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127-632: Clavijero was born in Veracruz , Mexico to a Spanish father and a Criolla mother. His father worked for the Spanish crown , and was transferred frequently between towns. Most of the father's posts were to locations with a strong indigenous presence, and because of this Clavijero learned Nahuatl growing up. The family lived at various times in Teziutlán , Puebla , and later in Jamiltepec , in

254-519: A tropical savanna climate ( Koppen : Aw ). The wet season typically lasts from June to October, when a vast majority of the yearly precipitation falls. Large tropical thunderstorms occur nearly daily in the late afternoon, originating in the moist atmosphere above the Gulf of Mexico. The wet season has slightly hotter temperatures and is more humid than other seasons; the dewpoint can easily exceed 25 °C (77.0 °F). It has fewer foggy days than

381-518: A Jesuit college in Tepotzotlán , State of Mexico . There he continued to study Latin and also learned ancient Greek , French , Portuguese , Italian , German , and English . In 1751 he was sent back to Puebla for further studies in philosophy. Here he was introduced to the works of such contemporary thinkers as Descartes , Newton , and Leibniz . Clavijero was then sent to Mexico City , to complete his theological and philosophical studies at

508-624: A Puerto Rican taken captive by English pirates off the Philippine Islands is a historical account, not a fictional one. The archival documents contain dozens of eyewitness accounts corroborating not only the existence of Ramírez, his marriage in Mexico City, and also his capture in 1687, his life with pirates (most notably William Dampier ), his collaboration with them, and his return to Mexico in 1690, at which time Spanish colonial authorities suspected Alonso of piracy. López Lázaro

635-568: A body which, within a few days, must be corruption and decay." The autopsy revealed a kidney stone the size of a peach. Sigüenza left his library and scientific instruments to the Jesuit Colegio Máximo de San Pedro y San Pablo in Mexico City. He was buried at the chapel of this Colegio, which could point to his having been reconciled with the Order. He also left a number of unpublished manuscripts, only fragments of which survived

762-478: A charity the "misogynistic prelate could not abide." Sigüenza not only pursued his interests in science, but he was also a poet, non-fiction writer, historian , philosopher , cartographer , and cosmographer of the realm. Such was his prestige that the French King Louis XIV tried to induce him to come to Paris . He published his first poem in 1662. From 1671 to 1701 (posthumous) he published

889-454: A conception that persists to this day. He further identified Fernando Alva de Ixtlilxochitl as the author of the Nican motecpana . This declaration was stimulated by Francisco de Florencia's Polestar of Mexico , which claimed that the original Nahuatl account had been written by Franciscan Fray Jerónimo de Mendieta . In 1680, he was commissioned to design a triumphal arch for the arrival of

1016-481: A considerable breach had been made in the wall surrounding the city. Upon this General Morales, who was Governor of both the city and of San Juan de Ulúa, commenced a correspondence with General Winfield Scott looking to the surrender of the town, forts and garrison. On the 29th Vera Cruz and San Juan de Ulúa were occupied by Scott's army. About five thousand prisoners and four hundred pieces of artillery, in addition to large amounts of small arms and ammunition, fell into

1143-448: A doctoral degree in the subjects. It was not clear that he could even be eligible to compete, but Sigüenza argued successfully to do so. Selection for university posts was via oposiciones or competition between candidates. A question was posed and the candidate had to complete a response within 24 hours to be judged by a panel. Ghost writers or ringers sometimes completed the exercise and Sigüenza successfully argued that his chief rival for

1270-648: A fascinating profile of his own reactions to the dramatic events." It is a major source for the Spanish version of events, published as "Letter of Don Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora to Admiral Pez Recounting the incidents of the Corn Riot in Mexico City, June 8, 1692." In 1692, there was a severe drought in New Spain and a disease attacking wheat, called in Nahuatl "chiahuiztli". The crown sought sources of corn outside

1397-566: A fire nearly reduced much of the city to ashes. In 1640, the Barlovento Armada was stationed here for additional defense against pirates. The pirates, led by Spain's rival nations, Nicholas van Hoorn , Laurens de Graaf and Michel de Grammont attacked Vera Cruz in 1683 . During the 18th century Veracruz's defence was improved with the construction of a wall around it (1790), bastions Baluarte de Santiago and gates, and San Juan de Ulua's renovation to today's appearance. The reason

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1524-414: A lawsuit against Spaniards attempting to usurp his holdings near the great pyramids at San Juan Teotihuacan. Don Juan in gratitude for Sigüenza's aid, gifted him the manuscripts and codices of his historian father, Don Fernando Alva Ixtlilxochitl. This was a rich collection of documents of his royal ancestors and the kings of Texcoco . In 1668, Sigüenza began the study of Aztec history and Toltec writing. On

1651-457: A letter for having completely shaken off the yoke of obedience, responding with an "I don't want to" to those who assigned you duties, as occurred yesterday, or at the very least this answer was given to the superior, who in truth did not know what path to take so that Your Reverence would fulfill and embrace your duty. Relocating you is hardly a solution, and Your Reverence's life and example have provided no satisfaction, almost completely removing

1778-423: A natural break. In the pre-Hispanic era, this island was a sanctuary dedicated to the god Tezcatlipoca. The site where the Spanish first landed has been developed over the centuries and today serves as the container ship terminal of the port. Most of the island is occupied by the fort. This fort was built where the Spanish first landed to conquer Mexico City. They used it for their last defense during and just after

1905-582: A professor, he took on a number of other posts. He was chaplain of the Hospital del Amor de Dios (now Academia de San Carlos) from 1682 until his death. This post provided him with living quarters, which given his strapped financial circumstances was a major benefit. It also was a steady income from celebrating masses for a fixed fee. He also served as Chief Almoner for the Archbishop of Mexico, Don Francisco de Aguiar y Seijas, distributing alms to poor women,

2032-515: A reputation for being lively, with many people out in the squares listening to music late into the night. In the morning, they frequent sidewalk cafes for their morning coffee. Veracruz has become a popular location for filming. The government has supported the development of filmmaking in the municipality. The song " La Bamba ", made famous by Ritchie Valens , has its roots in the Veracruz "son" style of music, which originated in southern part of

2159-498: A series of dungeons with walls 24-feet thick in some places. Those cells which were darker and hotter were reserved for those charged with more serious crimes. A few of the most dreaded dungeons were nicknamed "Heaven", "Purgatory" and "Hell". Some of prison's more famous prisoners include Fray Servando Teresa de Mier and Benito Juárez, both political prisoners. But the most famous is Jesús Arriaga, better known as " Chucho el Roto ". Most people visit San Juan de Ulúa out of attraction to

2286-413: A strong criticism of Sigüenza's opinion on comets, without naming him specifically. Kino's criticism was that because they were contradictory to established astronomical/astrological belief in the heavens. Sigüenza often cited authors such as Copernicus , Galileo , Descartes , Kepler , and Tycho Brahe . In 1690, Sigüenza moved to defend his previous work by publishing "Libra Astronómica y Filosófica"; it

2413-469: A time spent in the viceregal court. Although Sor Juana was cloistered, the Hieronymite order followed a more relaxed rule and nuns could have visitors in the locutorio or special room for conversation in the convent. Known as the "Tenth Muse", she was a formidable intellect and poet, and was encouraged in her scientific studies by Sigüenza. Each was well known in circles of power and with the arrival of

2540-779: A tourist destination, emphasizing new attractions such as the Veracruz Aquarium and the City Museum, and the renovation of historic ones, such as Fort San Juan de Ulúa and the Naval Academy. The cultural center of the city is its main plaza, officially named Plaza de las Armas but commonly called the Zócalo. This tree-shaded square, in which a number of foreign invading armies have camped, is occupied from morning to night with people playing dominos, selling food, cigars, etc. playing music, dancing and other activities. It

2667-544: A variety of seafood and caldo de mariscos , a seafood soup reputed to cure hangovers . Coffeehouses are a center of social life in the city, and the Gran Café del Portal and the Café de la Parroquia are the two best-known establishments. To request a refill, customers clink the sides of their glasses (not cups) with their spoons. This clinking can be heard from the early morning to late at night. The story behind this custom

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2794-570: A view of the Indigenous as peaceful and good, while heavily criticizing the actions of the Spanish conquistadors . Clavijero's work is seen today as overly sentimental and unreliable, but it is still read by many historians who seek detailed information about early American daily life. In addition to La Historia Antigua de México , Father Clavijero published these works: Father Francisco Javier Clavijero died in Bologna on April 2, 1787, at 4 in

2921-492: A yearly almanac. A. Margarita Peraza-Rugeley has studied the surviving almanacs in her 2013 book. In 1690 Sigüenza published a pirate captivity narrative which has been considered Latin America's first novel, Los infortunios de Alonso Ramírez . However, new archival evidence discovered by Fabio López Lázaro (2007, 2011), José F. Buscaglia (2009, 2011), and A. Margarita Peraza-Rugeley (2013) proves that this incredible story of

3048-554: Is May to August. The mainland has several beaches. Playa Martí is located between the city of Veracruz and Boca del Río. The Playa de Hornos is located next to the Veracruz Aquarium. There are also boats that take tourist to the Isla Canuncito. Villa del Mar is just south of Playa de Hornos. Like the majority of the coastal part of the state of Veracruz and southern parts of Tamaulipas , the city of Veracruz has

3175-540: Is a major port city and municipal seat for the surrounding municipality of Veracruz on the Gulf of Mexico and the most populous city in the Mexican state of Veracruz . The city is located along the coast in the central part of the state, 90 km (56 mi) southeast of the state capital Xalapa . It is the state's most populous city, with a population that is greater than the municipality's population, as part of

3302-536: Is also located on the Zócalo. This cathedral was begun in the 17th century and finished in 1731. It was modified in the 19th century but was not designated as a cathedral until 1963. The building has five naves , with an octagonal cupola covered in Puebla tiles . The tower was begun in the early 20th century and has its own small cupola. The main façade is Neoclassic with two levels and a crest. The lower level contains an arched entrance flanked by two Doric columns and

3429-611: Is best known for its sharks. The Salt Water Gallery contains fourteen tanks with tanks dedicated to the species of Veracruz, the Red Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Another exhibit is devoted to sharks, containing 25 species that swim around visitors as they walk through a glass tunnel built through the tank. There is also an exhibit dedicated entirely to manatees . Carlos de Sig%C3%BCenza y G%C3%B3ngora Don Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora (August 14, 1645 – August 22, 1700)

3556-653: Is best seen in the food and music of the area, which has strong Spanish, Caribbean and African influences. The name Veracruz (originally Vera Cruz ), derives from the Latin Vera Crux ( True Cross ). Having established the settlement of Villa Rica (Rich Village) on Good Friday , 22 April 1519, Cortés dedicated the place to the True Cross as an offering . The Spanish captain Juan de Grijalva , along with Bernal Díaz del Castillo , first arrived in 1518 at

3683-701: Is left of these city walls is the Baluarte , a small fortress. The 1635 structure has thick, sturdy walls with cannons directed to cover sea approaches. Inside is a small museum featuring a collection of high-quality pre-Hispanic jewelry discovered in the 1970s by a fisherman. The Veracruz Aquarium was built in 1992 and is the largest and most important in Latin America. The Freshwater Gallery consists of thirteen exhibitions containing 562,177 liters of water. These exhibitions contain aquatic species from Asia, Africa, South America as well as Mexico. The Reef Tank

3810-415: Is more crowded in the evening, when nearly every night the danzón is danced. This dance was brought over to Mexico from Cuba by refugees in the 1870s. It was originally restricted to the lower classes but eventually gained accepted by all levels of society. The danzón is sponsored by several dance schools dedicated to keeping the tradition alive. Around the plaza are numerous shops and restaurants, as well as

3937-481: Is that a trolley driver used to ring his bell when he was a block away from the Gran Café del Portal to let the waiters know he was coming. When the driver died, his casket was borne on the trolley and when it passed the establishment, the customers and waiters tapped their glasses in his honor. Veracruz is not as popular a tourist destination as many other resort areas. But the city has been promoting an identity as

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4064-422: Is the largest celebration in the country. Sugar and rum production have been mainstays as commodities; during colonial times they were produced by slave labor and later, immigrants often entered labor and industrial jobs. Together these ethnic groups have created rich cultures. The Naval Academy attracts both Mexican and international sailors and officers, adding to the cosmopolitan mix of the city. The city has

4191-466: The Colegio de San Pedro y Pablo . Here he joined with other students of stature, including José Rafael Campoy , Andrés Cavo , Francisco Javier Alegre , Juan Luis Maneiro and Pedro José Márquez , part of a group known today as the "Mexican humanists of the eighteenth century". While still a student, he began teaching, and was made prefect of the Colegio de San Ildefonso . Later he was appointed to

4318-571: The East Bay River of Florida and the land where the city of Navarre is now located. In 1694, he retired from the university. His final years were marked by even more financial and personal troubles. He became ill, with what physicians identified as either gallstones or kidney stones and he was in considerable pain. His patron the Archbishop Aguiar y Seijas died and Sigüenza lost his lucrative post of Chief Almoner. He also lost

4445-548: The Gulf of Mexico to the northeast, and has an average altitude of ten meters above sea level. The area is flat with little in the way of elevations and is crossed by the Medio, Grande and Tonayán Rivers. There are also beaches here such as the Sacrificios and Verde. Its climate is tropical with an average temperature of 25.3 °C (77.5 °F). Vegetation is mostly of the rainforest type, with many trees losing leaves during

4572-587: The Mexican Revolution (1910–1920), the US attacked and occupied the port in an effort to try to preserve trade in the dispute with President Victoriano Huerta . The city gained its fourth title of "Heroic City". After the Revolution, most port workers became unionized. Through most of the 20th century, federal and state legal and political initiatives intended to better workers' lives had effects on

4699-513: The Mixtec region of Oaxaca . Clavijero's biographer, Juan Luis Maneiro , wrote: From the time of his boyhood, he had occasion to deal intimately with the indigenous people, to learn thoroughly their customs and nature, and to investigate attentively the many special things the land produces, be they plants, animals or minerals. There was no high mountain, dark cave, pleasant valley, spring, brook, or any other place that drew his curiosity to which

4826-572: The Veracruz Reef System , which is protected as a national park. Visitors can kayak to the Isla de Sacrificios to observe seagulls, pelicans and the fish that inhabit the coral reef. In 1983, a study and initial cleanup project was undertaken at the island, which collected fifty tons of trash. Shortly thereafter, the island was closed to the public and since then, there has been a struggle among authorities, tour operators and fisherman as to

4953-684: The cathedral (1731), the Military Hospital of San Carlos (1731) or modern water supply and sewerage systems. In 1804 the Balmis Expedition arrived at Veracruz with the smallpox vaccine, which was from here transported to the whole of New Spain. The 19th century was marked by armed conflicts. During the Mexican War of Independence , Spain placed troops here to maintain Mexico City's sea link with Spain. In 1816, Antonio López de Santa Anna commanded royalist troops countering

5080-674: The "Queen of the Sciences", but Sigüenza's stance is on the side of science as defined in the modern era. In the 1680s, he prepared the first-ever map of all of New Spain, which won high praise and was widely copied. He also drew hydrologic maps of the Valley of Mexico . In 1692 King Charles II named him official geographer for the colony. As royal geographer, he participated in the 1692 expedition to Pensacola Bay , Florida under command of Andrés de Pez , to seek out defensible frontiers against French encroachment. He mapped Pensacola Bay and

5207-451: The 16th century, the Spanish had constructed roads to link Veracruz with other cities such as Córdoba , Orizaba , Puebla , Xalapa and Perote . Their gold and silver were the principal exports. This caused the city problems with pirates, prompting the construction of Fort San Juan de Ulúa on the island where Grijalva had landed in the mid-16th century. In 1600, when large-scale smuggling of goods took place to avoid customs officials,

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5334-493: The 1920s, passenger traffic was such that the station had its own hotel. The Juárez Hemicycle Monument stands in front of the Civil Registry Building, which contains the first birth certificate issued in the country. The malecón (boardwalk) stretches for kilometers along the Gulf of Mexico, leading from the city center into the suburbs. This area is popular at night, when people stroll and exercise, enjoying

5461-546: The Americans . This work revealed to Clavijero the extent of European ignorance about the nature and culture of pre-Columbian Americans, and spurred his work to show the true history of Mexico. He worked for years on his history, consulting Italian libraries and corresponding with friends in Mexico who answered his questions by consulting the original works there. Finally his work was ready. It consisted of ten volumes containing

5588-688: The Ancient Monarchs of the Mexican Empire, Whose Effigies Adorn the Arch Erected by the Very Noble Imperial City of Mexico. Sigüenza's title was meant to convey to the new viceroy that his tenure in office was in a long line of Mexican monarchs. On the arch were images of all twelve Aztec rulers, "each taken to embody different political virtues. Also represented was the god Huitzilopochtli, whom Sigüenza claimed

5715-531: The Aztec codices, the reference works, and the accounts of the first Spanish conquistadors, he retained in his memory the information from his earlier studies. He was able to write the work he had always intended, La Historia Antigua de México ( ISBN   968-6871-20-9 ). In Italy a work by the Prussian Cornelius de Pauw came to his attention. It was entitled Philosophical Investigations Concerning

5842-564: The Indians did not take the boy to in order to please him. He began his studies in Puebla, at the college of San Jerónimo for grammar and the Jesuit college of San Ignacio for philosophy , Latin , and theology . Upon completion of these studies, he entered a seminary in Puebla, Puebla to study for the priesthood , but soon decided to become a Jesuit instead. In February 1748 he transferred to

5969-601: The Mexican War of Independence. Between these periods, the fort helped defend the city against piracy and later was used for prisoners and interrogations of the Mexican Inquisition . The fort was begun here in 1582 to protect the city from pirates and was enlarged in 1635 during the period of frequent pirate raids. It was finished in 1707. After the War of Independence ended in 1821, the Spanish kept control of

6096-659: The Pantheon Dolores in Mexico City. Posterity will judge, from the works that he left, how great was Clavijero. Father Juan Luis Maneiro, his friend, coworker and biographer Schools, libraries, botanical gardens, avenues and parks throughout the Republic of Mexico have been named for him, including: Veracruz, Veracruz Veracruz ( Latin American Spanish pronunciation: [beɾaˈkɾus] ), also known as Heroica Veracruz ,

6223-539: The Spanish Crown ordered the settlement returned to its original site to cut down on that traffic. Docks and an observation tower were constructed on the island to ensure that goods went through customs officials. Major public buildings were constructed at the beginning of the 17th century: the municipal palace, the monastery of Nuestra Señora de la Merced , and the Hospital de Nuestra Señora de Loreto . In 1618,

6350-592: The Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés arrived in what is now Mexican territory on 22 April 1519, he founded a city, which he named Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz , referring to the area's gold and dedicated to the " True Cross ", because he landed on the Christian holy day of Good Friday , the day of the Crucifixion . It was the first Spanish settlement on the mainland of the Americas to receive a coat-of-arms. During

6477-677: The Vatican and the Escorial, and to library of the duke of Florence, but in the end he willed them to the College of San Pedro and San Pablo. He was particularly concerned about the native materials in his collection. For an account of what happened to these documents after the death of Sigüenza, see Lorenzo Boturini Bernaducci . Sigüenza wrote Indian Spring whose full title in Spanish is Primavera indiana, poema sacrohistórico, idea de María Santíssima de Guadalupe (1662). The work contributed to

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6604-513: The afternoon. He was 55 years of age. He did not live to see the publication of Historia de la Antigua o Baja California , which was published two years later in Venice. On August 5, 1970, the remains of Father Clavijero were repatriated to Veracruz, the place of his birth. They were received with the honors due to an illustrious son. He is now interred in the Rotonda de los Personajes Ilustres in

6731-430: The ashes to which oblivion had consigned them, so that, like Western phoenixes, they may be immortalized by fame" and be recognized as having "heroic ... imperial virtues." Sigüenza praised the arch that Sor Juana had designed, but hers took the theme of Neptune in fable and did not manifest any explicit theme "contribut[ing] to the growth of creole patriotism." Sigüenza's ideas about the ancient Mexicans were informed by

6858-522: The attack earned its first title of "Heroic City". During the Pastry War in 1837, the city mounted a defense against a French attack, and earned its second title of "Heroic City." In 1847 during the Mexican–American War , United States forces invaded the city. It was defended by generals Juan Morales and José Juan de Landero. The siege continued with brisk firing until 27 March, by which time

6985-532: The chair of rhetoric in the Seminario Mayor of the Jesuits, an exceptional appointment as he had yet to be ordained as a priest . In 1754, Clavijero was ordained a priest. He began to teach at the Colegio de San Gregorio , founded at the beginning of the colonial era to teach Indian youth. He spent five years there. Quoting from his biographer: In those five years he examined with great curiosity all

7112-468: The city for seven months . For much of the 20th century, the production of petroleum was most important for the state's economy but, in the latter 20th century and into the 21st, the port has re-emerged as the main economic engine. It has become the principal port for most of Mexico's imports and exports, especially for the automotive industry. Veracruz has a blend of cultures, mostly indigenous , Spanish and Afro-Caribbean . The influence of these three

7239-480: The city of Veracruz extends into the neighboring municipality of Boca del Río . At the 2020 census, Veracruz Municipality had a population of 607,209 inhabitants. The city of Veracruz had a population of 537,952 inhabitants, 405,952 in Veracruz municipality and 132,011 in Boca del Río municipality. Developed during Spanish colonization, Veracruz is Mexico's oldest, largest, and historically most significant port. When

7366-474: The city such as the main theater. While the events were officially held at these locations, many residents took advantage of the celebration on the streets near these sites. Eventually, the event became based in the historic center of the city and focused on the Carnaval Parade of Veracruz. Today, the event begins with the "Burning of Bad Humor" and ends with the "Burial of Juan Carnaval". Carnaval here

7493-425: The city there are a number of industrial sites producing paints and solvents, food products, plastics, petrochemicals and metals. Veracruz has many beaches and off coast islands. Controversy has accompanied the clean-up of the island called Isla de Sacrificios , which lies just off the coast of the city and measures 450 meters long and 198 meters wide. The island is part of a system of twenty-three coral reefs called

7620-491: The city when the emperor and his wife Carlota of Belgium arrived in 1864. The conflicts and damaged trade relations with Europe took its toll on the port of Veracruz. By 1902, the port facilities had deteriorated, and it was considered one of the most dangerous on the American coast. President Porfirio Díaz contracted with foreign enterprises to modernize the port's infrastructure. Between April and November 1914, during

7747-496: The coast of Yucatán, Mexico. Seventeenth-century Mexico City had two savants, Don Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora and Doña Juana Inés de Asbaje y Ramírez de Santillana, known to posterity as the Hieronymite nun, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz . It is unclear at what point the two made their acquaintance, but they lived a short distance away from each other, he in the Amor de Dios Hospital and she in the convent where she had taken vows following

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7874-437: The colonial period, African slaves were imported to work in the fields and shipyards. Following Mexico's independence from Spain in 1821, immigrants from Italy and Cuba settled in the city. The Veracruz Carnaval has been celebrated every year since 1866, during the empire of Maximilian I . At that time, a request was made to sponsor a "Festival of Masks", which would consist of dances at the principal social gathering sites of

8001-496: The colonial period, this city had the largest mercantile class and was at times wealthier than the capital, Mexico City. Its wealth attracted the raids of 17th-century pirates, against which fortifications such as Fort San Juan de Ulúa were built. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Veracruz was invaded on different occasions by France and the United States; in the aftermath of the 1914 Tampico Affair , US troops occupied

8128-558: The crowd began throwing stones and set fire to the major buildings around the capital's principal square. Sigüenza saved most of the documents and some paintings in the archives , at the risk of his own life. This act preserved a considerable number of colonial Mexican documents that would otherwise have been lost. Scholars have noted the importance of the 1692 riot in Mexican history. In 1693, he (along with Admiral Andrés de Pez y Malzarraga), set sail from Veracruz, Mexico and discovered

8255-461: The death of Alva Ixtlilxochitl in 1650, he inherited the collection of documents, and devoted the later years of his life to the continuous study of Mexican history . When Sigüenza made his will shortly before his death, he was very concerned about the fate of his library, since its "collection has cost me great pains and care, and a considerable sum of money." His original intention was to have his library transferred to European repositories, including

8382-478: The documents relating to the Mexican nation that had been collected in large numbers in the Colegio de San Pedro y San Pablo, and with great determination extracted from them precious treasures that later were published in the history he left for posterity. Nevertheless, his time at San Gregorio was not without problems. In a letter dated April 3, 1761, Father Pedro Reales, vicar general of the Jesuits, rebuked him in

8509-400: The dry season (averaging around 4-7 foggy days). The dry season of the year spans from November to May, with slightly cooler temperatures and less humid days; making it the much more desirable part of the year for visiting tourists as opposed to the stormy, humid wet season. Despite the dryness, winters are foggy and cloudy, averaging 10-17 overcast days and 11-17 foggy days per month during

8636-455: The dry season. Many tourists visit Veracruz during Christmas and March break, in the midst of the winter's comfortably warm dry season. Veracruz receives an average of 1,564 mm (61.6 in) of precipitation annually. The wettest month of the year is July with an average monthly total of 385 mm (15.2 in) of rainfall, while the driest month of the year is March with an only 13 mm (0.51 in) of rainfall. Temperature-wise,

8763-587: The elder Don Carlos met following his arrival New Spain in 1640. Sigüenza was the second oldest and first male of nine siblings. He was related to the famous baroque Spanish poet Luis de Góngora through his mother. He studied mathematics and astronomy under the direction of his father, who had been a tutor for the royal family in Spain . Sigüenza entered the Society of Jesus as a novice August 17, 1660, took simple vows August 15, 1662 at Tepotzotlán . But he

8890-471: The eventuality of his death, which came in 1700. A scientist to the end, he requested that his body be autopsied, so that physicians could determine what had afflicted him. He explicitly laid out the reasons and concerned that this radical step might be opposed on religious or other grounds by his relatives, he said "I ask in God's name that this [autopsy] be done for the common good, and I command my heir not to interfere, for it matters little that this be done to

9017-567: The fate and uses of the island. However, access to the island has been restricted to research, teaching and the occasional sporting event. Other small islands and shoals off the coast include: Isla de Enmedio , Isla Verde , Anegada de Adentro , Santiaguillo and Anegada de Afuera , the last two next to Antón Lizardo beach. All of them are included within the Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano national park and make fine sites for SCUBA diving. Several operators in Veracruz and in Boca del Rio offer scuba equipment and tours. The best season for scuba diving

9144-545: The federal government to take control over important ports such as Veracruz. The federal government modernized the port, adopting automation of loading and unloading. This resulted in a reduction of 80% of the port's jobs and labor resistance through strikes. The dockworkers' unions unified, negotiating for members to have a stake in a new company to manage the port's functions, named the Empresa de Servicios Portuarios de Veracruz, S.A. de C.V . The old Compañia Terminal de Veracruz

9271-450: The general suppression of the Jesuits by European monarchs in the late eighteenth century, the Jesuits were expelled from all the Spanish dominations on June 25, 1767, on orders of King Charles III . When Clavijero left the colony, he went first to Ferrara , Italy, but soon relocated to Bologna , Italy , where he lived the rest of his life. In Italy he devoted his time to his historical investigations. Although he no longer had access to

9398-427: The general sourcing area for the capital, but the price of corn rose significantly. This caused a severe shortage of food for the poor. Tensions rose significantly in the capital, and came to a flashpoint when neither the viceroy nor the archbishop, to whom the crowd of petitioners appealed as legitimate authorities, would meet directly with them. Following the failed attempt to get any official audience or promise of aid,

9525-526: The hands of the victorious invaders. The casualties on the US side during the siege amounted to sixty-four officers and men, killed and wounded. Ten years later, civil war between liberals and conservatives forced Benito Juárez 's government to flee Mexico City. Juárez went to Veracruz and governed from there in 1857. In 1861 Spain sent its troops to occupy the port in an effort to secure payment of debts, which Juárez had suspended. French military forces accompanied them to prepare for Maximiliano I and occupied

9652-435: The hottest months of the year are June and August, both sharing mean temperatures of 28 °C (82.4 °F), while the coolest month of the year is January with a mean temperature of 21.2 °C (70.2 °F). Because of its importance as Mexico's principal Caribbean and Atlantic sea port, Veracruz has always been a locus for the mixture of different cultures, particularly Spanish , Native Mexican , and African . During

9779-422: The huge riot on June 8, 1692, was a shock to Spaniards. A mob of Indians and castas partially destroyed the viceregal palace and the building of the city council ( cabildo or ayuntamiento ). Painter Cristóbal de Villalpando 's 1696 painting of the Zócalo still shows the damage to the viceregal palace from the mob's attempt to burn it down. Sigüenza wrote a lengthy "racy, vivid account of the riot...he also offered

9906-622: The hugely valuable manuscripts from Alva Ixtlilxochitl, but he also developed ideas of his own about the origin of the Mexicans. He was one of the first persons, during Spanish rule, to dig around the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan . He took Italian traveler Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri to that ancient site. Sigüenza's ideas about the origins of the ancient Mexicans were influenced by German Jesuit Athanasius Kircher , who saw ancient Egypt as

10033-509: The insurgency. In 1820, insurgents took the city, despite Santa Anna's attempts to stop them. The last viceroy of New Spain, Juan O'Donojú , arrived here in 1821, where he signed the Treaty of Córdoba with Agustín de Iturbide at Fort San Juan de Ulúa. In 1823, Spanish troops remaining at Fort San Juan de Ulúa fired on the newly independent Mexican city of Veracruz. In 1825 the last Spanish troops left San Juan de Ulúa. The city's defense against

10160-609: The island and fort, and occasionally bombarded Mexican forces on land. They finally transferred this area to Mexico in 1825. The fort was used in 1838 during the Pastry War with the French. In 1847, it was used for an unsuccessful defense of the port when United States forces invaded during the Mexican–American War. In the 19th century, the fort was converted into a military prison. The fort's narrow stone passageways lead to

10287-507: The island later known as San Juan de Ulúa . The Spanish gave it that name because they landed on the Christian feast of John the Baptist (24 June), and in honor of the captain. De Ulúa is derived from the local name for the Aztecs, coluha or acolhua. The word for Aztec evolved into Ulúa. While Veracruz itself was founded by Hernán Cortés who arrived in 1519, the area at the time

10414-454: The legend of this 19th-century bandit. Jesús Arriaga, better known as Chucho el Roto , was held at Fort San Juan de Ulúa where he died. It is not known whether he died of natural causes, as a result of a fight with other prisoners or by other means. Chucho was a Robin Hood figure who lived during the 19th century. He stole from the rich and gave to the poor, inspiring songs and poetry such as

10541-421: The lengthy colonial period and international port, these ingredients are used more widely here than in other parts of the country. A signature dish of the area, Huachinango a la Veracruzana ( red snapper Veracruz-style), uses local fruits and vegetables (tomatoes, chili peppers) and Spanish ingredients (olive oil, garlic and capers). Other popular dishes include arroz a la tumbada , a rice dish baked with

10668-572: The main plaza (Zócalo) Veracruz recipes use corn, beans and squash as staples, a practice dating to the indigenous peoples. Local diets also include indigenous tropical foods such as chili peppers , tomatoes, avocados , pineapples , papaya , mamey , sweet potatoes , peanuts and sapote fruit, all of which have been cultivated since pre-Columbian times. The Spanish introduced the use of herbs such as parsley , thyme , marjoram , bay laurel and coriander , as well as saffron , wheat, rice, almonds, olives/olive oil, garlic and capers . Because of

10795-654: The midseventeenth-century outpouring of writings on the Virgin of Guadalupe. Sigüenza wrote in praise of Guadalupe, especially her role in aiding creole patriotism. Among these documents was purported to be a "map" ( codex ) documenting the 1531 apparition of the Virgin Mary as Our Lady of Guadalupe that Luis Becerra Tanco claimed to have seen in the introduction to his 1666 defense of the apparition tradition. Sigüenza writings on Guadalupe were not extensive, but he encouraged Becerra Tanco and Francisco de Florencia to pursue

10922-442: The most significant findings in more than a century of scholarship on the book. The new archival evidence leaves no room to doubt that Sigüenza's key role in creating Los infortunios de Alonso Ramírez was in editing Alonso's coarse narrative into a superior literary piece. According to López Lázaro's analysis, the book was commissioned by the Spanish administration during the war against Louis XIV to solidify Madrid's commitment to

11049-604: The mouth of the Mississippi : in 1693, he described the terrain in Descripción del seno de Santa María de Galve, alias Panzacola, de la Mobila y del Río Misisipi . When a Spanish attempt to colonize Pensacola Bay in 1698 was thwarted by the arrival of a French fleet, Sigüenza was blamed by the leader of the expedition, Andrés de Arriola, for inciting the French action. He successfully defended himself against these charges in 1699. In order to supplement his modest salary as

11176-511: The municipal palace and the cathedral. The Municipal Palace was built for the city council in 1608. The building was extensively remodeled in the 18th century. Its architectural style is a sober Baroque with a tower at one of the corners. Lookouts used this tower to keep watch on the ships entering and leaving the port. It has a large courtyard surrounded by wide arches and is the oldest city government building in Mexico. The Cathedral of Veracruz , named Catedral de la Virgen de la Asunción ,

11303-495: The municipal seat, the city of Veracruz is the governing authority for 128 other named localities during the 2010 census, forming a municipality with a territory of 241 km (93 sq mi). The population of the municipality is 552,156 inhabitants, of whom 428,323 or approximately 77.6% live in municipality's portion of the city proper. The municipality is bordered by the municipalities of La Antigua , Boca del Río, Manlio Fabio Altamirano , Medellín, and Paso de Ovejas, with

11430-535: The name Neptune, the ruler of Atlantis, populated by Egyptian colonists. In advocating an Egyptian origin for the ancient Mexicans, he rejects Franciscan fray Juan de Torquemada 's dismissal of that theory. Sigüenza, also as opposed to Torquemada, believed that St Thomas the Apostle evangelized Mexico and identified him with Quetzalcoatl. He gave notice that a pamphlet entitled Phoenix of the West. St Thomas found with

11557-453: The name of Quetzalcoatl would be published, but whether he wrote it or not is unclear, since many of Sigüenza's works remain in title only. Considering the small proportion of the Spanish population in Mexico as opposed to the Indian and mixed-race casta populations and that the fact that there had been few challenges to Spanish rule since the early sixteenth-century conquest, likely meant

11684-456: The narrative of Mexican culture from before the Spanish conquest. The original manuscript was in Spanish, but Father Clavijero translated it into Italian, with the help of some of his Italian friends. The book was published at Cesena in 1780–81, and was received by scholars with great satisfaction. It was soon translated into English and German. It was also translated back into Spanish, and went through numerous editions in Mexico. Much later (1945)

11811-461: The new Viceroy , Cerda y Aragón . Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz was commissioned to design the only other one, which were erected in the Plaza de Santo Domingo, near the main square or Zócalo. No image of the triumphal arches is known to be extant, but both Sigüenza and Sor Juana wrote descriptions of the works. Sigüenza's work was entitled Theater of Political Virtues That Constitute a Ruler, Observed in

11938-442: The new viceroy to New Spain, each was tapped to design a triumphal arch to welcome him, a signal honor to them both. Sor Juana's final years were extremely difficult ones, and when she died in 1695, Sigüenza delivered the eulogy at her funeral. The text of that address is now lost, but in 1680 he had praised her, "There is no pen that can rise to the eminence that hers o'ertops...[the fame of] Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz will only end with

12065-494: The ocean breezes. Near the city center, the malecón is crowded with merchants selling knick-knacks, souvenirs, jewelry made with seashells, and T-shirts. Fort San Juan de Ulúa is located on an island, now connected to land of the same name. The island is part of the La Gallega coral reef and has about 2,500 meters of beach. The full reef covers about 100 hectares and varies in depth between sixty and ninety centimeters, forming

12192-459: The operations of the port. Eventually, unions came to have great power over the operations and tariffs charged. By the latter part of the 20th century, competing unions made the operations of the port difficult. Some blocked access to the port from federal roads and financial corruption was a problem. In the 1970s, a federal commission was established to design a new administrative system for the ports of Mexico. The legislature passed laws authorizing

12319-547: The original was published in Spanish. La Historia Antigua de México begins with a description of Anáhuac , and continues with the story of the Aztec wanderings. It treats of the politics, warfare, religion, customs, social organization and culture of the Aztecs. It establishes for the first time the chronology of the Indian peoples, and concludes with the history of the Conquest up to the imprisonment of Cuauhtémoc . In contrast to many of his contemporaries, Clavijero promoted

12446-469: The population after contact. The Portuguese Empire began to import African slaves via the port of Veracruz. In the 16th century, the state had more slaves than any other in Mexico. Before the slave trade was abolished, Mexico had the second-highest population of African slaves in the Americas, following Brazil. Veracruz was the most important port in New Spain , with a large wealthy merchant class that

12573-571: The position of University Accountant. The death of his patron the Archbishop was clustered with the death of Sigüenza's father and favorite brother. His dear friend Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz died and he delivered the eulogy at her funeral. In November 1699, Sigüenza was named corregidor general (book examiner) for the Inquisition , a position that paid little and which took up considerable time vetting books for possible heresy. As his health deteriorated in these circumstances, Sigüenza prepared for

12700-509: The position, and the person who vociferously argued that Sigüenza had no standing to even compete, had to be kept under surveillance during the competition to prevent cheating. On July 20, 1672, he was named to the chair of Mathematics and Astrology. His record as a professor was marred because he was frequently absent from the classroom due to his researches on various topics and to the pressing of other obligations he took on for fiscal reasons. One of his biographers suggests that his absences from

12827-729: The seminary there. More of a rationalist in philosophy than his predecessors, he was an innovator in the field. Good work in Valladolid got him promoted to the same position in Guadalajara . It was in Guadalajara that he finished his treatise Physica Particularis , which, together with Cursus Philosophicus , sets out his scientific and philosophical thought. As part of the Bourbon Reforms in Spanish America and

12954-527: The source of all natural wisdom. Sigüenza embraced Kircher's ideas and in the publication accompanying his triumphal arch for the arrival of the new viceroy, Theater of Political Virtues That Constitute a Ruler , "he boldly pronounced that the Mexican Indians were the descendants of the Naphtuhim, the son of Misraim, founder and ruler of Egypt," and further asserted that Naphtuhim was a variation on

13081-462: The state of Veracruz. It has African and Caribbean influence and is popular throughout Mexico, Latin America and the United States. Traditional Veracruzian music is called " Son Jarocho ". Although there are many types of son music found in Mexico, the Son Jarocho is typically associated with the city of Veracruz. Other types of son include "Son Comercial". This style is faster and flashier than

13208-587: The struggle against French colonial rivals and their buccaneer collaborators but also to warn them about Spain's unreliable English and Dutch allies. In his critical bilingual edition of the Infortunios/Misfortunes , Buscaglia argues that the work opens a door into the intricacies of early American subjectivity. In the same edition, Buscaglia furnishes concrete proof of having found the shipwreck of Ramirez's frigate in Punta Herradura, on

13335-537: The topic. Because of his association with these early documents, Sigüenza played a significant role in the development of the Guadalupe story. He was a devotee of the Virgin, and wrote Parnassian poems to her as early as 1662. But his most lasting impact on the history of the apparition was his assertion that the Nican mopohua , the Nahuatl -language rendition of the narrative, was written by Antonio Valeriano ,

13462-444: The traditional Son Jarocho and can be heard in Mexican folkdance exhibitions , when Veracruz women with long white dresses and fans dance with partners also dressed in white. The Son Comercial developed in the 1940s from the Son Jarocho; in the 21st century it is so pervasive that many mistakenly believe it to be the first version. The Casa de Cultura has a workshops for traditional music and son singers can be heard just about anytime on

13589-424: The unique purpose of those who live in this college, and handing over to others jobs and studies that you fill. It seems clear that these "other jobs and studies" of Father Clavijero referred to the Aztec codices and the books of the period of the Conquest that had been given to the college of San Pedro and San Pablo by Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora . Clavijero followed Sigüenza as an example in his investigations, and

13716-532: The university might be attributable to his disdain for astrology, which he considered "a diabolical invention and consequently, alien to science, method, principle and truth." In 1681 Sigüenza wrote the book Philosophical Manifest Against the Comets Stripped of their Dominion over the Timid in which he tried to dismiss fears of impending superstitious predictions that linked comets to calamitous events; in

13843-659: The upper level contains the choral window, above which is a medallion. The interior is simple with crystal candelabras. In the port area are the Pemex Tower, the old lighthouse, which was the seat of government for Venustiano Carranza , and the Crafts Market. On Marina Mercante Street are located the Old Customs Building, the Postal and Telegraph twin buildings, as well as the old railroad terminal. In

13970-540: The verses penned by Rafael de Zayas Enríquez . Chucho was arrested in the city of Querétaro after a jewelry store heist. He was sent to the Belén Prison in Mexico City, then to Veracruz. He was also renowned as a seducer of women, especially those who were rich and lonely. Most of his targets were jewelry shops, pawnshops and the homes of the wealthy. Along with Fort San Juan de Ulúa, the city used to be walled in for protection against pirates and invasions. All that

14097-466: The winter dry season. Fauna mostly consists of birds, small mammals and insects. Much of the land in the municipality outside of the city is used for agriculture and livestock. Principal crops include corn, beans, watermelon, oranges, sorghum , mango , pineapple and sugar cane. Livestock raised includes cattle, pigs, sheep, fowl and horses. There is also some forestry. The municipality contains deposits of marble, lime, cement, sand and clay. In and around

14224-467: The work he takes steps to separate the fields of astrology and astronomy. The Tyrolean Jesuit Eusebio Kino , who had come to New Spain to evangelize on the northern frontier, met Sigüenza at his home in Mexico City. Both men had observed the comet of 1680 and both were keenly interested in the phenomenon. The warm feelings between the two soured quickly, with Sigüenza believing that Kino belittled Mexican-born Spaniards' (creoles) level learning. Kino published

14351-449: The world." Sigüenza had a strong interest in the indigenous past of Mexico and began learning Nahuatl following his dismissal from the Jesuits in 1668. He collected books and other materials related to indigenous culture. At the Hospital de Amor de Dioas Sigüenza became a close friend of Don Juan, the son of indigenous nobleman Don Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, (1587?-1650). Sigüenza helped Alva Ixtlilxochitl's on Don Juan de Alva with

14478-455: Was dismissed from the Jesuits in 1668, for repeatedly flouting Jesuit discipline and going out secretly at night. He repented and pleaded to be reinstated, but the head of the Jesuits, the General of the Order, rejected his plea, saying "The cause of the expulsion of this person is so disreputable, as he himself confesses, that he does not deserve this boon [of being readmitted]." This dismissal

14605-446: Was dissolved in 1988 and the new organization was fully in place by 1991. In September 2010, Hurricane Karl , a small, strong Category 3 hurricane, caused widespread flooding and damage affecting approximately half a million people. Sixteen were confirmed dead with another eleven missing. Sixty-five municipalities in the state were declared disaster areas. Preliminary damage estimates total up to US$ 3.9 billion and $ 50 billion MXN. As

14732-602: Was found here and Vera Cruz (True Cross) was added because the Cortés expedition landed on Good Friday , a Christian holy day. When Cortés and his soldiers abolished the Aztec despotism and elected a Justicia Mayor and a Capitán General , they created the first city council on the American continent. The city was the first on mainland America to receive a European coat of arms, which was authorized by Carlos V in Valladolid , Spain, on 4 July 1523. The original settlement

14859-515: Was more prosperous than that of Mexico City. Each of the two yearly voyages of the Spanish treasure fleet to and from Spain were to gather at Veracruz stevedores, muleteers, navigators, sailors, contractors, merchants and civil servants. In 1568 the Armada admiral Francisco Luján defeated the British pirates John Hawkins and Francis Drake on their attempt to take hold of Veracruz. By the end of

14986-505: Was moved in 1525 to what is now known as Antigua, at the mouth of the Huitzilapan (or Antigua River) shortly thereafter. This separated the city from the port, as ships could not enter the shallow river. Ships continued to dock at San Juan de Ulúa, with small boats being used to ferry goods on and off the ships. As in other parts of Mexico, the indigenous peoples suffered from epidemics of European infectious diseases, which decimated

15113-416: Was not a deity but a "chieftain and leader of Mexicans in the voyage that by his command was undertaken in search of the provinces of Anahuac." Sigüenza's gigantic wooden arch (90 feet high, fifty feet wide) was a manifestation of creole patriotism that embraced the florescence of the Aztecs as a source of their own pride in their patria. He hoped that "on some occasion the Mexican monarchs might be reborn from

15240-402: Was not only a grave disappointment and a blot on his reputation, but it also meant that he would be financially insecure for the rest of this life. He became a secular priest without a parish or a steady income, so the multiple offices he sought during his lifetime were to support himself and his extended family, all of whom, including his father, were dependent on him to the end of his life. He

15367-684: Was one of the first great intellectuals born in the Americas - Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain ( Mexico City ). He was a criollo patriot, exalting New Spain over Old. A polymath and writer, he held many colonial government and academic positions. Sigüenza is considered the da Vinci mexicano ("Mexican da Vinci "). Sigüenza was born in Mexico City in 1645 to Don Carlos de Sigüenza y Benito, originally from Madrid, and to Doña Dionisia Suárez de Figueroa y Góngora, born in Seville, Spain, whom

15494-554: Was ordained a secular priest in 1673. He studied at the Real y Pontificia Universidad de México ( Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico ) following his dismissal from the Jesuits, and excelled at mathematics and developed a lifelong interest in the sciences. When a faculty position in Mathematics & Astrology (when he held it he taught mainly astronomy ) was available, Sigüenza sought to compete for it, although he did not hold

15621-524: Was the first to discover archival evidence (published in 2007) for the historical existence of Ramírez, his meeting with the Viceroy of New Spain, and the writing of Los infortunios in 1690. Buscaglia corroborated the existence of Alonso Ramírez as a true historical figure in 2009, citing his marriage certificate and pinpointing with exactitude, after two expeditions to the coast of Bacalar, the site of his shipwreck. López Lázaro's and Buscaglia's studies are

15748-660: Was to protect this valuable port after the threat of an invasion such as the siege of Havana (1762) by the British . The Spanish empire's talented military engineers were gathered in Veracruz to work on the New Spanish Gulf of Mexico's defence against the attack of Spain's enemies in a time when the Spanish Empire stretched from current Venezuela to Florida . Many of the buildings and institutions which form Veracruz's Historic Centre date from that time such as

15875-411: Was unlike many of his other writings, which remained in manuscript form because he could not afford to publish them. He directly attacks Kino by saying "I hereby point out that neither his Reverence [Kino] nor any other mathematician, even if he is Ptolemy himself, can set up dogmas in these sciences, because authority has no place in them at all, but only proof and demonstration." Theology was known as

16002-468: Was very pleased with Sigüenza's benevolence to and love of the Indians. He also admired much of the culture of the Indians before their contact with Europeans. Clavijero never ceased to try to read the logograms in the codices. Clavijero was transferred to the Colegio de San Javier in Puebla , also dedicated to the education of Indian youth. He taught there for three years. In 1764 he was transferred again, to Valladolid (now Morelia ), to teach philosophy in

16129-402: Was within the jurisdiction of Moctezuma II and his Aztec Empire . Cortés and his men landed at the shore opposite the island where Grijalva had moored, which has the pre-Hispanic name of Chalchihuecan. Cortés, Francisco de Montejo and Alonso Hernández Puertocarrero founded the settlement, naming it Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. The name Villa Rica (rich village) referred to the gold that

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