The funds. They made a pact to take alternate years at college while the other worked to earn the tuitions. Edgar took the first turn at school, and Dwight was employed as a night supervisor at the Belle Springs Creamery. When Edgar asked for a second year, Dwight consented. At that time, a friend Edward "Swede" Hazlett was applying to the Naval Academy and urged Dwight to apply, since no tuition

11704-409: The game six nights a week for five months. Eisenhower continued to play bridge throughout his military career. While stationed in the Philippines, he played regularly with President Manuel Quezon , earning him the nickname the "Bridge Wizard of Manila". An unwritten qualification for an officer's appointment to Eisenhower's staff during World War II was the ability to play bridge. He played even during

11837-403: The gay and careless way in which the young ladies in uniform … disport themselves…." Of particular concern for Marquis and the 149th, that column repeated the admittedly unsubstantiated falsehood that large numbers of WACs had been sent home pregnant from North Africa. While still abroad, Marquis participated in a counteroffensive with newspaper and radio interviews discussing her troops' life in

11970-432: The hazing, though he willingly accepted it as a plebe. He was also a regular violator of the more detailed regulations and finished school with a less than stellar discipline rating. Academically, Eisenhower's best subject by far was English. Otherwise, his performance was average, though he thoroughly enjoyed the typical emphasis of engineering on science and mathematics. In athletics, Eisenhower later said that "not making

12103-616: The help of his brother Milton Eisenhower , then a journalist at the Agriculture Department , he produced a guide to American battlefields in Europe. He then was assigned to the Army War College and graduated in 1928. After a one-year assignment in France, Eisenhower served as executive officer to General George V. Moseley , Assistant Secretary of War , from 1929 to February 1933. Major Eisenhower graduated from

12236-530: The house. In 1952, Julian D. Steele became the first African-American town Moderator in Massachusetts when he was elected to the position in West Newbury. The town's oldest continually-operating farm is Long Hill Orchard. The farm has been active since 1896, and has a long and intriguing history. Today, in addition to the apple orchard, the farm is home to a popular community-supported agriculture program and farm to table dining events. West Newbury

12369-561: The improvement of highways became a signature issue for Eisenhower as president. He assumed duties again at Camp Meade , Maryland, commanding a battalion of tanks, where he remained until 1922. His schooling continued, focused on the nature of the next war and the role of the tank. His new expertise in tank warfare was strengthened by a close collaboration with George S. Patton , Sereno E. Brett , and other senior tank leaders. Their leading-edge ideas of speed-oriented offensive tank warfare were strongly discouraged by superiors, who considered

12502-400: The inevitable loss of life and suffering that would be experienced by the troops under his command and their families. This prompted him to make a point of visiting every division involved in the invasion. Eisenhower's sense of responsibility was underscored by his draft of a statement to be issued if the invasion failed. It has been called one of the great speeches of history: Our landings in

12635-496: The kind of "ignorance and prejudice" that impeded the women's vote. The Town Hall hosted not only important speakers (including birth control advocate Margaret Sanger , who was arrested when attempting to speak there in November 1921) but also many musical performances, for which Marquis served as concert manager. Later, between 1935 and 1941, Marquis served as the assistant director in charge of education and recreation programs of

12768-470: The last 20 years of his life. The images were mostly landscapes but also portraits of subjects such as Mamie, their grandchildren, General Montgomery, George Washington , and Abraham Lincoln . Wendy Beckett stated that Eisenhower's paintings, "simple and earnest", caused her to "wonder at the hidden depths of this reticent president". A conservative in both art and politics, Eisenhower in a 1962 speech denounced modern art as "a piece of canvas that looks like

12901-450: The measure for decades. On June 14, 1820, the legislature passed another act to change the name to West Newbury. West Newbury has evolved from a rural farming town into a community facing the issues of balancing development and need for affordable housing against the townspeople's desire to maintain West Newbury's rural charm and character have been in play for at least fifty years. In 1969 local writer Margaret Coit called West Newbury

13034-474: The military, including their commitment as volunteers, qualifications and training, assignments, long work hours, supervised social life, and housing in a convent. In one of her first press conferences upon returning to New York, Marquis told fascinating stories of the WACs in North Africa and responded with a strong denial when asked "how many WACs were really sent home for disorderly conduct and pregnancy." In truth,

13167-689: The mission. Hence he chose James Ord , a classmate of his at West Point. Having been brought up in Mexico, which inculcated into him the Spanish culture which influenced both Mexico and the Philippines, Ord was deemed the right pick for the job. Eisenhower had strong philosophical disagreements with MacArthur regarding the role of the Philippine Army and the leadership qualities that an American army officer should exhibit and develop in his subordinates. The antipathy between Eisenhower and MacArthur lasted

13300-492: The new tank corps , where he was promoted to brevet lieutenant colonel in the National Army . He commanded a unit that trained tank crews at Camp Colt  – his first command. Though Eisenhower and his tank crews never saw combat, he displayed excellent organizational skills as well as an ability to accurately assess junior officers' strengths and make optimal placements of personnel. His spirits were raised when

13433-538: The new American attitudes of the German people as Nazi victims not villains, while aggressively purging the ex-Nazis. In November 1945, Eisenhower returned to Washington to replace Marshall as Chief of Staff of the Army . His main role was the rapid demobilization of millions of soldiers, which was delayed by lack of shipping. Eisenhower was convinced in 1946 that the Soviet Union did not want war and that friendly relations could be maintained; he strongly supported

13566-669: The new United Nations and favored its involvement in the control of atomic bombs. However, in formulating policies regarding the atomic bomb and relations with the Soviets, Truman was guided by the State Department and ignored Eisenhower and the Pentagon . Indeed, Eisenhower had opposed the use of the atomic bomb against the Japanese, writing, "First, the Japanese were ready to surrender and it wasn't necessary to hit them with that awful thing. Second, I hated to see our country be

13699-467: The new approach too radical and preferred to continue using tanks in a strictly supportive role for the infantry. Eisenhower was even threatened with court-martial for continued publication of these proposed methods of tank deployment, and he relented. From 1920, Eisenhower served under a succession of talented generals – Fox Conner , John J. Pershing , Douglas MacArthur and George Marshall . He first became executive officer to General Conner in

13832-600: The next most difficult campaign against the Germans—a beach landing assault. His first struggles, however, were with Allied leaders and officers on matters vital to the success of the Normandy invasion; he argued with Roosevelt over an essential agreement with De Gaulle to use French resistance forces in covert operations against the Germans in advance of Operation Overlord. Admiral Ernest J. King fought with Eisenhower over King's refusal to provide additional landing craft from

13965-456: The only pregnant 149er was married to an Army officer—she had not discovered her condition until after she arrived in the theater, at which point she returned home. Marquis was sent on a well-publicized nationwide tour, speaking to women's groups, WAC trainees, college women, and business groups about the WACs' overseas experiences. Marquis later attended the Command and General Staff School. She

14098-663: The president of the Council of Greater New York and representing New York on the National Council. Frances Keegan Marquis died on August 4, 1984, at her home in Manhattan, leaving no immediate survivors. She maintained ties to friends in her home town of West Newbury throughout her life, however. Marquis became a life member of the West Newbury Historical Society in 1960 and later donated some of her papers and medals to that organization. In 1987

14231-431: The ranks that identified themselves as close-knit 149ers. The final break occurred when a popular sergeant was suddenly relieved of her duties. Some sided with the sergeant, others with the commander: the "unity of the 149th collapsed". Treadwell's Army history attributed the situation to administrative difficulties and the lack of a WAAC staff director for the theater—a one-time mistake. When General Eisenhower learned that

14364-642: The regimental executive officer. In March 1941 he was promoted to colonel and assigned as chief of staff of the newly activated IX Corps under Major General Kenyon Joyce . In June 1941, he was appointed chief of staff to General Walter Krueger , Commander of the Third Army , at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas. After successfully participating in the Louisiana Maneuvers , he was promoted to brigadier general on October 3, 1941. After

14497-470: The rest of their lives. Historians have concluded that this assignment provided valuable preparation for handling the challenging personalities of Winston Churchill , George S. Patton, George Marshall, and Bernard Montgomery during World War II. Eisenhower later emphasized that too much had been made of the disagreements with MacArthur and that a positive relationship endured. While in Manila, Mamie suffered

14630-431: The services of the often unruly George S. Patton, by severely reprimanding him when Patton earlier had slapped a subordinate , and then when Patton gave a speech in which he made improper comments about postwar policy. The D-Day Normandy landings on June 6, 1944, were costly but successful. Two months later (August 15), the invasion of Southern France took place, and control of forces in the southern invasion passed from

14763-541: The story ends is patterned after West Newbury's Old Town Hall. West Newbury also provided the geographical inspiration for the Mad Scientists' Club series of stories by Bertrand R. Brinley . Portions of John Cena 's music video, "Right Now", were shot in West Newbury, with the remainder filmed at Hampton Beach, New Hampshire . In the late summer and fall of 2008, various scenes from Mel Gibson 's film Edge of Darkness were shot on Church Street. West Newbury

14896-657: The stressful weeks leading up to the D-Day landings. His favorite partner was General Alfred Gruenther , considered the best player in the US Army; he appointed Gruenther his second-in-command at NATO partly because of his skill at bridge. Saturday night bridge games at the White House were a feature of his presidency. He was a strong player, though not an expert by modern standards. The great bridge player and popularizer Ely Culbertson described his game as classic and sound with "flashes of brilliance" and said that "you can always judge

15029-503: The town through advocacy for the preservation of open spaces. West Newbury is well known for its many hills: Pipestave Hill, Archelaus Hill, Brake Hill, Ilsey Hill, Indian Hill, Long Hill and Meetinghouse Hill. According to the United States Census Bureau , the town has a total area of 14.7 square miles (38.1 km ), of which 13.4 square miles (34.8 km ) is land and 1.3 square miles (3.3 km ), or 8.65%,

15162-671: The unit under his command received orders overseas to France. This time his wishes were thwarted when the armistice was signed a week before his departure date. Completely missing out on the warfront left him depressed and bitter for a time, despite receiving the Distinguished Service Medal for his work at home. In World War II, rivals who had combat service in the Great War (led by Gen. Bernard Montgomery ) sought to denigrate Eisenhower for his previous lack of combat duty, despite his stateside experience establishing

15295-505: The women's lost confidence; all later proved successful in a variety of duties in the United States." Noting "the almost insurmountable difficulties attendant upon life and conditions in an active theater of war" that confronted Marquis upon arrival in North Africa, Colonel R.Q. Brown, commander of the Headquarters Special Troops, highly recommended Marquis for any future position, staff or command. Upon her return to

15428-742: The work of syndicated columnist John O'Donnell . According to an Army history, even with its hasty retraction, O'Donnell's June 8, 1943, "Capitol Stuff" column did "incalculable damage". That column began, "Contraceptives and prophylactic equipment will be furnished to members of the WAACS, according to a super secret agreement reached by the high ranking officers of the War Department and the WAAC chieftain, Mrs. William Pettus Hobby …." This followed O'Donnell's June 7 column discussing efforts of women journalists and congresswomen to dispel "the gaudy stories of

15561-657: Was "one of the most deeply religious men I know" though unattached to any "sect or organization". He was baptized in the Presbyterian Church in 1953. Eisenhower attended Abilene High School and graduated in 1909. As a freshman, he injured his knee and developed a leg infection that extended into his groin, which his doctor diagnosed as life-threatening. The doctor insisted that the leg be amputated but Dwight refused to allow it, and surprisingly recovered, though he had to repeat his freshman year. He and brother Edgar both wanted to attend college, though they lacked

15694-417: Was 2.98 and the average family size was 3.25. By age, 30.0% were under the age of 18, 4.3% from 18 to 24, 27.0% from 25 to 44, 29.9% from 45 to 64, and 8.8% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39.6 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.9 males. The median income for a household in the town was $ 164,250, and the median income for

15827-419: Was an opportunity to do something, I felt that I who had talked so much about it, had to do it.'" Upon graduation on August 29, 1942, at age 46 Marquis entered the military and was assigned to WAAC headquarters in Washington, D.C. Over the 1942 Christmas holidays, Marquis became the first woman to command a troop train, which carried the newly-formed 149th WAAC Post Headquarters Company now under her command from

15960-582: Was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff in charge of the new Operations Division (which replaced WPD) under Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall, who spotted talent and promoted accordingly. At the end of May 1942, Eisenhower accompanied Lt. Gen. Henry H. Arnold , commanding general of the Army Air Forces , to London to assess the effectiveness of the theater commander in England, Maj. Gen. James E. Chaney . He returned to Washington on June 3 with

16093-462: Was awaiting reassignment when, at the war's end, she was discharged late in 1945. On April 9, 1943, Colonel J.C. Gross, commandant of the 1st Regiment Zouaves ("valiant of the valiants") awarded Marquis the medal insignia of that regiment, making her an honorary member. Around the time Marquis' WAACs arrived in Algiers, Zouave forces (with roots as local North Africans in the French Army), were

16226-450: Was charged in these positions with planning and carrying out the Allied assault on the coast of Normandy in June 1944 under the code name Operation Overlord, the liberation of Western Europe and the invasion of Germany. Eisenhower, as well as the officers and troops under him, had learned valuable lessons in their previous operations, and their skills had all strengthened in preparation for

16359-492: Was deemed necessary to the campaign and Eisenhower encountered a "preposterous situation" with the multiple rival factions in France. His primary objective was to move forces successfully into Tunisia and intending to facilitate that objective, he gave his support to François Darlan as High Commissioner in North Africa, despite Darlan's previous high offices in Vichy France and his continued role as commander-in-chief of

16492-578: Was elected West Newbury's town meeting moderator. He was the first African-American town moderator in Massachusetts, and remained the only African-American town moderator in the state for at least a decade. Of 1,686 households in 2010, 46.6% had their own children under the age of 18 living with them, 76.8% were married couples , 6.2% were a female householder with no husband present, and 15.0% were non-families. 11.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.2% were individuals living alone who were 65 years of age or older. The average household size

16625-611: Was established in the 1850s, is located along the Artichoke Reservoir During the 19th century, West Newbury was home to a vibrant industrial scene. The town was renowned for its comb making industry. Beginning in the 1840s, small home-based comb shops gave way to large-scale factories that produced horn combs and hair adornments. S.C. Noyes, located at 320 Main Street, was the last remaining comb factory in town and shut its doors in 1904. In addition to comb making,

16758-663: Was extended as commander of AFHQ across the Mediterranean basin to include the British Eighth Army , commanded by General Sir Bernard Montgomery. The Eighth Army had advanced across the Western Desert from the east and was ready for the start of the Tunisia Campaign . After the capitulation of Axis forces in North Africa, Eisenhower oversaw the invasion of Sicily . Once Mussolini ,

16891-765: Was in charge of training at Fort Oglethorpe in Georgia , his wife Mamie had their first son, Doud Dwight "Icky" Eisenhower , who died of scarlet fever at the age of three. Eisenhower was mostly reluctant to discuss his death. Their second son, John Eisenhower , was born in Denver , Colorado. John served in the United States Army , retired as a brigadier general, became an author and served as Ambassador to Belgium from 1969 to 1971. He married Barbara Jean Thompson and had four children: David , Barbara Ann, Susan Elaine and Mary Jean . David, after whom Camp David

17024-604: Was offered a post by the Philippine Commonwealth Government, namely by then Philippine President Manuel L. Quezon on recommendations by MacArthur, to become the chief of police of a new capital being planned, now named Quezon City , but he declined the offer. Eisenhower returned to the United States in December 1939 and was assigned as commanding officer of the 1st Battalion, 15th Infantry Regiment at Fort Lewis , Washington, later becoming

17157-475: Was only fourteen, Simmons College would not allow her to matriculate without a one-year wait. She graduated with a BA in 1916, the youngest in her class. Her college yearbook listed Marquis among the class' Brightest, Best Student, and Most Promising. Marquis later took courses in economics at the University of Illinois and philosophy at Columbia University . In 1931 she met and married Harry Goshen Marquis,

17290-412: Was placed in the position of a small businessman who overnight was told he must increase his business more than eight times, and to do it at once even before he knew what he was to produc[e], out of what materials, when or how the product was to be made, and with practically no organization to assist." Although headlines asserted that Marquis was a popular commander, this was not universally so. Hoping for

17423-466: Was remorseful for the remainder of his life. Eisenhower developed a keen and enduring interest in exploring the outdoors. He learned about hunting and fishing, cooking, and card playing from a man named Bob Davis who camped on the Smoky Hill River . While his mother was against war, it was her collection of history books that first sparked Eisenhower's interest in military history; he became

17556-473: Was required. Eisenhower requested consideration for either Annapolis or West Point with his Senator, Joseph L. Bristow . Though Eisenhower was among the winners of the entrance-exam competition, he was beyond the age limit for the Naval Academy. He accepted an appointment to West Point in 1911. At West Point, Eisenhower relished the emphasis on traditions and on sports, but was less enthusiastic about

17689-445: Was the auxiliary system itself. It was infeasible to deny Army commanders the ability to command the women working for them and to apply differing rules for women. Army men in a war zone received such additional benefits as extra pay, government life insurance, veteran's medical care if injured. WAACs in the war theater did not. Pressing issues were incapable of resolution within a meaningful time frame. A staff member commented, "The Corps

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