135-503: Franklin Marshall Matthews White (born 1946) is a Canadian public health scientist focused on capacity building for international and global education, research and development. He advocates: "Public health...must not be left to the international community to define; it is...the responsibility of the countries themselves to define their priorities. The global agenda should be viewed as complementary at best." "Health
270-727: A low number of white blood cells and red blood cells , show some elevation of liver enzymes such as aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase , and demonstrate positive Bengal rose and Huddleston reactions. Gastrointestinal symptoms occur in 70% of cases and include nausea , vomiting , decreased appetite , unintentional weight loss, abdominal pain, constipation , diarrhea , an enlarged liver , liver inflammation , liver abscess , and an enlarged spleen . This complex is, at least in Portugal, Palestine, Israel, Syria, Iran, and Jordan, known as Malta fever. During episodes of Malta fever, melitococcemia (presence of brucellae in
405-446: A Faculty of Public Health (launched 2014). His health systems research emphasizes that "health is mostly made in homes, communities and workplaces and only a minority of ill health can be repaired in clinics and hospitals", that "nations (must) assess their public health human resource needs and develop their ability to deliver this capacity, and not depend on other countries to supply it." and that "public health and primary health care are
540-460: A basic level of medical care and disease prevention. A major public health concern in developing countries is poor maternal and child health , exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty coupled with governments' reluctance in implementing public health policies. Developed nations are at greater risk of certain public health crises, including childhood obesity, although overweight populations in low- and middle-income countries are catching up. From
675-620: A basic level of medical care and disease prevention. As a result, a large majority of disease and mortality in developing countries results from and contributes to extreme poverty . For example, many African governments spend less than $ 100 USD per person per year on health care, while, in the United States, the federal government spent approximately $ 10,600 USD per capita in 2019. However, expenditures on health care should not be confused with spending on public health. Public health measures may not generally be considered "health care" in
810-410: A component of preventive medicine and public health. It is implemented as part of primary care rather than a specialty in its own right. Valles argues that the term social medicine has a narrower and more biomedical focus than the term population health. The purpose of a public health intervention is to prevent and mitigate diseases, injuries , and other health conditions. The overall goal
945-441: A country's overall health care system. Many interventions of public health interest are delivered outside of health facilities , such as food safety surveillance, distribution of condoms and needle-exchange programs for the prevention of transmissible diseases. Public health requires Geographic Information Systems (GIS) because risk, vulnerability and exposure involve geographic aspects. A dilemma in public health ethics
1080-668: A form of "health fascism" by a number of scholars, objectifying the individual with no considerations of emotional or social factors. When public health initiatives began to emerge in England in modern times (18th century onwards) there were three core strands of public health which were all related to statecraft: Supply of clean water and sanitation (for example London sewerage system ); control of infectious diseases (including vaccination and quarantine ); an evolving infrastructure of various sciences, e.g. statistics, microbiology, epidemiology, sciences of engineering. Great Britain
1215-499: A handful of people or as large as a village or an entire city. The concept of health takes into account physical, psychological , and social well-being . As such, according to the World Health Organization , "health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity". Public health is related to global health which is the health of populations in
1350-513: A high lack of knowledge and understanding of the disease and its causes. To combat this, the One Health concept has been proposed. One Health is a method for combining disciplines such as public health, veterinary services, and microbiology to bring awareness to the disease. However, the implementation of this method faces many challenges including economic, political, and social barriers. Antibiotics such as tetracyclines , rifampicin , and
1485-544: A mild illness. Until the early 20th century, the disease was endemic in Malta to the point of it being referred to as "Maltese fever". Since 2005, due to a strict regimen of certification of milk animals and widespread use of pasteurization, the illness has been eradicated from Malta. Ireland was declared free of brucellosis on 1 July 2009. The disease had troubled the country's farmers and veterinarians for several decades. The Irish government submitted an application to
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#17327839848111620-463: A million avoidable child deaths each year. Intermittent preventive therapy aimed at treating and preventing malaria episodes among pregnant women and young children is one public health measure in endemic countries. Since the 1980s, the growing field of population health has broadened the focus of public health from individual behaviors and risk factors to population-level issues such as inequality , poverty, and education. Modern public health
1755-515: A problem in both endemic settings and when brucellosis is unknowingly imported by a patient. After appropriate risk assessment, staff with significant exposure should be offered postexposure prophylaxis and followed up serologically for 6 months. According to a study published in 2002, an estimated 10–13% of farm animals were infected with Brucella species. Annual losses from the disease were calculated at around US$ 60 million. Since 1932, government agencies have undertaken efforts to contain
1890-676: A reference agency for 22 member nations, he emphasized resource mobilization. This was applied to: social and behavioral sciences, laboratory information systems and immunology; priority infectious diseases and epidemiology training; promoting a non-communicable diseases agenda; and guiding the regional response to the HIV/AIDS pandemic. CAREC was later integrated within CARPHA , the Caribbean Public Health Agency, in 2013. During his term as Director, CAREC, White served on
2025-1096: A regional non-communicable disease (NCD) program focused on Latin America and the Caribbean. Initiatives included the Declaration of the Americas on Diabetes (DOTA), a public-private partnership modeled after the St. Vincent Declaration , the CARMEN model of integrated NCD prevention and control, and recognition of cervical cancer , accidents and violence as priorities. He negotiated terms of reference for two new WHO Collaborating Centers: The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center , to become Collaborating Center for Supportive Cancer Care (1996–2008); and Centro de Endocrinología Experimental y Aplicada (CENEXA), National University of La Plata, as Collaborating Centre for Diabetes Research, Education and Care (1997–2015). He served on
2160-407: A review of research on what local authorities can do to tackle obesity. The review covers interventions in the food environment (what people buy and eat), the built and natural environments , schools, and the community, as well as those focussing on active travel , leisure services and public sports, weight management programmes , and system-wide approaches . Health inequalities, driven by
2295-509: A series of publications on this topic in the late 1980s and early 1990s criticizing the UK's the Health of The Nation campaign. These publications exposed abuse of epidemiology and statistics by the public health movement to support lifestyle interventions and screening programs. A combination of inculcating a fear of ill-health and a strong notion of individual responsibility has been criticized as
2430-496: A significant increase after World War II as concerns over the spread of disease as a result of globalization increased and the HIV/AIDS epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa surfaced. From 1990 to 2010, total health aid from developed countries increased from 5.5 billion to 26.87 billion with wealthy countries continuously donating billions of dollars every year with the goal of improving population health. Some efforts, however, receive
2565-475: A significantly larger proportion of funds such as HIV which received an increase in funds of over $ 6 billion between 2000 and 2010 which was more than twice the increase seen in any other sector during those years. Health aid has seen an expansion through multiple channels including private philanthropy, non-governmental organizations , private foundations such as the Rockefeller Foundation or
2700-517: A small percentage of exposed individuals become ill or die. However, particular species apparently are more likely to become infected by B. ceti . The harbor porpoise, striped dolphin, white-sided dolphin, bottlenose dolphin, and common dolphin have the highest frequency of infection amongst odontocetes. In the mysticetes families, the northern minke whale is by far the most infected species. Dolphins and porpoises are more likely to be infected than cetaceans such as whales. With regard to sex and age biases,
2835-664: A trainee, then enrolled with the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine under the tutelage of social epidemiologist Jerry Morris , gaining an MSc in 1973. During these studies he was recruited and seconded by McGill to the Medical Research Council ’s Pneumoconiosis Research Unit, Cardiff University School of Medicine , in contact with Archie Cochrane , pioneer of evidence-based medicine . He earned specialty recognition in Canada ( FRCPC 1982) and in
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#17327839848112970-642: A work train in Labrador, gastrointestinal infection related to pooled expressed breast milk , poliomyelitis in an unvaccinated religious community, and brucellosis in a slaughterhouse ; he also published on imported diseases, health systems and immunization policy. He served on the National Advisory Committee on Epidemiology (1977–82), and the National Immunization Policy Committee (1978–81). He
3105-531: Is a fundamental part of population health. Scholars such as Coggon and Pielke express concerns about bringing general issues of wealth distribution into population health. Pielke worries about "stealth issue advocacy" in population health. Jung, Boris and Lushniak consider population health to be a concept that is the goal of an activity called public health practiced through the specialty preventive medicine. Lifestyle medicine uses individual lifestyle modification to prevent or revert disease and can be considered
3240-433: Is a reproductive disease, so has an extreme negative impact on the population dynamics of a species. This becomes a greater issue when the already low population numbers of cetaceans are taken into consideration. B. ceti has been identified in four of the 14 cetacean families, but the antibodies have been detected in seven of the families. This indicates that B. ceti is common amongst cetacean families and populations. Only
3375-414: Is an acceptable substitute when streptomycin is not available or contraindicated. Another widely used regimen is doxycycline plus rifampicin twice daily for at least 6 weeks. This regimen has the advantage of oral administration. A triple therapy of doxycycline, with rifampicin and co-trimoxazole , has been used successfully to treat neurobrucellosis. Doxycycline plus streptomycin regimen (for 2 to 3 weeks)
3510-409: Is dealing with the conflict between individual rights and maximizing right to health . Public health is justified by consequentialist utilitarian ideas, but is constrained and critiqued by liberal , deontological , principlist and libertarian philosophies Stephen Holland argues that it can be easy to find a particular framework to justify any viewpoint on public health issues, but that
3645-451: Is due to the activation of an evolved reward system for substances such as drugs, tobacco, alcohol , refined salt , fat , and carbohydrates . New technologies such as modern transportation also cause reduced physical activity . Research has found that behavior is more effectively changed by taking evolutionary motivations into consideration instead of only presenting information about health effects. The marketing industry has long known
3780-400: Is less virulent than B. melitensis and is primarily a disease of cattle. B. canis affects dogs. B. melitensis is the most virulent and invasive species; it usually infects goats and occasionally sheep. B. suis is of intermediate virulence and chiefly infects pigs. Symptoms include profuse sweating and joint and muscle pain . Brucellosis has been recognized in animals and humans since
3915-465: Is limited. Public health programs providing vaccinations have made major progress in promoting health, including substantially reducing the occurrence of cholera and polio and eradicating smallpox , diseases that have plagued humanity for thousands of years. The World Health Organization (WHO) identifies core functions of public health programs including: In particular, public health surveillance programs can: The "Truth" campaign, launched by
4050-494: Is more effective than doxycycline plus rifampicin regimen (for 6 weeks). Doxycycline is able to cross the blood–brain barrier , but requires the addition of two other drugs to prevent relapse. Ciprofloxacin and co-trimoxazole therapy is associated with an unacceptably high rate of relapse. In brucellic endocarditis , surgery is required for an optimal outcome. Even with optimal antibrucellic therapy, relapses still occur in 5 to 10% of patients with Malta fever. The mortality of
4185-419: Is mostly made in homes, communities and workplaces and only a minority of ill health can be repaired in clinics and hospitals." "Nations (must) assess their public health human resource needs and develop their ability to deliver this capacity, and not depend on other countries to supply it." “Public health and primary health care are the cornerstones of sustainable health systems, and this should be reflected in
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4320-434: Is often concerned with addressing determinants of health across a population. There is a recognition that health is affected by many factors including class, race, income, educational status, region of residence, and social relationships ; these are known as " social determinants of health ". The upstream drivers such as environment, education, employment, income, food security, housing, social inclusion and many others effect
4455-584: Is one of Europe's most labor-intensive industries. In late 2020, it accounted for more than 21 million employment in the European Union when combined with social work. According to the WHO , several countries began the COVID-19 pandemic with insufficient health and care professionals, inappropriate skill mixtures, and unequal geographical distributions. These issues were worsened by the pandemic, reiterating
4590-530: Is part of a country's overall healthcare system. Public health is implemented through the surveillance of cases and health indicators , and through the promotion of healthy behaviors . Common public health initiatives include promotion of hand-washing and breastfeeding , delivery of vaccinations , promoting ventilation and improved air quality both indoors and outdoors , suicide prevention , smoking cessation , obesity education , increasing healthcare accessibility and distribution of condoms to control
4725-487: Is poor maternal and child health, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty. The WHO reports that a lack of exclusive breastfeeding during the first six months of life contributes to over a million avoidable child deaths each year. Public health surveillance has led to the identification and prioritization of many public health issues facing the world today, including HIV/AIDS , diabetes , waterborne diseases , zoonotic diseases , and antibiotic resistance leading to
4860-505: Is present. Currently, no effective vaccine is available for humans. Boiling milk before consumption, or before using it to produce other dairy products, is protective against transmission via ingestion. Changing traditional food habits of eating raw meat, liver, or bone marrow is necessary, but difficult to implement. Patients who have had brucellosis should probably be excluded indefinitely from donating blood or organs. Exposure of diagnostic laboratory personnel to Brucella organisms remains
4995-522: Is related to public health. The American Board of Preventive Medicine separates three categories of preventive medicine: aerospace health, occupational health , and public health and general preventative medicine. Jung, Boris and Lushniak argue that preventive medicine should be considered the medical specialty for public health but note that the American College of Preventive Medicine and American Board of Preventive Medicine do not prominently use
5130-540: Is the control of tobacco smoking . Many nations have implemented major initiatives to cut smoking, such as increased taxation and bans on smoking in some or all public places. Supporters argue by presenting evidence that smoking is one of the major killers, and that therefore governments have a duty to reduce the death rate, both through limiting passive (second-hand) smoking and by providing fewer opportunities for people to smoke. Opponents say that this undermines individual freedom and personal responsibility, and worry that
5265-616: Is the principal cause of brucellosis in cattle. The bacteria are shed from an infected animal at or around the time of calving or abortion . Once exposed, the likelihood of an animal becoming infected is variable, depending on age, pregnancy status, and other intrinsic factors of the animal, as well as the number of bacteria to which the animal was exposed. The most common clinical signs of cattle infected with B. abortus are high incidences of abortions, arthritic joints, and retained placenta . The two main causes for spontaneous abortion in animals are erythritol , which can promote infections in
5400-1515: Is to improve the health of individuals and populations, and to increase life expectancy . Public health is a complex term, composed of many elements and different practices. It is a multi-faceted, interdisciplinary field. For example, epidemiology , biostatistics , social sciences and management of health services are all relevant. Other important sub-fields include environmental health , community health , behavioral health , health economics , public policy , mental health , health education , health politics , occupational safety , disability , gender issues in health, and sexual and reproductive health . Modern public health practice requires multidisciplinary teams of public health workers and professionals. Teams might include epidemiologists , biostatisticians , physician assistants , public health nurses , midwives , medical microbiologists , pharmacists , economists , sociologists , geneticists , data managers , environmental health officers ( public health inspectors ), bioethicists , gender experts, sexual and reproductive health specialists, physicians , and veterinarians . The elements and priorities of public health have evolved over time, and are continuing to evolve. Common public health initiatives include promotion of hand-washing and breastfeeding , delivery of vaccinations , suicide prevention , smoking cessation , obesity education , increasing healthcare accessibility and distribution of condoms to control
5535-1032: Is usually associated with consumption of unpasteurized milk and soft cheeses made from the milk of infected animals—often goats—infected with B. melitensis , and with occupational exposure of laboratory workers, veterinarians, and slaughterhouse workers. These infected animals may be healthy and asymptomatic. Some vaccines used in livestock, most notably B. abortus strain 19, also cause disease in humans if accidentally injected. Brucellosis induces inconstant fevers , miscarriage, sweating, weakness, anemia , headaches , depression , and muscular and bodily pain. The other strains, B. suis and B. canis , cause infection in pigs and dogs, respectively. Overall findings support that brucellosis poses an occupational risk to goat farmers with specific areas of concern including weak awareness of disease transmission to humans and lack of knowledge on specific safe farm practices such as quarantine practices. The diagnosis of brucellosis relies on: Definite diagnosis of brucellosis requires
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5670-514: The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , bilateral donors, and multilateral donors such as the World Bank or UNICEF . The result has been a sharp rise in uncoordinated and fragmented funding of an ever-increasing number of initiatives and projects. To promote better strategic cooperation and coordination between partners, particularly among bilateral development agencies and funding organizations,
5805-651: The Brucella group: Agent US was in advanced development by the end of World War II . When the United States Air Force (USAF) wanted a biological warfare capability, the Chemical Corps offered Agent US in the M114 bomblet , based on the four-pound bursting bomblet developed for spreading anthrax during World War II. Though the capability was developed, operational testing indicated the weapon
5940-504: The Crimean War , and was referred to as Malta Fever. Jeffery Allen Marston (1831–1911) described his own case of the disease in 1861. The causal relationship between organism and disease was first established in 1887 by David Bruce . Bruce considered the agent spherical and classified it as a coccus . In 1897, Danish veterinarian Bernhard Bang isolated a bacillus as the agent of heightened spontaneous abortion in cows, and
6075-829: The European Commission , which verified that Ireland had been liberated. Brendan Smith , Ireland's then Minister for Agriculture, Food and the Marine , said the elimination of brucellosis was "a landmark in the history of disease eradication in Ireland". Ireland's Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine intends to reduce its brucellosis eradication programme now that eradication has been confirmed. Mainland Britain has been free of brucellosis since 1979, although there have been episodic re-introductions since. The last outbreak of brucellosis in Great Britain
6210-530: The Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation and the World Health Organization has shown a link between international health aid in developing countries and a reduction in adult mortality rates. However, a 2014–2016 study suggests that a potential confounding variable for this outcome is the possibility that aid was directed at countries once they were already on track for improvement. That same study, however, also suggests that 1 billion dollars in health aid
6345-605: The International Development Research Centre ; and (in support of Universalia Management Group, Ottawa-Montreal) the World Health Organization . PacificSci disincorporated in 2020. He served on the advisory board (2008–12) to establish the School of Public Health and Social Policy at University of Victoria , and on the inaugural international advisory board (health sciences) for Qatar University . For Kuwait University , he guided plans for
6480-587: The Iraq War and the War in Afghanistan (2001–14), White published his views and concerns in scientific journals: on the case for an epidemiology of terrorism and the potential for successive waves of violence , lamenting the "lack of enlightened leadership... which has brought us to this...": the targeting of water supply infrastructure, " collateral damage " among children, and need for a stronger response from
6615-521: The Medal of Honor (1997), PAHO/WHO's highest staff award, and the Breakthrough Award for Creativity (1990) from AED (non-profit) for socio-behavioral HIV/AIDS interventions. In 2011, he was selected by the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine as a case study (30 alumni globally). He has been keynote speaker in several countries, including: webinar to honor the 100th Anniversary of
6750-519: The Mysticeti and Odontoceti . The Mysticeti include four families of baleen whales , filter-feeders, and the Odontoceti include two families of toothed cetaceans ranging from dolphins to sperm whales. B. ceti is believed to transfer from animal to animal through sexual intercourse, maternal feeding, aborted fetuses, placental issues, from mother to fetus, or through fish reservoirs. Brucellosis
6885-582: The Royal Army Medical Corps stationed in Malta who isolated brucella organisms from a patient with meningo-encephalitis. In 1989, neurologists in Saudi Arabia made significant contributions to the medical literature involving neurobrucellosis. These obsolete names have previously been applied to brucellosis: Brucella species had been weaponized by several advanced countries by the mid-20th century. In 1954, B. suis became
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#17327839848117020-710: The Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) spearheaded the establishment of ESSENCE, an initiative to facilitate dialogue between donors/funders, allowing them to identify synergies. ESSENCE brings together a wide range of funding agencies to coordinate funding efforts. In 2009 health aid from the OECD amounted to $ 12.47 billion which amounted to 11.4% of its total bilateral aid. In 2009, Multilateral donors were found to spend 15.3% of their total aid on bettering public healthcare. Debates exist questioning
7155-639: The United Nations hosting its first General Assembly Special Summit on the issue of non-communicable diseases in September 2011. There is a significant disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed countries and developing countries , as well as within developing countries. In developing countries, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained health workers , monetary resources or, in some cases, sufficient knowledge to provide even
7290-568: The West Indies . In 2005, one of a 3-man crew, he sailed a 42-foot ketch from Hawaii to British Columbia. In 2020 he authored his father's biography Miner with a Heart of Gold - biography of a mineral science and engineering educator . Public health Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals". Analyzing
7425-479: The aminoglycosides streptomycin and gentamicin are effective against Brucella bacteria. However, the use of more than one antibiotic is needed for several weeks, because the bacteria incubate within cells . The gold standard treatment for adults is daily intramuscular injections of streptomycin 1 g for 14 days and oral doxycycline 100 mg twice daily for 45 days (concurrently). Gentamicin 5 mg/kg by intramuscular injection once daily for 7 days
7560-599: The American Legacy Foundation in 2000. This campaign aimed to educate and discourage young people from smoking by exposing the tobacco industry's deceptive practices. Through a combination of powerful visuals, persuasive storytelling, and relatable messaging, the "Truth" campaign successfully reduced smoking rates among teenagers and young adults. Many health problems are due to maladaptive personal behaviors. From an evolutionary psychology perspective, over consumption of novel substances that are harmful
7695-734: The Board of Appeal, and the Implementation Group: performance planning and evaluation system. As Noordin M Thobani Professor and chair, Community Health Sciences, Aga Khan University (AKU), Karachi, (1998–2003), he focused on South Asia, espousing the principle: "Public health…must not be left to the international community to define; it is primarily the responsibility of the countries themselves to define their priorities. The global agenda should be viewed as complementary at best...". At AKU he promoted population health, field studies, systems research, and community-based training. He guided
7830-862: The Canadian Journal of Public Health (Chair 1982–86), the American Journal of Infection Control, the Journal of Public Health Policy, Medical Principles and Practice, and the Global Journal of Medicine and Public Health, emphasizing development settings. He coauthored "international and global health" in Public Health and Preventive Medicine (McGraw Hill 2008). He is senior author of Global Public Health - Ecological Foundations (Oxford University Press 2013). Franklin White received
7965-643: The Canadian Public Health Association (2010); launching of SHOW (Survey of the Health of Wisconsin), USA, 2008; Inauguration Address " Ibn Ridwan " building, AKU, Karachi in the presence of the Aga Khan , 2000; "Bicentenario del Nacimiento de Jose Cayetano Heredia " hosted by la Academia Nacional de Medicina, Peru, 1997; and visiting scientist, WHO Collaborating Center for Rural & Border Health, University of Arizona , 1993. In 1990, he hosted Anne, Princess Royal , on her visit to
8100-542: The Caribbean Epidemiology Centre. White lives in Victoria, BC, with Debra J Nanan, a retired epidemiologist . He has three children by prior marriage, and four grandchildren. At the 1990 World Masters Athletics North American Championships, he won the silver medal in pentathlon and bronze in 400 metres hurdles . In 1992 he published an account of sailing a small boat from Nova Scotia to
8235-912: The Commonwealth Caribbean Medical Research Council, on the Technical Advisory Committee of the Caribbean Environmental Health Institute, and had formal observer status at the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Health Ministers conferences. Subsequently, based in Washington DC for the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO/WHO), promoting an evidence-based approach, in 1995 he guided development of
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#17327839848118370-560: The Review Panel, National Cancer Incidence Reporting System. In 1986, he was appointed Chief Examiner in Community Medicine, Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada (3-year term). In 1988, he became a founding member, Board of Trustees, Environmental Health Foundation of Canada, serving until 1994. Elected President of the Canadian Public Health Association (CPHA) 1986–88, he advocated an international role for
8505-691: The SAT in most recent comparative studies. The commercial Brucellacapt test, a single-step immunocapture assay for the detection of total anti- Brucella antibodies, is an increasingly used adjunctive test when resources permit. PCR is fast and should be specific. Many varieties of PCR have been developed (e.g. nested PCR, realtime PCR, and PCR-ELISA) and found to have superior specificity and sensitivity in detecting both primary infection and relapse after treatment. Unfortunately, these are not standardized for routine use, and some centres have reported persistent PCR positivity after clinically successful treatment, fuelling
8640-417: The U.S. began in 1934. Brucellosis was originally imported to North America with non-native domestic cattle ( Bos taurus ), which transmitted the disease to wild bison ( Bison bison ) and elk ( Cervus canadensis ). No records exist of brucellosis in ungulates native to America until the early 19th century. Brucellosis first came to the attention of British medical officers in the 1850s in Malta during
8775-949: The US National Institutes of Health , Fogarty International Center : advisory and selection committee for the AIDS International Training and Research Program, and was Principal Foreign Collaborator for: the Maternal and Child Health Research and Training Program, and the International Research and Training in Environmental and Occupational Health Program. From 2004 to 2009, he served on the International Advisory Board, National Action Plan, NCD Prevention, Control & Health Promotion, Pakistan. During
8910-908: The United Kingdom ( FFPH 2003, by distinction). Appointed to McGill's department of epidemiology and health in 1972, he focused on occupational and environmental health , and worked part-time in the Royal Victoria Hospital community clinic. In 1974, he joined Health Canada as chief, communicable disease epidemiology , and in 1975 initiated Canada Diseases Weekly Report, the nation's first data-supported surveillance report, and launched its Field Epidemiology Program. As director, communicable disease control and epidemiology for Alberta (1977–80), and then director of epidemiology for British Columbia (1980–82), he developed surveillance and investigation capacity. He published several novel investigations: Legionnaires' disease , shigellosis on
9045-481: The United States, veterinarians are required to vaccinate all young stock, to further reduce the chance of zoonotic transmission. This vaccination is usually referred to as a "calfhood" vaccination. Most cattle receive a tattoo in one of their ears, serving as proof of their vaccination status. This tattoo also includes the last digit of the year they were born. The first state–federal cooperative efforts towards eradication of brucellosis caused by B. abortus in
9180-565: The United States. An outbreak infecting humans took place in Lanzhou in 2019 after the Lanzhou Biopharmaceutical Plant, which was involved in vaccine production, accidentally pumped out the bacteria into the atmosphere in exhaust air due to use of expired disinfectant. According to Georgios Pappas, an infectious-disease specialist and author of a report published in the journal Clinical Infectious Diseases ,
9315-452: The age of five were overweight in 2014. Once considered a problem in high-income countries, it is now on the rise in low-income countries, especially in urban settings. Many public health programs are increasingly dedicating attention and resources to the issue of obesity, with objectives to address the underlying causes including healthy diet and physical exercise . The National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) has published
9450-592: The appearance of cross-reactions of class M immunoglobulins may occur. The inability to diagnose B. canis by SAT due to lack of cross-reaction is another drawback. False-negative SAT may be caused by the presence of blocking antibodies (the prozone phenomenon ) in the α2-globulin (IgA) and in the α-globulin (IgG) fractions. Dipstick assays are new and promising, based on the binding of Brucella IgM antibodies, and are simple, accurate, and rapid. ELISA typically uses cytoplasmic proteins as antigens. It measures IgM, IgG, and IgA with better sensitivity and specificity than
9585-902: The association. In November 1986, CPHA hosted the First International Conference on Health Promotion, which produced the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion . Also in 1986, CPHA launched the federally-funded Canadian International Immunization Initiative, in support of Commonwealth and Francophonie Countries. He served on the board of the Canadian Society for International Health (1992–96). In international roles, he emphasized capacity building for public health education, research, policy and program development. Based in Port of Spain , Trinidad as Director (1989–95), Caribbean Epidemiology Centre (CAREC/PAHO/WHO),
9720-405: The authors opined that "The fact that type 2 diabetes, a largely preventable disorder, has reached epidemic proportion is a public health humiliation." The risk of type 2 diabetes is closely linked with the growing problem of obesity . The WHO's latest estimates as of June 2016 highlighted that globally approximately 1.9 billion adults were overweight in 2014, and 41 million children under
9855-422: The beginnings of human civilization , communities promoted health and fought disease at the population level. In complex , pre-industrialized societies , interventions designed to reduce health risks could be the initiative of different stakeholders, such as army generals, the clergy or rulers. Great Britain became a leader in the development of public health initiatives, beginning in the 19th century, due to
9990-699: The blood) can usually be demonstrated by means of blood culture in tryptose medium or Albini medium. If untreated, the disease can give origin to focalizations or become chronic. The focalizations of brucellosis occur usually in bones and joints, and osteomyelitis or spondylodiscitis of the lumbar spine accompanied by sacroiliitis is very characteristic of this disease. Orchitis is also common in men. The consequences of Brucella infection are highly variable and may include arthritis , spondylitis , thrombocytopenia , meningitis , uveitis , optic neuritis , endocarditis , and various neurological disorders collectively known as neurobrucellosis. Brucellosis in humans
10125-820: The burden of disease and inequality faced by developing countries and lead to a healthier future. The links between the various sustainable development goals and public health are numerous and well established. Brucellosis Brucellosis is a zoonosis caused by ingestion of unpasteurized milk from infected animals, or close contact with their secretions. It is also known as undulant fever , Malta fever , and Mediterranean fever . The bacteria causing this disease, Brucella , are small, Gram-negative , nonmotile, nonspore-forming, rod-shaped ( coccobacilli ) bacteria. They function as facultative intracellular parasites , causing chronic disease , which usually persists for life. Four species infect humans: B. abortus , B. canis , B. melitensis , and B. suis . B. abortus
10260-426: The controversy about the existence of prolonged chronic brucellosis. Other laboratory findings include normal peripheral white cell count, and occasional leucopenia with relative lymphocytosis . The serum biochemical profiles are commonly normal. Surveillance using serological tests, as well as tests on milk such as the milk ring test, can be used for screening and play an important role in campaigns to eliminate
10395-649: The cornerstones of sustainable health systems, and this should be reflected in the health policies and professional education systems of all nations." He has also addressed the application of disease etiology and natural history to prevention in primary health care. White has authored over 300 publications. He contributed to editions of the International Epidemiological Association's Dictionary of Epidemiology, and as associate editor to John M Last , in A Dictionary of Public Health (2007). His editorial board service includes inter alia
10530-458: The correct approach is to find a framework that best describes a situation and see what it implies about public health policy. The definition of health is vague and there are many conceptualizations. Public health practitioners definition of health can different markedly from members of the public or clinicians . This can mean that members of the public view the values behind public health interventions as alien which can cause resentment amongst
10665-617: The design and implementation of an MSc in health policy and management, and intervention evaluations in hard-to-reach settings (see map of Karakorum Highway ), such as the Water and Sanitation Extension Program . He engaged in many locally conducted studies, including: childhood illnesses, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS/STI, reproductive health, health systems, environmental health, and NCDs. In association with University of Alabama at Birmingham (1999–2003), focused on initiatives in Pakistan, he chaired
10800-944: The determinants of health of a population and the threats it faces is the basis for public health. The public can be as small as a handful of people or as large as a village or an entire city; in the case of a pandemic it may encompass several continents. The concept of health takes into account physical, psychological , and social well-being , among other factors. Public health is an interdisciplinary field. For example, epidemiology , biostatistics , social sciences and management of health services are all relevant. Other important sub-fields include environmental health , community health , behavioral health , health economics , public policy , mental health , health education , health politics , occupational safety , disability , oral health , gender issues in health, and sexual and reproductive health . Public health, together with primary care , secondary care, and tertiary care ,
10935-520: The disease in 1909, as recorded in the British Army and Navy stationed in Malta, was 2%. The most frequent cause of death was endocarditis . Recent advances in antibiotics and surgery have been successful in preventing death due to endocarditis. Prevention of human brucellosis can be achieved by eradication of the disease in animals by vaccination and other veterinary control methods such as testing herds/flocks and slaughtering animals when infection
11070-456: The disease is closer to being eliminated, a test and eradication program is required to eliminate it. The main way of preventing brucellosis is by using fastidious hygiene in producing raw milk products, or by pasteurizing all milk that is to be ingested by human beings, either in its unaltered form or as a derivative, such as cheese . Another important aspect of Brucellosis prevention is public awareness. People in endemic areas demonstrated
11205-424: The disease. Also, individual animal testing both for trade and for disease-control purposes is practiced. In endemic areas, vaccination is often used to reduce the incidence of infection. An animal vaccine is available that uses modified live bacteria. The World Organisation for Animal Health Manual of Diagnostic Test and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals provides detailed guidance on the production of vaccines. As
11340-780: The disease. As of 2022 all cattle of ages 3–8 months must receive the Brucella abortus strain 19 vaccine. Australia is free of cattle brucellosis, although it occurred in the past. Brucellosis of sheep or goats has never been reported. Brucellosis of pigs does occur. Feral pigs are the typical source of human infections. On 19 September 1985, the Canadian government declared its cattle population brucellosis-free. Brucellosis ring testing of milk and cream, and testing of cattle to be slaughtered ended on 1 April 1999. Monitoring continues through testing at auction markets, through standard disease-reporting procedures, and through testing of cattle being qualified for export to countries other than
11475-419: The distribution of health between and within populations and are often shaped by policy. A social gradient in health runs through society. The poorest generally have the worst health, but even the middle classes will generally have worse health outcomes than those of a higher social level. The new public health advocates for population-based policies that improve health in an equitable manner. The health sector
11610-407: The dogs prior to breeding can prevent the spread of this disease. It is treated with antibiotics, as with humans, but it is difficult to cure. Brucellosis in cetaceans is caused by the bacterium B. ceti . First discovered in the aborted fetus of a bottlenose dolphin , the structure of B. ceti is similar to Brucella in land animals. B. ceti is commonly detected in two suborders of cetaceans,
11745-488: The drinking of raw (unpasteurized) milk. During the 1920s, this hypothesis was vindicated. Such illnesses ranged from undiagnosed and untreated gastrointestinal upset to misdiagnosed febrile and painful versions, some even fatal. This advance in bacteriological science sparked extensive changes in the American dairy industry to improve food safety . The changes included making pasteurization standard and greatly tightening
11880-539: The early 20th century. The symptoms are like those associated with many other febrile diseases, but with emphasis on muscular pain and night sweats. The duration of the disease can vary from a few weeks to many months or even years. In the first stage of the disease, bacteremia occurs and leads to the classic triad of undulant fevers, sweating (often with a characteristic foul, moldy smell sometimes likened to wet hay), and migratory arthralgia and myalgia (joint and muscle pain). Blood tests characteristically reveal
12015-404: The effects of chronic diseases as life expectancy increases, the poorer communities being heavily affected by both chronic and infectious diseases. Another major public health concern in the developing world is poor maternal and child health, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty. The WHO reports that a lack of exclusive breastfeeding during the first six months of life contributes to over
12150-422: The efficacy of international health aid. Supporters of aid claim that health aid from wealthy countries is necessary in order for developing countries to escape the poverty trap . Opponents of health aid claim that international health aid actually disrupts developing countries' course of development, causes dependence on aid, and in many cases the aid fails to reach its recipients. For example, recently, health aid
12285-760: The fact that it was the first modern urban nation worldwide. The public health initiatives that began to emerge initially focused on sanitation (for example, the Liverpool and London sewerage systems ), control of infectious diseases (including vaccination and quarantine ) and an evolving infrastructure of various sciences, e.g. statistics, microbiology, epidemiology, sciences of engineering. Public health has been defined as "the science and art of preventing disease ", prolonging life and improving quality of life through organized efforts and informed choices of society , organizations (public and private), communities and individuals . The public can be as small as
12420-496: The fetus and placenta, and the lack of anti- Brucella activity in the amniotic fluid. Males can also harbor the bacteria in their reproductive tracts, namely seminal vesicles , ampullae , testicles , and epididymises . The causative agent of brucellosis in dogs , B. canis , is transmitted to other dogs through breeding and contact with aborted fetuses. Brucellosis can occur in humans who come in contact with infected aborted tissue or semen. The bacteria in dogs normally infect
12555-469: The first agent weaponized by the United States at its Pine Bluff Arsenal near Pine Bluff, Arkansas . Brucella species survive well in aerosols and resist drying. Brucella and all other remaining biological weapons in the U.S. arsenal were destroyed in 1971–72 when the American offensive biological warfare program was discontinued by order of President Richard Nixon . The experimental American bacteriological warfare program focused on three agents of
12690-456: The genitals and lymphatic system , but can also spread to the eyes, kidneys , and intervertebral discs . Brucellosis in the intervertebral disc is one possible cause of discospondylitis . Symptoms of brucellosis in dogs include abortion in female dogs and scrotal inflammation and orchitis in males. Fever is uncommon. Infection of the eye can cause uveitis , and infection of the intervertebral disc can cause pain or weakness. Blood testing of
12825-428: The global community, citing international law . In 2003, White launched Pacific Health & Development Sciences Inc. ( PacificSci) , a firm engaged in third party monitoring and evaluation of large scale health interventions e.g., Amref Health Africa ; International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b); Pakistan's Lady Health Worker Program (external reviewer to Oxford Policy Management );
12960-448: The harmful and undesirable effects of tobacco smoking on other persons and imposing smoking bans in public places have been particularly effective in reducing tobacco smoking. Public libraries can also be beneficial tools for public health changes. They provide access to healthcare information, link people to healthcare services, and even can provide direct care in certain situations. As well as seeking to improve population health through
13095-587: The health policies and professional education systems of all nations.” Born in Perth , Western Australia (1946), his family lived in Kuala Lumpur (1946–50) during the Malayan emergency , engaged in post-war reconstruction; his father Frank T. M. White , was then appointed founding professor of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, University of Queensland . Visiting field sites and taking seasonal employment in
13230-796: The highest possible level of health". The WHO's broad mandate includes advocating for universal healthcare, monitoring public health risks, coordinating responses to health emergencies, and promoting human health and well-being. The WHO has played a leading role in several public health achievements, most notably the eradication of smallpox , the near- eradication of polio , and the development of an Ebola vaccine . Its current priorities include communicable diseases , particularly HIV/AIDS , Ebola , COVID-19 , malaria and tuberculosis ; non-communicable diseases such as heart disease and cancer; healthy diet , nutrition, and food security ; occupational health ; and substance abuse . Most countries have their own governmental public health agency, often called
13365-446: The implementation of specific population-level interventions, public health contributes to medical care by identifying and assessing population needs for health care services, including: Some programs and policies associated with public health promotion and prevention can be controversial. One such example is programs focusing on the prevention of HIV transmission through safe sex campaigns and needle-exchange programs . Another
13500-495: The importance of associating products with high status and attractiveness to others. Films are increasingly being recognized as a public health tool, with the Harvard University 's T.H. Chan School of Public Health categorizing such films as "impact filmmaking." In fact, film festivals and competitions have been established to specifically promote films about health. Conversely, it has been argued that emphasizing
13635-441: The importance of public health programs in reducing the incidence of disease, disability, and the effects of aging and other physical and mental health conditions. However, public health generally receives significantly less government funding compared with medicine. Although the collaboration of local health and government agencies is considered best practice to improve public health, the pieces of evidence available to support this
13770-477: The importance of public health. In the United States, a history of underinvestment in public health undermined the public health workforce and support for population health, long before the pandemic added to stress, mental distress, job dissatisfaction, and accelerated departures among public health workers. Health aid to developing countries is an important source of public health funding for many developing countries. Health aid to developing countries has shown
13905-526: The industry, he came to appreciate that how people live and work impacts their health. While in secondary school, he qualified as a Petty Officer , Australian Navy Cadets , was prominent in track and field , and qualified (1963) as a junior rugby referee; as a Queensland junior champion (1964), he represented the state in the 1965 Australian Athletics Championships . A Babayaga Trio member, he participated in Australian folk music . His primary education
14040-403: The isolation of the organism from the blood, body fluids, or tissues, but serological methods may be the only tests available in many settings. Positive blood culture yield ranges between 40 and 70% and is less commonly positive for B. abortus than B. melitensis or B. suis . Identification of specific antibodies against bacterial lipopolysaccharide and other antigens can be detected by
14175-527: The late 1910s, American bacteriologist Alice C. Evans was studying the Bang bacillus and gradually realized that it was virtually indistinguishable from the Bruce coccus. The short-rod versus oblong-round morphologic borderline explained the leveling of the erstwhile bacillus/coccus distinction (that is, these "two" pathogens were not a coccus versus a bacillus but rather were one coccobacillus ). The Bang bacillus
14310-499: The logistical requirements to neutralize a target were far higher than originally planned. Ultimately, this would have required too much logistical support to be practical in the field. Agents US and AA had a median infective dose of 500 organisms/person, and for Agent AM it was 300 organisms/person. The incubation time was believed to be about 2 weeks, with a duration of infection of several months. The lethality estimate was, based on epidemiological information, 1 to 2 per cent. Agent AM
14445-944: The ministry of health, with responsibility for domestic health issues. For example, in the United States , state and local health departments are on the front line of public health initiatives. In addition to their national duties, the United States Public Health Service (PHS), led by the Surgeon General of the United States Public Health Service , and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , headquartered in Atlanta , are also involved with international health activities. Most governments recognize
14580-406: The name Brucella in honor of Bruce, was found to contain several species with varying virulence. The name "brucellosis" gradually replaced the 19th-century names Mediterranean fever and Malta fever. Neurobrucellosis, a neurological involvement in brucellosis, was first described in 1879. In the late 19th century, its symptoms were described in more detail by M. Louis Hughes, a Surgeon-Captain of
14715-450: The name "Bang's disease" was assigned to this condition. Bang considered the organism rod-shaped and classified it as a bacillus . At the time no one knew that this bacillus had anything to do with the causative agent of Malta fever. Maltese scientist and archaeologist Themistocles Zammit identified unpasteurized goat milk as the major etiologic factor of undulant fever in June 1905. In
14850-539: The needs of the normative group. Identifying bias within public health research and practice is essential to ensuring public health efforts mitigate and don't aggravate health inequities. The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for international public health. The WHO Constitution, which establishes the agency's governing structure and principles, states its main objective as "the attainment by all peoples of
14985-452: The prevalence of infectious diseases decreased through the 20th century , public health began to put more focus on chronic diseases such as cancer and heart disease . Previous efforts in many developed countries had already led to dramatic reductions in the infant mortality rate using preventive methods. In Britain, the infant mortality rate fell from over 15% in 1870 to 7% by 1930. A major public health concern in developing countries
15120-484: The public towards certain interventions. Such vagueness can be a problem for health promotion . Critics have argued that public health tends to place more focus on individual factors associated with health at the expense of factors operating at the population level. Historically, public health campaigns have been criticized as a form of " healthism ", as moralistic in nature rather than being focused on health. Medical doctors, Petr Shkrabanek and James McCormick wrote
15255-476: The reemergence of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis . Antibiotic resistance , also known as drug resistance, was the theme of World Health Day 2011 . For example, the WHO reports that at least 220 million people worldwide have diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is projected that the number of diabetes deaths will double by 2030. In a June 2010 editorial in the medical journal The Lancet ,
15390-486: The result was “possibly the largest laboratory accident in the history of infectious diseases.” According to Pappas, out of nearly 70,000 people tested, more than 10,000 were seropositive, citing figures compiled by the provincial health authorities in Lanzhou’s Gansu province. Pappas also states that Chinese documents show that more than 3,000 people living near the plant applied for compensation, an indication of at least
15525-409: The simple act of handwashing with soap can prevent the spread of many contagious diseases . In other cases, treating a disease or controlling a pathogen can be vital to preventing its spread to others, either during an outbreak of infectious disease or through contamination of food or water supplies. Public health, together with primary care , secondary care, and tertiary care , is part of
15660-591: The social determinants of health, are also a growing area of concern in public health. A central challenge to securing health equity is that the same social structures that contribute to health inequities also operate and are reproduced by public health organizations. In other words, public health organizations have evolved to better meet the needs of some groups more than others. The result is often that those most in need of preventative interventions are least likely to receive them and interventions can actually aggravate inequities as they are often inadvertently tailored to
15795-409: The spread of sexually transmitted diseases . Public health aims are achieved through surveillance of cases and the promotion of healthy behaviors , communities and environments . Analyzing the determinants of health of a population and the threats it faces is the basis for public health. Many diseases are preventable through simple, nonmedical methods. For example, research has shown that
15930-438: The spread of sexually transmitted diseases . There is a significant disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed countries and developing countries , as well as within developing countries. In developing countries, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained healthcare workers , monetary resources, or, in some cases, sufficient knowledge to provide even
16065-641: The standard agglutination test ( SAT ), rose Bengal, 2-mercaptoethanol (2-ME), antihuman globulin (Coombs') and indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay ( ELISA ). SAT is the most commonly used serology in endemic areas. An agglutination titre greater than 1:160 is considered significant in nonendemic areas and greater than 1:320 in endemic areas. Due to the similarity of the O polysaccharide of Brucella to that of various other Gram-negative bacteria (e.g. Francisella tularensis , Escherichia coli , Salmonella urbana , Yersinia enterocolitica , Vibrio cholerae , and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia ),
16200-431: The standards of cleanliness in milkhouses on dairy farms . The expense prompted delay and skepticism in the industry, but the new hygiene rules eventually became the norm. Although these measures have sometimes struck people as overdone in the decades since, being unhygienic at milking time or in the milkhouse, or drinking raw milk, are not a safe alternative. In the decades after Evans's work, this genus, which received
16335-418: The state may be encouraged to remove more and more choice in the name of better population health overall. Psychological research confirms this tension between concerns about public health and concerns about personal liberty: (i) the best predictor of complying with public health recommendations such as hand-washing, mask-wearing, and staying at home (except for essential activity) during the COVID-19 pandemic
16470-511: The strictest sense. For example, mandating the use of seat belts in cars can save countless lives and contribute to the health of a population, but typically money spent enforcing this rule would not count as money spent on health care. Large parts of the world remained plagued by largely preventable or treatable infectious diseases. In addition to this however, many developing countries are also experiencing an epidemiological shift and polarization in which populations are now experiencing more of
16605-502: The term "public health". Preventive medicine specialists are trained as clinicians and address complex health needs of a population such as by assessing the need for disease prevention programs, using the best methods to implement them, and assessing their effectiveness. Since the 1990s many scholars in public health have been using the term population health . There are no medical specialties directly related to population health. Valles argues that consideration of health equity
16740-462: The worldwide context. It has been defined as "the area of study, research and practice that places a priority on improving health and achieving equity in " Health for all " people worldwide". International health is a field of health care, usually with a public health emphasis, dealing with health across regional or national boundaries. Public health is not the same as public healthcare ( publicly funded health care ). The term preventive medicine
16875-418: Was a leader in the development of public health during that time period out of necessity: Great Britain was the first modern urban nation (by 1851 more than half of the population lived in settlements of more than 2000 people). This led to a certain type of distress which then led to public health initiatives. Later that particular concern faded away. With the onset of the epidemiological transition and as
17010-444: Was already known to be enzootic in American dairy cattle, which showed itself in the regularity with which herds experienced contagious abortion. Having made the discovery that the bacteria were certainly nearly identical and perhaps totally so, Evans then wondered why Malta fever was not widely diagnosed or reported in the United States. She began to wonder whether many cases of vaguely defined febrile illnesses were in fact caused by
17145-894: Was associated with 364,000 fewer deaths occurring between ages 0 and 5 in 2011. To address current and future challenges in addressing health issues in the world, the United Nations have developed the Sustainable Development Goals to be completed by 2030. These goals in their entirety encompass the entire spectrum of development across nations, however Goals 1–6 directly address health disparities , primarily in developing countries. These six goals address key issues in global public health , poverty , hunger and food security , health, education, gender equality and women's empowerment , and water and sanitation . Public health officials can use these goals to set their own agenda and plan for smaller scale initiatives for their organizations. These goals are designed to lessen
17280-576: Was at Ironside State School and Brisbane Boys College ; his secondary education at the Anglican Church Grammar School . Following scholarship-assisted studies at University of Queensland , he obtained MD,CM degrees from McGill University in 1969. During internship at Royal Jubilee Hospital , he engaged in educational research with L' Université de Sherbrooke . In 1970-71 he joined the Ministry of Health (British Columbia) as
17415-424: Was believed to be a somewhat more virulent disease, with a fatality rate of 3 per cent being expected. Species infecting domestic livestock are B. abortus (cattle, bison, and elk), B. canis (dogs), B. melitensis (goats and sheep), B. ovis (sheep), and B. suis (caribou and pigs). Brucella species have also been isolated from several marine mammal species (cetaceans and pinnipeds). B. abortus
17550-563: Was co-chair (hygiene), Medical Committee, Commonwealth Games , Edmonton 1977-78. At age 36, he was appointed " Ezra Butler Eddy " Professor and Head, Community Health and Epidemiology at Dalhousie University (1982–89), and was an elected member of Senate for the same period. Cross-appointed to the Institute of Resource and Environmental Studies, he investigated human exposures to chemicals and pesticides. Using Canada Fitness Survey data, he focused on obesity measurement and prevalence, and
17685-552: Was first to reveal an independent association of waist:hip ratio (abdominal obesity) with hypertension in males. A field investigation revealed the world's most northerly occurrence of endemic ascariasis . Using records linkage, he investigated cancer incidence and mortality in indoor workers; similar innovative methods were applied to an inter-provincial study of heart disease. He served on Health Canada's Epidemiology Science Panel (1983–84), Task Force on Obesity (1983–86), and Advisory Committee on Weight Standards (1985–87), and chaired
17820-408: Was funneled towards initiatives such as financing new technologies like antiretroviral medication , insecticide-treated mosquito nets , and new vaccines. The positive impacts of these initiatives can be seen in the eradication of smallpox and polio ; however, critics claim that misuse or misplacement of funds may cause many of these efforts to never come into achievement. Economic modeling based on
17955-520: Was in cattle in Cornwall in 2004. Northern Ireland was declared officially brucellosis-free in 2015. Brucellosis in New Zealand is limited to sheep ( B. ovis ). The country is free of all other species of Brucella . Dairy herds in the U.S. are tested at least once a year to be certified brucellosis-free with the Brucella milk ring test. Cows confirmed to be infected are often killed. In
18090-519: Was less than desirable, and the USAF designed it as an interim capability until it could eventually be replaced by a more effective biological weapon. The main drawback of using the M114 with Agent US was that it acted mainly as an incapacitating agent, whereas the USAF administration wanted weapons that were deadly. The stability of M114 in storage was too low to allow for storing it at forward air bases, and
18225-420: Was people's perceived duties to prevent harm but (ii) the best predictor of flouting such public health recommendations was valuing liberty more than equality. Simultaneously, while communicable diseases have historically ranged uppermost as a global health priority, non-communicable diseases and the underlying behavior-related risk factors have been at the bottom. This is changing, however, as illustrated by
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