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62-792: Karl Emil Franzos was born near the town of Czortków (Chortkiv) in the eastern, Podolian region of the Austrian Kingdom of Galicia . His family came from Sephardi Spanish Jews who fled the Inquisition to Holland and later settled in Lorraine . In the 1770s his great-grandfather established a factory for one of his sons in East Galicia, part of the Habsburg monarchy since the First Partition of Poland in 1772. When

124-726: A republican Großdeutsche Lösung , whereas the liberal center favored the Kleindeutsche Lösung with a constitutional monarchy . Those supporting the Großdeutsche position argued that since the Habsburgs had ruled the Holy Roman Empire for almost 400 years from 1440 to 1806 (the only break coming from the extinction of the Habsburg male line in 1740 to the election of Francis I in 1745), Austria

186-698: A German nation-state. The Czech politician František Palacký explicitly rejected the offered mandate to the Frankfurt assembly, stating that the Slavic lands of the Habsburg Empire were not a subject of German debates. On the other hand, for Austrian prime minister Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg , only the accession of the Habsburg Empire as a whole was acceptable because it had no intention to part from its non-German possessions and dismantle in order to remain in an all-German Empire. Thus, some members of

248-546: A financier of Winston Churchill . Large-volume money transfers followed, making the customs union impractical as the economic crisis deepened. In Germany, Adolf Hitler , an Austrian German by birth, had been a firm proponent of the unification of Germany and Austria. A demand for a Greater Germany was included in a 1920 party platform of the Nazi Party . Hitler's election in Germany set into motion increased pressure for

310-774: A growing German nationalism . They also drew upon similar contemporary efforts to create a unified nation state of people who shared a common ethnicity and language, such as the Unification of Italy and the Serbian Revolution . During the Cold War , the term was repurposed to refer to the matters pertaining to the division, and re-unification , of Germany. There is, in political geography, no Germany proper to speak of. There are Kingdoms and Grand Duchies, and Duchies and Principalities, inhabited by Germans, and each separately ruled by an independent sovereign with all

372-434: A merger between Germany and Austria that swayed many Austrian politicians. But fascist Italy , despite its friendly relations with Hitler, strongly opposed any kind of merger of Austria into Germany, and pressured and threatened Austrian politicians from pursuing such a course. Austria, meanwhile, adopted Austrofascism which focused on the history of Austria and opposed the absorption of Austria into Nazi Germany (according to

434-487: A mystery. It is possible that he thought his critical portrayal of the ghetto might be exploited by antisemitic elements which were becoming increasingly active in Germany in the 1890s. The relations between the Christian and Jewish communities come into sharpest focus in sexual matters—as a young man Franzos fell in love with a Christian girl but renounced her because of the barrier between the two groups. This problem forms

496-613: A post- Holocaust perspective. He believed, following the example of Friedrich Schiller, that literature should have an ethical purpose, but he managed to express that purpose through a range of vivid characters who still have the power to move the modern reader. Galicia and Bukovina were the most backward, the poorest provinces of the Austrian Empire, so that Franzos saw his promotion of Germanisation as part of an attempt to improve conditions there politically and economically as well as culturally and socially. Jews made up some 12% of

558-523: A regional seat. In January 1989 the population was 26 681 people. In January 2013 the population was 29 640 people. In 2019, at the 40-meter height of the tower of the Saint Stanislaus church in Chortkiv , archaeologist, researcher of fortifications and antiquities Volodymyr Dobrianskyi discovered a detonator of a shrapnel projectile, according to its flight trajectory determined that

620-614: A significant German-speaking population joining a Greater German state was maintained by some circles both in Austria-Hungary and Germany. It was again promoted after the close of World War I and the dissolution of the Austro–Hungarian monarchy in 1918 by the proclamation of the rump state , German Austria . Proponents attempted to incorporate German Austria into the German Weimar Republic . However, this

682-473: Is a city in Chortkiv Raion , Ternopil Oblast , western Ukraine . It is the administrative center of Chortkiv Raion , housing the district's local administration buildings. Chortkiv hosts the administration of Chortkiv urban hromada , one of the hromadas of Ukraine. Population: 28,279 (2022 estimate). Chortkiv is located in the northern part of the historic region of Galician Podolia on

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744-599: The Großdeutsches Reich ("Greater German Reich") and colloquially as Großdeutschland . The names were informal at first, but the change to Großdeutsches Reich became official in 1943. As well as Germany (pre-World War II borders), Austria, and Alsace-Lorraine , the Großdeutsches Reich included the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg , Sudetenland , Bohemia and Moravia , the Memel Territory ,

806-756: The Galician province, Slovenes in Carniola , and Italians in Lombardy–Venetia and Trentino , which was still incorporated into the Tyrolean crown land, altogether making up the larger part of the Austrian Empire. Except for Bohemia, Carniola, and Trento, these territories were not part of the German Confederation because they had not (in some cases not lately) been part of the former Holy Roman Empire, and none of them desired to be included in

868-643: The German Empire . Franzos had acclaimed the 1871 German unification under Prussian leadership and advocated a Greater Germany including the Austrian territories. However, the move to the German capital was caused as much by the greater opportunities for publishing there as by his " Germanic " tendencies. Indeed, the increasing virulence of antisemitism in Germany meant that later on he had difficulty placing pieces which were felt to be too pro-Jewish—which

930-708: The North German Confederation , seeking to prevent the Austrian and Bavarian Catholics in the south from being a predominant force in a mainly Protestant Prussian Germany. He successfully used the Franco-Prussian War to convince the other German states, including the Kingdom of Bavaria, to stand with Prussia against the Second French Empire ; Austria-Hungary did not participate in the war. After Prussia's speedy victory,

992-636: The Peace of Prague , the Prussian Minister President Otto von Bismarck , now at the helm of German politics, pursued the expulsion of Austria and managed to unite all German states except Austria under Prussian leadership, while the Habsburg lands were shaken by ethnic nationalist conflicts, only superficially resolved with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 . At the same time, Bismarck established

1054-669: The Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany , the Free State of Danzig , and the "General Government" territories (territories of Poland under German military occupation). This unification lasted only until the end of World War II . With the defeat of the Nazi regime in 1945, "Greater Germany" was separated into West Germany , East Germany , and Austria by the Allied Powers. Austria was also occupied but given full sovereignty by

1116-682: The Revolutions of 1848 , over the best way to achieve a unification of all or most lands inhabited by Germans . From 1815 to 1866, about 37 independent German-speaking states existed within the German Confederation . The Großdeutsche Lösung (" Greater German solution") favored unifying all German-speaking peoples under one state, and was promoted by the Austrian Empire and its supporters. The Kleindeutsche Lösung (" Lesser German solution") sought to unify only

1178-781: The Tarnopol Voivodeship of the Second Polish Republic until the Soviet invasion of Poland in September 1939. In 1931, the town had 19,037 inhabitants, 10504 were Polish Roman Catholics , 4860 were Ukrainian and Polish Jews , and 3633 were Ukrainian. Chortkiv was an important garrison of the Polish Border Defence Corps Brigade "Podole", whose commandant from 1935 to 1938 was General Stefan Rowecki . Furthermore, it

1240-666: The War of the Austrian Succession , and then outlasted the French Revolution and Napoleon 's domination of Europe. Facing the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, the ruling House of Habsburg proclaimed the Austrian Empire in 1804. On August 6, 1806, Habsburg Emperor Francis II abdicated the throne of the Holy Roman Empire in the course of the Napoleonic Wars with France . The 1815 restoration by

1302-580: The 17th and 18th centuries. The first historical mention of Chortkiv dates to 1522, when Polish King Sigismund I the Old granted an ownership order for Jerzy Czortkowski over the town and allowed him to name it after himself— Czortków . The small community, numbering at 50 families, were almost all massacred during the Chmielnicki Uprisings of 1648–9. Jewish leadership opposed the resettlement of Jews in Chortkiv until 1705. During that time,

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1364-483: The 1955 Austrian State Treaty which among other things required Austria to renounce any designs on uniting with Germany. Austrian neutrality was affirmed in a separate but related act. Furthermore, Germany was stripped of much of historic eastern Germany (i.e. the bulk of Prussia), most of which was annexed to Poland , with a small portion annexed to the Soviet Union (today's Kaliningrad Oblast ). Luxembourg,

1426-463: The 1st, 3rd, 4th and 7th cannon regiments (64 guns) under the command of Ataman Kirill Karas during the Chortkiv offensive (June 7–28, 1919) were stationed in the woods west of the village of Shmankivtsi in the Chortkiv district. Until 18 July 2020, Chortkiv was designated as a city of oblast significance and did not belong to Chortkiv Raion even though it was the center of the raion. As part of

1488-474: The Austrian administration required Jews to adopt surnames, "Franzos" became his grandfather's name, from his French background, even though he regarded himself as German. Franzos's father Heinrich (1808–1858) was a highly respected doctor in Czortków. His German identity at the time had mainly linguistic and cultural meaning, there being no state called "Germany", just a loose German Confederation . He

1550-721: The Czech (via Czechoslovakia ), and the Slovenian lands (via Yugoslavia ) regained their independence from German control. Germans in Eastern Europe were also expelled after the war . The German question was a central aspect of the origins of the Cold War. The legal and diplomatic intercourse between the Allies regarding the treatment of the German question brought forward the elements of intervention and coexistence which formed

1612-558: The Final Act of the Vienna Congress established the German Confederation , which was not a nation but a commonwealth association of sovereign states on the territory of the former Holy Roman Empire. While a number of factors swayed allegiances in the debate, the most prominent was religion . The Großdeutsche Lösung would have implied a dominant position for Catholic Austria, the largest and most powerful German state of

1674-481: The Frankfurt parliament offered the German Imperial crown to King Frederick William IV of Prussia , who rejected it. The revolution failed and several subsequent attempts by Prince Schwarzenberg to more closely unite the German Confederation headed by Austria ( Greater Austria proposal ) came to nothing. These efforts were finally terminated by Austria's humiliating defeat in 1866 Austro-Prussian War . After

1736-636: The Habsburg Empire, strongly influenced his youth and character. The first languages he spoke were Ukrainian and Polish , learnt from his nurse; his first school was attached to the Czortków Dominican abbey, where the teaching was in Latin and Polish; and he attended private lessons in Hebrew . In Czernowitz he attended the German gymnasium , passing the Matura exam with honours in 1867. By now

1798-555: The Jews because they are enslaved, but I attack the slavery the orthodox Jews impose on the liberal members of their faith.” His works include: Franzos is also well known for being the first to publish an edition of Georg Büchner 's work, which was vital for the rediscovery of the Vormärz author. Franzos completed his edition in 1879, including plays like Danton's Death and Leonce and Lena . The manuscript of Büchner's drama Woyzeck

1860-612: The Soviets executed an estimated 100 to 200 prisoners held in the local prison. The remaining prisoners were evacuated further east , either by train or on foot, while hundreds died due to the inhumane conditions of transport or at the hands of guards. From 1941-1944 Chortkiv was annexed to Nazi Germany . The Jewish residents were persecuted and deported as part of the Holocaust . When the Nazis arrived, they proceeded to execute many of

1922-403: The administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Ternopil Oblast to three, the city was merged into Chortkiv Raion. The former Chortkiv Air Base is located nearby. 8. Czortków KehilaLinks Site - JewishGen http://kehilalinks.jewishgen.org/Suchostaw/sl_czortkow.htm German question The " German question " was a debate in the 19th century, especially during

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1984-464: The assembly, and Prussia in particular, promoted the Kleindeutsche Lösung , which excluded the whole Austrian Empire with its German and its non-German possessions. They argued that Prussia, as the only Great Power with a predominantly German-speaking population, was best qualified to lead the newly unified Germany. Yet, the drafted constitution provided for the possibility for Austria to join without its non-German possessions later. On March 30, 1849,

2046-523: The banks of the Seret River . In the past Chortkiv was the home of many Hasidic Jews ; it was a notable shtetl and had a significant number of Jews residing there prior to the Holocaust . Today, Chortkiv is a regional commercial and small-scale manufacturing center. Among its architectural monuments is a fortress built in the 16th and 17th centuries as well as historic wooden churches of

2108-608: The basis for a relatively peaceful postwar international order. The division of Germany started with the creation of four occupation zones, continued with establishing two German states (West Germany and East Germany), was deepened in the period of Cold War with the Berlin Wall from 1961 and existed until 1989/1990. After the East German uprising of 1953 , the official holiday in the Federal Republic of Germany

2170-602: The belief that Austrians were "better Germans"). Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg (1934–1938) called Austria the "better German state". Nevertheless, German nationalists ' desire for a unified nation-state incorporating all Germans into a Greater Germany persisted and, in time, Mussolini 's Italy became distracted by its 1936 invasion of Ethiopia , leading to a stretch of resources and less willingness to intervene in Austria. In 1938, Hitler's long-desired union between his birthplace, Austria, and Germany ( Anschluss )

2232-404: The debate was settled in favor of the Kleindeutsche Lösung in 1871. Bismarck used the prestige gained from the victory to maintain the alliance with Bavaria and proclaimed the German Empire . Protestant Prussia became the dominant power of the new state, and Austria-Hungary was excluded, remaining a separate polity . The Lesser German solution prevailed. The idea of Austrian territories with

2294-627: The early 19th century. As a result, Catholics and Austria-friendly, mostly southern states usually favored Großdeutschland . A unification of Germany led by Prussia would mean the domination of the new state by the Protestant House of Hohenzollern , a more palatable option to Protestant , mostly northern German states. Another complicating factor was the Austrian Empire's inclusion of a large number of non-Germans, such as Hungarians , Czechs , South Slavs , Italians , Poles , Ruthenians , Romanians and Slovaks . Additional complication

2356-400: The family was in reduced circumstances and he supported himself by giving lessons, later, as a student, from his writing. He would have liked to study classical philology with the aim of becoming a teacher, but no scholarship was forthcoming. Jews were not eligible for teaching posts, and even though he was non-religious, he refused to convert to advance his career. An additional reason for

2418-608: The local Jews, including the family of Charles Schumer , American Senate Majority Leader. The surviving Polish residents of the town were transferred to the Recovered Territories in the immediate postwar period (see Polish population transfers (1944–1946) ). After the defeat of the Nazis by the Red Army in 1944, the town returned to Soviet control until in 1991 it became part of independent Ukraine . Due to heavy destruction of Ternopil , in 1944 Chortkiv served as

2480-613: The machinery of State. Yet there is a natural undercurrent tending to a national feeling and toward a union of the Germans into one great nation, ruled by one common head as a national unit. Over the centuries, the Holy Roman Empire had to cope with a continuous loss of authority to its constituent estates . The disastrous Thirty Years' War proved especially detrimental to the Holy Roman Emperor 's authority, as

2542-516: The mightiest two entities within it, the Austrian Habsburg monarchy and Brandenburg-Prussia , evolved into rivalling European absolute powers with territory reaching far beyond Holy Roman Imperial borders. Meanwhile, the many smaller estates splintered further. In the 18th century the Holy Roman Empire consisted of hundreds of separate territories governed by distinct authorities. This rivalry between Austria and Prussia resulted in

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2604-641: The misspelling of the title, as "Wozzeck" instead of "Woyzeck", an alternate ending that involves Wozzeck drowning in lieu of Büchner's incomplete manuscript, and a fragmented plot without connections between the scenes. Although the play is often performed in newer versions, Franzos' edition has been immortalized in the form of Alban Berg 's opera Wozzeck , which uses the Franzos edition as its base. Chortkiv Chortkiv ( Ukrainian : Чортків , IPA: [tʃortˈkiu̯] ; Polish : Czortków ; Yiddish : טשארטקאוו , romanized :  Tshortkov )

2666-472: The northern German states and did not include any part of Austria (either its German-inhabited areas or its areas dominated by other ethnic groups); this proposal was favored by the Kingdom of Prussia . The solutions are also referred to by the names of the states they proposed to create, Kleindeutschland and Großdeutschland (" Lesser Germany " and " Greater Germany "). Both movements were part of

2728-409: The political situation in the 19th century, when Austria had controlled large areas of non-German peoples, Austria became the subordinate partner in the new unified German-speaking state. From 1938 to 1942, the former state of Austria was referred to as Ostmark ("Eastern March") by the new German state. In a reference to the 19th-century "Greater German solution", the enlarged state was referred to as

2790-582: The population, the largest proportion of any province; two-thirds of the Empire's Jews lived in Galicia. Besides being mostly poor, the shtetl Jews were strict, conservative Hasidim , shutting themselves off as far as possible from their Christian neighbours, who responded in kind. Poor orthodox Jews from the east were a not uncommon sight in Vienna and were probably regarded with even greater hostility by many of

2852-399: The refusal of a scholarship was that he did not attempt to conceal his liberal outlook, having, for example, tried to organise a celebration for the liberal poet, Ferdinand Freiligrath . He studied law at the universities of Vienna and Graz , that being a shorter course. When he graduated, he found himself in a similar situation: he did not want to become an advocate, and a position as judge

2914-433: The subject of a number of his works, including two of his best novels, Judith Trachtenberg (1890) and Leib Weihnachtskuchen and his Child (1896). The main focus of his writing is the relationships between the different nationalities of the region—Poles, Ukrainians, Russians, Germans and Jews—and his sympathies clearly lie with the oppressed groups, in particular the Ukrainian peasants and shtetl Jews. He insisted that he

2976-516: The time of which it was the center of the Chortkiv Bezirk except brief Russian rule between 1809 and 1815 as part of Tarnopol Governorate. On June 8, 1919 the Ukrainian Galician Army broke for couple months through the Polish front at Chortkiv and began the Chortkiv offensive . Soon afterwards, the town was seized by the Poles. It was ceded to sovereign Poland in the Peace Treaty of Riga between Poland, Soviet Russia (acting also on behalf of Soviet Belarus) and Soviet Ukraine, and remained part of

3038-562: The town was also granted Magdeburg rights . However, Chortkiv would later decline in the second half of the 17th century during Ottoman Expansion of central Europe. The town was taken over by Ottoman Empire , whose rule lasted 27 years. It was part of the short-lived Turkish Podolia Eyalet , which lasted from 1672 to 1699. During this period, it was nahiya centre in Yazlofça sanjak as Çortkuv (Spelled as Chortkoov in Turkish ). After First Partition of Poland Chortkiv came under Austro-Hungarian rule which lasted from 1772 to 1918, during

3100-400: The westernised Jews of the city than by the Christian population. The rigidity with which the eastern Jewish communities shut themselves off from outside influences is the theme of Franzos's most ambitious work, Der Pojaz , completed in 1893, but not published until after his death in 1905. Why this novel, which Franzos regarded as his major work, remained unpublished during his lifetime, is

3162-439: Was best suited to lead the unified nation. However, Austria posed a problem because the Habsburgs ruled large chunks of non-German-speaking territory. The largest such area was the Kingdom of Hungary , which also included large Slovak, Romanian and Croat populations. Austria further comprised numerous possessions with predominantly non-German populations, including Czechs in the Bohemian lands, Poles, Rusyns and Ukrainians in

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3224-402: Was closed to him as a Jew. Having had a number of pieces published while he was a student, he went into journalism and worked for newspapers and magazines for the rest of his life, at first in Budapest and in Vienna as a travel writer of the Neue Freie Presse newspaper. In 1877 he married Ottilie Benedikt, a relative of editor Moriz Benedikt . From 1886 he lived in Berlin , capital of

3286-399: Was completed, which violated the terms of the Treaty of Versailles; the League of Nations was unable to enforce the ban on such a union. The Anschluss was met with overwhelming approval of the German-Austrian people, and was confirmed by a referendum shortly after. The unification process was reinforced one month later by a referendum, supported by an overwhelming majority. In contrast to

3348-442: Was difficult to decipher, and had to be treated with chemicals in order to bring the ink up to the surface of the paper, and many of the pages were kept and later destroyed by Büchner's widow, who survived him by four decades. But Franzos's edition was for many years the authoritative version, until the late 1910s when a revival of Büchner's works began in Europe and the many errors in Franzos' edition came to light. These errors include

3410-509: Was free from racial prejudice and that his attacks on particular nationalities were because they oppressed others: “I spoke out against the oppression of the Ukrainians and Poles by the Russians, but where the Poles do the same, as is the case in Galicia, then I speak out against their oppression of the Ukrainians, Jews and Germans.” He also “spoke out” against the rigid attitudes and practices of orthodox religion, and in this his attacks were directed above all at his fellow Jews: “I stand up for

3472-399: Was home to the 36th Reserve Infantry Division . The town was annexed by the Soviet Union from September 17, 1939 until June 1941. Its Polish inhabitants, particularly students of the local high school, organized a failed uprising in January 1940, which would serve as the first Polish uprising of World War II . In the last days of June 1941, following the German invasion of the USSR ,

3534-472: Was often another way of saying "not sufficiently anti-Jewish". More and more under Jew-hatred attacks, Franzos suffering from heart trouble died at the age of 55 in Berlin, where he is buried in the Weißensee Cemetery . Franzos showed the attitudes of the 19th-century assimilated Jew in their best light. His conviction that Germanisation was the way forward was based on the idealistic strain in German culture and will have looked very different in his day to

3596-451: Was one of the first Jews to join a Burschenschaft student fraternity whose ideal was a German nation state with a liberal constitution. It is ironic that by the time Franzos, who shared his father's ideals, went to university, the German student fraternities had "dejudaised" themselves. His father died when he was ten and his mother moved to the Bukovina capital Czernowitz (Chernivtsi). The city's multiculturalism , representative of

3658-438: Was prohibited by the terms of both the Treaty of Saint-Germain and the Treaty of Versailles , though Austrian political parties such as the Greater German People's Party and the Social Democrats pursued this idea regardless. In 1931, there was an attempt to create a customs union between the Weimar Republic and Austria. The move was protested by France, and bankers such as Henry Strakosch of Austria, who later became

3720-453: Was set on 17 June and was named " Day of German Unity ", in order to remind all Germans of the “open” (unanswered) German Question ( die offene Deutsche Frage ), which meant the call for reunification. Modern Germany's territory, after the reunification of East and West Germany in 1990, is closer to what the Kleindeutsche Lösung envisioned (aside from the fact that large areas of the former Prussia were no longer part of Germany) than

3782-400: Was steeped in the humanistic ideals of the German Enlightenment as expressed by Kant , Lessing and, especially, Schiller . This brought a certain isolation: for local Poles and Ukrainians he was German, for Germans a Jew and for Jews a renegade, a deutsch . In the Vormärz era of the first half of the 19th century, liberalism and nationalism went hand in hand, and Franzos's father

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3844-404: Was that the Austrians were reluctant to enter a unified Germany if it meant giving up their non-German speaking territories. In 1848, German liberals and nationalists united in revolution , forming the Frankfurt Parliament . The Greater German movement within this National Assembly demanded the unification of all German-populated lands into one nation. In general or to an extent, the left favored

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