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104-597: Gary Lawrence Francione (born May 1954) is an American academic in the fields of law and philosophy. He is Board of Governors Professor of Law and Katzenbach Scholar of Law and Philosophy at Rutgers University in New Jersey. He is also a visiting professor of philosophy at the University of Lincoln (UK) and honorary professor of philosophy at the University of East Anglia (UK). He is the author of numerous books and articles on animal ethics. Francione graduated with

208-456: A 'small section' class where their section of 30 or fewer people is taught a required subject by a tenured faculty member. Students may choose to attend classes on either a full-time or part-time basis. The law school has nine student journals: The Business Law Review and International Law and Human Rights Journal were accredited in December 2019. Tuition and fees at Rutgers law School for

312-586: A BA in philosophy from the University of Rochester , where he was awarded the Phi Beta Kappa O'Hearn Scholarship, allowing him to pursue graduate study in philosophy in the UK. He received his MA in philosophy and his JD from the University of Virginia , where he was articles editor of the Virginia Law Review . After graduation, he clerked for Judge Albert Tate, Jr. , U.S. Court of Appeals for

416-438: A confession from a suspect, but presents a higher risk of false confession. Many torture victims will say whatever the torturer wants to hear to end the torture. Others who are guilty refuse to confess, especially if they believe it would only bring more torture or punishment. Medieval justice systems attempted to counteract the risk of false confession under torture by requiring confessors to provide falsifiable details about

520-459: A crime, although Islamic law has traditionally considered evidence obtained under torture to be inadmissible . Torture remained legal in Europe during the seventeenth century, but its practice declined. Torture was already of marginal importance to European criminal justice systems by its formal abolition in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Theories for why torture was abolished include

624-485: A criminal offense under a country's laws, evidence obtained under torture may not be admitted in court, and deporting a person to another country where they are likely to face torture is forbidden . Even when it is illegal under national law, judges in many countries continue to admit evidence obtained under torture or ill treatment. It is disputed whether ratification of the CAT decreases, does not affect, or even increases

728-442: A distinction between torture and painful punishments. Historically, torture was seen as a reliable way to elicit the truth, a suitable punishment, and deterrence against future offenses. When torture was legally regulated, there were restrictions on the allowable methods; common methods in Europe included the rack and strappado . In most societies, citizens could be judicially tortured only under exceptional circumstances and for

832-495: A fixed penalty to be torture, as it does not seek to break the victim's will. Torture may also be used indiscriminately to terrorize people other than the direct victim or to deter opposition to the government. In the United States , torture was used to deter slaves from escaping or rebelling. Some defenders of judicial torture prior to its abolition argued that it deterred crime; reformers contended that because torture

936-412: A higher rate than for any other traumatic experience. Not all survivors or rehabilitation experts support using medical categories to define their experience, and many survivors remain psychologically resilient . Criminal prosecutions for torture are rare and most victims who submit formal complaints are not believed. Despite the efforts for evidence-based evaluation of the scars from torture such as

1040-446: A human being can retain within himself" and that "whoever was tortured, stays tortured". Many torture victims, including Améry, later die by suicide. Survivors often experience social and financial problems. Circumstances such as housing insecurity , family separation , and the uncertainty of applying for asylum in a safe country strongly impact survivors' well-being. Death is not an uncommon outcome of torture. Understanding of

1144-516: A newly constructed 225,000-square-foot, six-story building at 123 Washington Street in Newark. In 2015, Rutgers School of Law–Newark and Rutgers School of Law–Camden were unified into a single, jointly administered Rutgers Law School with two campuses. In 2018, Rutgers had a 48% acceptance rate, with 2,535 applications for admission and 1,237 offers. The for the 2018 admitted students, the LSAT 75% - 25%

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1248-576: A person to a capital crime if there were fewer than the two eyewitnesses required to convict someone in the absence of a confession. Torture was still a labor-intensive process reserved for the most severe crimes; most torture victims were men accused of murder, treason, or theft. Medieval ecclesiastical courts and the Inquisition used torture under the same procedural rules as secular courts. The Ottoman Empire and Qajar Iran used torture in cases where circumstantial evidence tied someone to

1352-572: A person to do something and physical attacks that ultimately target the mind. Death threats , mock execution , or being forced to witness the torture of another person are often reported to be subjectively worse than being physically tortured and are associated with severe sequelae . Other torture techniques include sleep deprivation , overcrowding or solitary confinement , withholding of food or water, sensory deprivation (such as hooding ), exposure to extremes of light or noise (e.g., musical torture ), humiliation (which can be based on sexuality or

1456-402: A serious crime such as treason , often only when some evidence already existed. In contrast, non-citizens such as foreigners and slaves were commonly tortured. Torture was rare in early medieval Europe but became more common between 1200 and 1400. Because medieval judges used an exceptionally high standard of proof, they would sometimes authorize torture when circumstantial evidence tied

1560-450: A shift to methods that do not leave marks to aid in deniability and to deprive victims of legal redress. As they faced more pressure and scrutiny, democracies led the innovation in clean torture practices in the early twentieth century; such techniques diffused worldwide by the 1960s. Patterns of torture differ based on a torturer's time limits—for example, resulting from legal limits on pre-trial detention. Beatings or blunt trauma are

1664-460: A side effect of a broken criminal justice system in which underfunding, lack of judicial independence , or corruption undermines effective investigations and fair trials . In this context, people who cannot afford bribes are likely to become victims of torture. Understaffed or poorly trained police are more likely to resort to torture when interrogating suspects. In some countries, such as Kyrgyzstan , suspects are more likely to be tortured at

1768-446: A torture program begins, it usually escalates beyond what is intended initially and often leads to involved agencies losing effectiveness. Torture aims to break the victim's will , destroy their agency and personality , and is cited as one of the most damaging experiences that a person can undergo. Many victims suffer both physical damage— chronic pain is particularly common—and mental sequelae . Although torture survivors have some of

1872-533: A total of 84 credits to graduate. The 1L curriculum requires traditional courses in Torts, Contracts, Property, Criminal Law, Civil Procedure, Constitutional Law, and Legal Analysis, Writing and Research Skills. All required courses are graded on a standard 2.95 - 3.1 GPA curve. 1Ls are grouped in small sections of roughly 30 people, who take all of the same required classes together. Though two or three sections are generally combined for required courses, each student has

1976-490: A vicious cycle in which a fear of internal enemies leads to torture, torture creates false confessions , and false confessions reinforce torturers' fears, leading to a spiral of paranoia and ever-increasing torture"—similar to a witch hunt . Escalation of torture is especially difficult to contain in counterinsurgency operations. Torture and specific techniques spread between different countries, especially by soldiers returning home from overseas wars , although this process

2080-475: Is prohibited under international law for all states under all circumstances and is explicitly forbidden by several treaties. Opposition to torture stimulated the formation of the human rights movement after World War II , and it continues to be an important human rights issue. Although prevention efforts have been of mixed effectiveness, institutional reforms and the elimination of enforced disappearance have had positive effects. Despite its decline, torture

2184-581: Is an adjunct professor of law at Rutgers University , is active in the same field, and has co-authored several publications with Francione. In 2015, Gary Francione was involved in a multimillion-dollar tax dispute with the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). As of 2017, he lives with six dogs, calling them "non-human refugees" who share his home—four suffered cruelty at the hands of past owners. Rutgers Law School According to Rutgers Law School's 2016 ABA-required disclosures, 93.7% of

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2288-584: Is correlated with the belief that torture is effective and used in ticking time bomb cases. Women are more likely to oppose torture than men. Nonreligious people are less likely to support the use of torture than religious people , although for the latter group, increased religiosity increases opposition to torture. The personality traits of right-wing authoritarianism , social dominance orientation , and retributivism are correlated with higher support for torture; embrace of democratic values such as liberty and equality reduces support for torture. Public opinion

2392-451: Is criticized based on all major ethical frameworks, including deontology , consequentialism , and virtue ethics . Some contemporary philosophers argue that torture is never morally acceptable; others propose exceptions to the general rule in real-life equivalents of the ticking time-bomb scenario. Torture stimulated the creation of the human rights movement . In 1969, the Greek case

2496-511: Is enabled by moral disengagement from the victims and impunity for the perpetrators. Public demand for decisive action against crime or even support for torture against criminals can facilitate its use. Once a torture program is begun, it is difficult or impossible to prevent it from escalating to more severe techniques and expanding to larger groups of victims, beyond what is originally intended or desired by decision-makers. Sociologist Christopher J. Einolf argues that "torture can create

2600-905: Is even more common in asymmetric war or civil wars. The ticking time bomb scenario is extremely rare, if not impossible, but is cited to justify torture for interrogation. Fictional portrayals of torture as an effective interrogational method have fueled misconceptions that justify the use of torture. Experiments comparing torture with other interrogation methods cannot be performed for ethical and practical reasons, but most scholars of torture are skeptical about its efficacy in obtaining accurate information, although torture sometimes has obtained actionable intelligence. Interrogational torture can often shade into confessional torture or simply into entertainment, and some torturers do not distinguish between interrogation and confession. A wide variety of techniques have been used for torture. Nevertheless, there are limited ways of inflicting pain while minimizing

2704-515: Is explicitly prohibited under the Geneva Conventions . Some authors, such as John D. Bessler , argue that capital punishment is inherently a form of torture carried out for punishment. Executions may be carried out in brutal ways, such as stoning , death by burning , or dismemberment. The psychological harm of capital punishment is sometimes considered a form of psychological torture. Others do not consider corporal punishment with

2808-502: Is forbidden for all states under all circumstances. Most jurists justify the absolute legal prohibition on torture based on its violation of human dignity . The CAT and its Optional Protocol focus on the prevention of torture, which was already prohibited in international human rights law under other treaties such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights . The CAT specifies that torture must be

2912-585: Is internationally controversial. A variety of methods of torture are used, often in combination; the most common form of physical torture is beatings. Beginning in the twentieth century, many torturers have preferred non- scarring or psychological methods to maintain deniability. Torturers more commonly act out of fear , or due to limited resources, rather than sadism . Although most torturers are thought to learn about torture techniques informally and rarely receive explicit orders, they are enabled by organizations that facilitate and encourage their behavior. Once

3016-408: Is known about the perpetrators of torture. Many torturers see their actions as serving a higher political or ideological goal that justifies torture as a legitimate means of protecting the state. Fear is often the motivation for torture, and it is typically not a rational response as it is usually ineffective or even counterproductive at achieving the desired aim. Torture victims are often viewed by

3120-467: Is known for his work on animal rights theory, and in 1989, was the first academic to teach it in an American law school. His work has focused on three issues: the property status of animals, the differences between animal rights and animal welfare , and a theory of animal rights based on sentience alone, rather than on any other cognitive characteristics. He is a pioneer of the abolitionist theory of animal rights, arguing that animal welfare regulation

3224-774: Is more common than torture in places of detention. There is even less information on the prevalence of torture before the twentieth century. Although it is often assumed that men suffer torture at a higher rate than women, there is a lack of evidence. Some quantitative research has estimated that torture rates are either stagnant or increasing over time, but this may be a measurement effect. Although liberal democracies are less likely to abuse their citizens, they may practice torture against marginalized citizens and non-citizens to whom they are not democratically accountable. Voters may support violence against out-groups seen as threatening; majoritarian institutions are ineffective at preventing torture against minorities or foreigners. Torture

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3328-425: Is more likely when a society feels threatened because of wars or crises, but studies have not found a consistent relationship between the use of torture and terrorist attacks. Torture is directed against certain segments of the population, who are denied the protection against torture given to others. Torture of political prisoners and torture during armed conflicts receive more attention compared to torture of

3432-443: Is most favorable to torture, on average, in countries with low per capita income and high levels of state repression . Public opinion is an important constraint on the use of torture by states. The condemnation of torture as barbaric and uncivilized originated in the debates around its abolition. By the late nineteenth century, countries began to be condemned internationally for the use of torture. The ban on torture became part of

3536-438: Is often assumed that torture is ordered from above at the highest levels of government, sociologist Jonathan Luke Austin argues that government authorization is a necessary but not sufficient condition for torture to occur, given that a specific order to torture rarely can be identified. In many cases, a combination of dispositional and situational effects lead a person to become a torturer. In most cases of systematic torture,

3640-411: Is poorly understood. Torture for punishment dates back to antiquity and is still employed in the twenty-first century. A common practice in countries with dysfunctional justice systems or overcrowded prisons is for police to apprehend suspects, torture them, and release them without a charge. Such torture could be performed in a police station, the victim's home, or a public place. In South Africa,

3744-469: Is required for their use as human property. Animals only have value as commodities and their interests do not matter in any moral sense. As a result, despite having laws that supposedly protect them, Francione contends that we treat animals in ways that would be regarded as torture if humans were the ones being used. He argues that we could choose to provide some greater measure of protection to animals even if they were to remain our property, but only up until

3848-500: Is still practiced in or by most countries. Torture is defined as the deliberate infliction of severe pain or suffering on someone under the control of the perpetrator. The treatment must be inflicted for a specific purpose, such as punishment and forcing the victim to confess or provide information. The definition put forth by the United Nations Convention against Torture only considers torture carried out by

3952-619: Is the deliberate infliction of severe pain or suffering on a person for reasons including punishment , extracting a confession , interrogation for information , or intimidating third parties. Some definitions restrict torture to acts carried out by the state , while others include non-state organizations. Most victims of torture are poor and marginalized people suspected of crimes, although torture against political prisoners , or during armed conflict, has received disproportionate attention. Judicial corporal punishment and capital punishment are sometimes seen as forms of torture, but this label

4056-428: Is theoretically and practically unsound, serving only to prolong the status of animals as property by making the public feel comfortable about using them. He argues that non-human animals require only one right, the right not to be regarded as property, and that veganism —the rejection of the use of animals as mere resources—is the moral baseline of the animal rights movement. He rejects all forms of violence, arguing that

4160-597: Is truly radical and that violence is reactionary. In his Introduction to Animal Rights: Your Child or the Dog? (2000), Francione argues that a theory of abolition should not require that animals have any cognitive characteristic beyond sentience to be full members of the moral community , entitled to the basic, pre-legal right not to be the property of humans. He rejects the position that animals have to have humanlike cognitive characteristics, such as reflective self-awareness, language ability, or preference autonomy in order to have

4264-531: The Istanbul Protocol , most physical examinations are inconclusive. The effects of torture are one of several factors that usually result in inconsistent testimony from survivors, hampering their effort to be believed and secure either refugee status in a foreign country or criminal prosecution of the perpetrators. Although there is less research on the effects of torture on perpetrators, they can experience moral injury or trauma symptoms similar to

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4368-446: The United Nations Convention against Torture (CAT) in 1984. Successful civil society mobilizations against torture can prevent its use by governments that possess both motive and opportunity to use torture. Naming and shaming campaigns against torture have shown mixed results; they can be ineffective and even make things worse. The prohibition of torture is a peremptory norm ( jus cogens ) in international law , meaning that it

4472-568: The civilizing mission justifying colonial rule on the pretext of ending torture, despite the use of torture by colonial rulers themselves. The condemnation was strengthened during the twentieth century in reaction to the use of torture by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union . Shocked by Nazi atrocities during World War II, the United Nations drew up the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights , which prohibited torture. Torture

4576-825: The liberal democracies of the West, but torture was still used there, against ethnic minorities or criminal suspects from marginalized classes, and during overseas wars against foreign populations. After the September 11 attacks , the US government embarked on an overseas torture program as part of its war on terror . It is disputed whether torture increases, decreases, or remains constant. Most countries practice torture, although few acknowledge it. The international prohibition of torture has not completely stopped torture; instead, states have changed which techniques are used and denied, covered up, or outsourced torture programs. Measuring

4680-579: The 2016-2017 academic year is $ 27,011 (full-time, in-state) and $ 39,425 (full-time, out-of-state). According to the U.S. News & World Report Law School Rankings for 2024, the law school is ranked tied for 109th overall, with its part-time program ranking 28th overall out of 70 schools. The U.S. News rankings are based on successful placement of graduates, faculty resources, academic achievements of entering students, and opinions by law schools, lawyers and judges on overall program quality; however, U.S. News , per its data for 2019, has separately ranked

4784-577: The 4th floor of the Prudential Insurance Home Office in Newark for their first classes. In December 1908, the school was moved to a large Victorian townhouse at 33 East Park Street also in Newark. From its founding, women were to be admitted on "equal basis to men." After World War I, the New Jersey Law School saw increase in enrollment and by 1927, enrollment had peaked to more than 2,300 students, making it

4888-598: The Class of 2016 obtained full-time, long-term, JD-required or JD-advantage employment nine months after graduation, excluding solo practitioners. Rutgers Law School is the oldest law school in New Jersey. Rutgers Law School has its roots in three law schools. The first was founded October 5, 1908 as the New Jersey Law School, the second, the South Jersey Law School founded in 1926 by Collingswood, New Jersey mayor and businessmen Arthur E. Armitage, Sr. and

4992-629: The Fifth Circuit, and for Justice Sandra Day O'Connor of the U.S. Supreme Court. After practicing law at the New York firm Cravath, Swaine & Moore , he joined the faculty at the University of Pennsylvania Law School in 1984, and received tenure in 1987. He began to teach animal rights theory as part of his course in jurisprudence in 1985. In 1989, he joined the Rutgers faculty, and in 1990, he and his colleague Anna E. Charlton started

5096-478: The Newark riots of 1967, the faculty created the Minority Students Program (MSP) one of the first law school affirmative action programs in the country, with the goal of increasing African American student enrollment. In 1978, the law faculty voted to admit students regardless of race and revamped the Minority Students Program to focus on socio-economically disadvantaged students in response to

5200-499: The Rome Statute, torture can also be a crime against humanity if committed as part of a systematic attack on a civilian population. In 1987 , Israel became the only country in the world to purportedly legalize torture . Torture prevention is complicated both by lack of understanding about why torture occurs and by lack of application of what is known. Torture proliferates in situations of incommunicado detention . Because

5304-492: The Rutgers Animal Rights Law Project, in which law students were awarded academic credit for working on actual cases involving animals. Francione and Charlton closed the clinic in 2000, but continue to teach courses in animal rights theory, animals and the law, and human rights and animal rights. Francione also teaches criminal law, criminal procedure, and legal philosophy. In 1989, Francione taught

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5408-650: The Supreme Court's decision in Bakke . In Doherty V. Rutgers School Of Law-Newark the 3rd Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the MSP in a lawsuit from a white student alleging discrimination. Throughout the 1970s the Newark campus was a center of activism and law students nicknamed it "The People's Electric Law School." Its graduates from this period include United States Senators Elizabeth Warren and Robert Menendez . After eliminating its evening program in 1955, in 1975,

5512-579: The United Kingdom and Portugal also used torture in attempts to retain their respective empires. Independent states in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia often used torture in the twentieth century, but it is unknown whether their use of torture increased or decreased compared to nineteenth-century levels. During the first half of the twentieth century, torture became more prevalent in Europe with

5616-560: The abolition of animal exploitation , and animal welfare, which seeks to regulate exploitation to make it more humane. Francione contends that the theoretical difference between these two approaches is obvious. The abolitionist position is that we cannot justify our use of nonhumans however "humanely" we treat animals; the regulationist position is that animal use is justifiable and that only issues of treatment are relevant. Francione describes as "new welfarists" those who claim to support animal rights, but who support animal welfare regulation as

5720-402: The abolition of judicial torture, it sees continued use to elicit confessions, especially in judicial systems placing a high value on confessions in criminal matters. The use of torture to force suspects to confess is facilitated by laws allowing extensive pre-trial detention . Research has found that coercive interrogation is slightly more effective than cognitive interviewing for extracting

5824-517: The advent of secret police , World War I and World War II , and the rise of communist and fascist states. Torture was also used by both communist and anti-communist governments during the Cold War in Latin America, with an estimated 100,000 to 150,000 victims of torture by United States–backed regimes. The only countries in which torture was rare during the twentieth century were

5928-768: The animal rights movement is the logical progression of the peace movement, seeking to take it one step further by ending conflict between human and non-human animals, and by treating animals as ends in themselves. Francione is the author or co-author of several books about animal rights, including Animals, Property, and the Law (1995), Rain Without Thunder: The Ideology of the Animal Rights Movement (1996), Animals as Persons (2008), and The Animal Rights Debate: Abolition or Regulation? (2010, with Robert Garner ). "He has also written in

6032-453: The applicant's personal background. Rutgers' admissions process is particularly significant when contrasted with the efforts of some law schools to maximize the undergraduate GPA and LSAT scores of their incoming classes, while increasing the number of part-time students whose GPA and LSAT scores are not counted toward rankings, in order to improve their standing in popular law school ranking publications. The J.D. program at Rutgers requires

6136-454: The areas of copyright, patent law, and law and science". In Animals, Property, and the Law (1995), Francione argues that because animals are the property of humans, laws that supposedly require their "humane" treatment and prohibit the infliction of "unnecessary" harm do not provide a significant level of protection for animal interests. For the most part, these laws and regulations require only that animals receive that level of protection that

6240-613: The concepts that led to the founding of the Women's Rights Litigation Clinic by Professor Nadine H. Taub , who was its director for many years, and the Women's Rights Law Reporter the first American legal journal dedicated women's rights. In 1967, the South Jersey Division was split and created as a separate unit, creating two law schools: Rutgers School of Law – Camden and Rutgers School of Law – Newark . In 1968, following

6344-646: The country's top 250 law firms. The law school ranks 41st in the nation in the 2019 Above the Law Rankings, which weighs graduate employment, quality of graduate jobs, education cost, alumni feedback, student debt, and the number of alumni serving as federal judges. Finally, the law school is ranked 30th according to Business Insider 's 2014 'Top Law Schools in America' list. 40°44′26″N 74°10′24″W  /  40.7405°N 74.1732°W  / 40.7405; -74.1732 Torture Torture

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6448-479: The crime, and only allowing torture if there was already some evidence against the accused. In some countries, political opponents are tortured to force them to confess publicly as a form of state propaganda . The use of torture to obtain information during interrogation accounts for a small percentage of worldwide torture cases; its use for obtaining confessions or intimidation is more common. Although interrogational torture has been used in conventional wars , it

6552-431: The end of the month because of performance quotas. The contribution of bureaucracy to torture is under-researched and poorly understood. Torturers rely on both active supporters and those who ignore it. Military, intelligence, psychology, medical, and legal professionals can all be complicit in torture. Incentives can favor the use of torture on an institutional or individual level, and some perpetrators are motivated by

6656-554: The fact that many of us even live with nonhuman companions whom we regard as members of our families and whose personhood—their status as beings with intrinsic moral value—we do not doubt for a second. On the other hand, because animals are property, they remain things that have no value other than what we choose to accord them and whose interests we protect only when it provides a benefit—usually economic—to do so. According to Francione, if animals are going to matter morally and not be things, we cannot treat them as property. Francione debated

6760-499: The final was Mercer Beasley School of Law named for a former New Jersey Supreme Court Justice and founded in 1926 by several prominent Newark attorneys. The New Jersey Law School was founded as a for-profit law school by Richard D. Currier, a New York lawyer and graduate of Yale and New York Law School . Currier was joined by Charles M. Mason, a New Jersey attorney, who served as dean until his death in 1928. The school originally had only three faculty members 30 students with classes on

6864-428: The first course in an American law school on animal rights and the law. Francione has been a professor at Rutgers since at least 1995, when The New York Times reported that the Rutgers' Animal Rights Law Center, the only one in the United States, was receiving 200 calls a week, and that Francione was losing "well over half the lawsuits the clinic brings", as they were taking a strict abolitionist approach. Francione

6968-402: The highest rates of post-traumatic stress disorder , many are psychologically resilient. Torture has been carried out since ancient times. However, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, many Western countries abolished the official use of torture in the judicial system , although it continued to be used throughout the world. Public opinion research shows general opposition to torture. It

7072-403: The international reputation of countries that use it, strengthen and radicalize violent opposition to those states, and encourage adversaries to themselves use torture. Studies have found that most people around the world oppose the use of torture in general. Some hold definite views on torture; for others, torture's acceptability depends on the victim. Support for torture in specific cases

7176-545: The law has limited legitimacy or is routinely ignored. Sociologically torture operates as a subculture , frustrating prevention efforts because torturers can find a way around rules. Safeguards against torture in detention can be evaded by beating suspects during round-ups or on the way to the police station. General training of police to improve their ability to investigate crime has been more effective at reducing torture than specific training focused on human rights. Institutional police reforms have been effective when abuse

7280-468: The law school 9th in the country where full-time graduates who borrowed for law school and entered the private sector had the highest salary-to-debt ratio. The National Law Journal ranked the law school 47th on its 2015 list of the Top 50 Go-To Law Schools. It was the only law school in New Jersey to appear on that list, which reported that 10.1% of the law school's 2014 graduates were hired directly by one of

7384-454: The law school restarted an evening program on Camden and Newark campus. From 1965 to 1978 the Newark division of the law school was located on Akerson Hall. In 1978, it moved to a skyscraper at 15 Washington Street which was renamed in honor of billionaire media baron Samuel I. Newhouse, Sr. , a 1916 graduate of the law school. In January 2000, the school moved to the Center for Law and Justice,

7488-631: The link between specific torture methods and health consequences is lacking. These consequences can include peripheral neuropathy , damage to teeth, rhabdomyolysis from extensive muscle damage, traumatic brain injury , sexually transmitted infection , and pregnancy from rape . Chronic pain and pain-related disability are commonly reported, but there is scant research into this effect or possible treatments. Common psychological problems affecting survivors include traumatic stress , anxiety , depression, and sleep disturbance . An average of 40 percent have long-term post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD),

7592-679: The most common form of physical torture reported by about two-thirds of survivors. They may be either unsystematic or focused on a specific part of the body, as in falanga (the soles of the feet ), repeated strikes against both ears, or shaking the detainee so that their head moves back and forth. Often, people are suspended in painful positions such as strappado or upside-down hanging in combination with beatings. People may also be subjected to stabbings or puncture wounds , have their nails removed , or body parts amputated . Burns are also common, especially cigarette burns , but other instruments are also employed, including hot metal, hot fluids,

7696-831: The necessary infrastructure for a torture program and instead intimidate by killing. Research has found that state torture can extend the lifespan of terrorist organizations, increase incentives for insurgents to use violence, and radicalize the opposition. Another form of torture for deterrence is violence against migrants, as has been reported during pushbacks on the European Union's external borders. Torture has been used throughout history to extract confessions from detainees. In 1764, Italian reformer Cesare Beccaria denounced torture as "a sure way to acquit robust scoundrels and to condemn weak but innocent people". Similar doubts about torture's effectiveness had been voiced for centuries previously, including by Aristotle . Despite

7800-566: The perpetrators as severe threats and enemies of the state . Studies of perpetrators do not support the common assumption that they are psychologically pathological. Most perpetrators do not volunteer to be torturers; many have an innate reluctance to employ violence, and rely on coping mechanisms , such as alcohol or drugs. Psychiatrist Pau Pérez-Sales finds that torturers act from a variety of motives such as ideological commitment, personal gain, group belonging, avoiding punishment, or avoiding guilt from previous acts of torture. Although it

7904-407: The point where it becomes too costly for us to continue. Legal, social, and economic forces militate strongly against recognizing animal interests unless there is an economic benefit to humans. In Rain Without Thunder: The Ideology of the Animal Rights Movement (1996), Francione argues that there are significant theoretical and practical differences between animal rights, which he maintains requires

8008-443: The police have been observed handing suspects over to vigilantes to be tortured. This type of extrajudicial violence is often carried out in public to deter others. It discriminatorily targets minorities and marginalized groups and may be supported by the public, especially if people do not trust the official justice system. The classification of judicial corporal punishment as torture is internationally controversial, although it

8112-420: The poor , through laws targeting homelessness , sex work , or working in the informal economy , can lead to violent and arbitrary policing. Routine violence against poor and marginalized people is often not seen as torture, and its perpetrators justify the violence as a legitimate policing tactic; victims lack the resources or standing to seek redress. Since most research has focused on torture victims, less

8216-499: The poor or criminal suspects. Most victims of torture are suspected of crimes; a disproportionate number of victims are from poor or marginalized communities. Groups especially vulnerable to torture include unemployed young men, the urban poor , LGBT people , refugees and migrants, ethnic and racial minorities, indigenous people , and people with disabilities . Relative poverty and the resulting inequality in particular leave poor people vulnerable to torture. Criminalization of

8320-426: The primary way to achieve incremental recognition of the inherent value of nonhumans. He argues that there is no factual support for this position because not only do regulations seldom if ever go beyond treating animals as economic commodities with only extrinsic value, but the perception that regulation has improved the "humane" treatment of animals may very well facilitate continued and increased exploitation by making

8424-415: The prospect of career advancement. Bureaucracy can diffuse responsibility for torture and help perpetrators excuse their actions. Maintaining secrecy is often essential to maintaining a torture program, which can be accomplished in ways ranging from direct censorship, denial, or mislabeling torture as something else, to offshoring abuses to outside a state's territory. Along with official denials, torture

8528-423: The public feel more comfortable about its consumption of animal products. A central tenet of Francione's philosophy is that the most important form of incremental change within the abolitionist framework is veganism . Francione has also long argued that the animal rights movement is the logical extension of the peace movement and should embrace a non-violent approach. He maintains that an abolitionist/vegan movement

8632-676: The rate at which torture occurs is difficult because it is typically committed in secrecy, and abuses are likelier to come to light in open societies where there is a commitment to protecting human rights. Many torture survivors, especially those from poor or marginalized populations, are unwilling to report. Monitoring has focused on police stations and prisons, although torture can also occur in other facilities such as immigration detention and youth detention centers . Torture that occurs outside of custody—including extrajudicial punishment, intimidation, and crowd control —has traditionally not been counted, even though some studies have suggested it

8736-541: The rate of torture in a country. In international humanitarian law , which regulates the conduct of war, torture was first outlawed by the 1863 Lieber Code . Torture was prosecuted during the Nuremberg trials as a crime against humanity ; it is recognized by both the 1949 Geneva Conventions and the 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court as a war crime . According to

8840-429: The right not to be used by humans as resources. Francione derives this right from the principle of equal consideration in that he maintains that if animals are property, their interests can never receive equal consideration. As part of this discussion, Francione identifies what he calls our "moral schizophrenia" when it comes to nonhumans. On the one hand, we say that we take animal interests seriously. Francione points to

8944-482: The rise of Enlightenment ideas about the value of the human person, the lowering of the standard of proof in criminal cases, popular views that no longer saw pain as morally redemptive, and the expansion of imprisonment as an alternative to executions or painful punishments. It is not known if torture also declined in non-Western states or European colonies during the nineteenth century. In China, judicial torture, which had been practiced for more than two millennia,

9048-464: The risk of death. Survivors report that the exact method used is not significant. Most forms of torture include both physical and psychological elements and multiple methods are typically used on one person. Different methods of torture are popular in different countries. Low-tech methods are more commonly used than high-tech ones, and attempts to develop scientifically validated torture technology have failed. The prohibition of torture motivated

9152-448: The risk of torture is highest directly after an arrest, procedural safeguards such as immediate access to a lawyer and notifying relatives of an arrest are the most effective ways of prevention. Visits by independent monitoring bodies to detention sites can also help reduce torture. Legal changes that are not implemented in practice have little effect on the incidence of torture. Legal changes can be particularly ineffective in places where

9256-630: The schools was designed created a stronger institution however the law school experienced a major decline in enrollment due to World War II and therefore was in a precarious financial condition. In 1946, the University of Newark merged with Rutgers University and the law school was renamed the Rutgers University School of Law. In 1950, the South Jersey Law School in Camden, New Jersey, merged with Rutgers University . The school

9360-399: The second largest law school in the United States. In 1927 the school moved to the former Ballantine & Sons Ale Brewery at 40 Rector Street. In 1934, Mercer Beasley School of Law and Newark Institute of Arts and Sciences merged to form the University of Newark and two years later, the New Jersey Law School joined establishing the University of Newark Law School. Combining the resources of

9464-418: The sentience of plants with Michael Marder in a debate organized by Columbia University Press . Francione opposes violence in the struggle for animal rights. He has been criticized for this stance by Steven Best , who refers to those in the movement who reject violence as "Franciombes" and supports the more permissive attitude to violence of groups such as Negotiation is Over . His wife, Anna E. Charlton,

9568-417: The state. Most legal systems include agents acting on behalf of the state, and some definitions add non-state armed groups , organized crime , or private individuals working in state-monitored facilities ( such as hospitals ). The most expansive definitions encompass anyone as a potential perpetrator. Although torture is usually classified as more severe than cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment (CIDT),

9672-446: The sun, or acid . Forced ingestion of water , food , or other substances, or injections are also used as torture. Electric shocks are often used to torture, especially to avoid other methods that are more likely to leave scars. Asphyxiation , of which waterboarding is a form, inflicts torture on the victim by cutting off their air supply. Psychological torture includes methods that involve no physical element as well as forcing

9776-541: The threshold at which treatment can be classified as torture is the most controversial aspect of its definition; the interpretation of torture has broadened over time. Another approach, preferred by scholars such as Manfred Nowak and Malcolm Evans , distinguishes torture from CIDT by considering only the torturer's purpose, and not the severity. Other definitions, such as that in the Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture , focus on

9880-540: The torturer's aim "to obliterate the personality of the victim". Torture was legally and morally acceptable in most ancient, medieval, and early modern societies. There is archaeological evidence of torture in Early Neolithic Europe, about 7,000 years ago. Torture is commonly mentioned in historical sources on Assyria and Achaemenid Persia . Societies used torture both as part of the judicial process and as punishment, although some historians make

9984-579: The torturers were desensitized to violence by being exposed to physical or psychological abuse during training which can be a deliberate tactic to create torturers. Even when not explicitly ordered by the government to torture, perpetrators may feel peer pressure due to competitive masculinity. Elite and specialized police units are especially prone to torturing, perhaps because of their tight-knit nature and insulation from oversight. Although some torturers are formally trained, most are thought to learn about torture techniques informally. Torture can be

10088-412: The victim and in some cultures, humiliate their family and society. Cultural and individual differences affect how the victim perceives different torture methods. Torture is one of the most devastating experiences that a person can undergo. Torture aims to break the victim's will and destroy the victim's agency and personality. Torture survivor Jean Améry argued that it was "the most horrible event

10192-427: The victim's religious or national identity), and the use of animals such as dogs to frighten or injure a prisoner. Positional torture works by forcing the person to adopt a stance, putting their weight on a few muscles, causing pain without leaving marks, for example standing or squatting for extended periods. Rape and sexual assault are universal torture methods and frequently instill a permanent sense of shame in

10296-403: The victims , especially when they feel guilty about their actions. Torture has corrupting effects on the institutions and societies that perpetrate it. Torturers forget important investigative skills because torture can be an easier way than time-consuming police work to achieve high conviction rates, encouraging the continued and increased use of torture. Public disapproval of torture can harm

10400-577: Was 158-153 and the UGPA 75% - 25% was 3.61 - 3.08. Rutgers' admissions process offers applicants a choice between competing for admission based primarily on traditional measures such as LSAT scores and college GPAs, or, alternatively, on the basis of an applicant's life experience, with a lesser (though still significant) emphasis placed on traditional factors. Factors that may be considered in the Rutgers admissions process include, but are not limited to, work experience, personal accomplishments, and other aspects of

10504-552: Was banned in 1905 along with flogging and lingchi ( dismemberment ) as a means of execution, although torture in China continued throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Torture was widely used by colonial powers to subdue resistance and reached a peak during the anti-colonial wars in the twentieth century. An estimated 300,000 people were tortured during the Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962), and

10608-469: Was carried out in secret, it could not be an effective deterrent. In the twentieth century, well-known examples include the Khmer Rouge and anti-communist regimes in Latin America, who tortured and murdered their victims as part of forced disappearance . Authoritarian regimes often resort to indiscriminate repression because they cannot accurately identify potential opponents. Many insurgencies lack

10712-575: Was divided between the Newark Division and the South Jersey division based in Camden, with the dean and law school administration based in Newark. During the 1950s and 1960s the law school expanded in size creating the largest law library in New Jersey and its faculty tripled in size. In 1963, the future U.S. Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg was hired as a law professor and served on the faculty until 1972. Ginsburg developed some of

10816-499: Was the first time that an international body—the European Commission on Human Rights —found that a state practiced torture and it, along with Ireland v. United Kingdom , formed much of the basis for the definition of torture in international law. In the early 1970s, Amnesty International launched a global campaign against torture, exposing its widespread use despite international prohibition and eventually leading to

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