155-397: On 23 August 1944, a United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) Consolidated B-24 Liberator crashed during a test flight into the centre of the village of Freckleton, Lancashire , England, killing all three crewmen aboard the aircraft and 58 individuals on the ground, including 38 children aged four to six. An official inquiry was unable to pinpoint an exact cause for the accident, although
310-933: A segregated basis. A flight training center was set up at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama . Despite the handicap—caused by the segregation policy—of not having an experienced training cadre as with other AAF units, the Tuskegee Airmen distinguished themselves in combat with the 332nd Fighter Group . The Tuskegee training program produced 673 black fighter pilots, 253 B-26 Marauder pilots, and 132 navigators. The vast majority of African-American airmen, however, did not fare as well. Mainly draftees , most did not fly or maintain aircraft. Their largely menial duties, indifferent or hostile leadership, and poor morale led to serious dissatisfaction and several violent incidents. Women served more successfully as part of
465-585: A "disturbing failure to follow through on orders". To streamline the AAF in preparation for war, with a goal of centralized planning and decentralized execution of operations, in October 1941 Arnold submitted to the WDGS essentially the same reorganization plan it had rejected a year before, this time crafted by Chief of Air Staff Brig. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz . When this plan was not given any consideration, Arnold reworded
620-476: A Chief of Air Staff and three deputies. This wartime structure remained essentially unchanged for the remainder of hostilities. In October 1944 Arnold, to begin a process of reorganization for reducing the structure, proposed to eliminate the AC/AS, Training and move his office into OC&R, changing it to Operations, Training and Requirements (OT&R) but the mergers were never effected. On 23 August 1945, after
775-538: A Zone of Interior "training and supply agency", but from the start AAF officers viewed this as a "paper" restriction negated by Arnold's place on both the Joint and Combined Chiefs, which gave him strategic planning authority for the AAF, a viewpoint that was formally sanctioned by the War Department in mid-1943 and endorsed by the president. The Circular No. 59 reorganization directed the AAF to operate under
930-566: A blueprint. After war began, Congress enacted the First War Powers Act on 18 December 1941 endowing President Franklin D. Roosevelt with virtual carte blanche to reorganize the executive branch as he found necessary. Under it, on 28 February 1942, Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9082 , based on Marshall's recommendation and the work of McNarney's committee. The EO changed Arnold's title to Commanding General, Army Air Forces effective 9 March 1942, making him co-equal with
1085-470: A change of mood at the War Department, and of dubious legality. By November 1941, on the eve of U.S. entry into the war, the division of authority within the Army as a whole, caused by the activation of Army GHQ a year before, had led to a "battle of memos" between it and the WDGS over administering the AAF, prompting Marshall to state that he had "the poorest command post in the Army" when defense commands showed
1240-457: A complex division of administrative control performed by a policy staff, an operating staff, and the support commands (formerly "field activities" of the OCAC). The former field activities operated under a "bureau" structure, with both policy and operating functions vested in staff-type officers who often exercised command and policy authority without responsibility for results, a system held over from
1395-574: A contemporary American comic book character, this eatery was owned and operated by locals Alan and Rachel Whittle and had been established to primarily cater to servicemen. The Whittles employed a small number of local women as waitresses and cooks. Their 15-year-old daughter, Pearl, also occasionally assisted her parents at the premises. On 6 August 1944, another 25-ton Consolidated B-24 Liberator heavy bomber arrived at BAD-2 for repairs, refurbishment, inspection and subsequent test flights prior to intended return to active service. This particular aircraft
1550-609: A controversial move, the AAF Technical Training Command began leasing resort hotels and apartment buildings for large-scale training sites (accommodation for 90,000 existed in Miami Beach alone). The leases were negotiated for the AAF by the Corps of Engineers, often to the economic detriment of hotel owners in rental rates, wear and tear clauses, and short-notice to terminate leases. In December 1943,
1705-583: A conversation with a fellow officer, saying that "the invasion will come before June 15." An Associated Press account gives his comment as "On my honor the invasion will take place before June 15." When news of this security breach reached Supreme Allied Commander General Eisenhower in May 1944, Miller was demoted to his permanent rank of lieutenant colonel and sent home. On November 30, 1944, Miller retired from service due to physical disability, and in December 1948
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#17327872566931860-518: A day by 1944, over 10,000 aircraft, 38,400 aircraft guns, and 375,380 flight instruments would be processed at BAD-2 before the American military would return control of the site to the RAF in late 1945. By 1944, approximately 10,400 American servicemen were deployed at BAD-2. The month of August alone saw approximately eighty aircraft fly to or from the airbase daily. In efforts to maintain the morale of
2015-860: A decision was made for the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) to operate RAF Warton as one of four air depots across the United Kingdom in order that aircraft could be assembled or modified, then tested prior to their active front line service elsewhere in Britain and locations such as continental Europe and the Mediterranean . RAF Warton was earmarked to primarily specialise in the construction, modification and maintenance of Consolidated B-24 Liberator aircraft in addition to performing modifications and repairs upon aircraft guns and flight instruments . The existing site
2170-429: A deleterious effect on operational training and threatened to overwhelm the capacity of the old Air Corps groups to provide experienced cadres or to absorb graduates of the expanded training program to replace those transferred. Since 1939 the overall level of experience among the combat groups had fallen to such an extent that when the demand for replacements in combat was factored in, the entire operational training system
2325-578: A distance of approximately 500 feet and approached the runway with lowered landing gear minutes later. By the time the pilots had returned to the vicinity of the airfield, however, the sky around Freckleton had significantly darkened. Sounds of thunder and streaks of lightning were also observed from the control tower at BAD-2 and by local residents. One child within Freckleton's Holy Trinity School would later recollect: "The sky [suddenly became] black and blue. Every colour you could think of." To dispel
2480-720: A general autonomy within the War Department (similar to that of the Marine Corps within the Department of the Navy ) until the end of the war, while its commanders would cease lobbying for independence. Marshall, a strong proponent of airpower, understood that the Air Force would likely achieve its independence following the war. Soon after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, in recognition of importance of
2635-698: A major reorganization and consolidation on 29 March 1943. The four main directorates and seventeen subordinate directorates (the "operating staff") were abolished as an unnecessary level of authority, and execution of policies was removed from the staffs to be assigned solely to field organizations along functional lines. The policy functions of the directorates were reorganized and consolidated into offices regrouped along conventional military lines under six assistant chiefs of air staff (AC/AS): Personnel; Intelligence; Operations, Commitments, and Requirements (OC&R); Materiel, Maintenance, and Distribution (MM&D); Plans; and Training. Command of Headquarters AAF resided in
2790-570: A multiplicity of branches and organizations, reduced the WDGS greatly in size, and proportionally increased the representation of the air forces members on it to 50%. In addition to dissolving both Army General Headquarters and the chiefs of the combat arms , and assigning their training functions to the Army Ground Forces, War Department Circular 59 reorganized the Army Air Forces, disbanding both Air Force Combat Command and
2945-580: A perception of resistance and even obstruction then by the bureaucracy in the War Department General Staff (WDGS), much of which was attributable to lack of funds, the Air Corps later made great strides in the 1930s, both organizationally and in doctrine. A strategy stressing precision bombing of industrial targets by heavily armed, long-range bombers emerged, formulated by the men who would become its leaders. A major step toward
3100-471: A proposal for creation of an air staff, unification of the air arm under one commander, and equality with the ground and supply forces. Arnold's proposal was immediately opposed by the General Staff in all respects, rehashing its traditional doctrinal argument that, in the event of war, the Air Corps would have no mission independent of support of the ground forces. Marshall implemented a compromise that
3255-680: A satellite airfield for the RAF Coastal Command station, based in Squires Gate , Blackpool and for both economic and patriotic reasons, the decision to construct this airfield was welcomed by locals. This location was initially known as the Warton Air Depot, but would become known in 1943 as Base Air Depot No. 2 (BAD-2). The vicinity of the Fylde was spared any destruction during the 1940-41 Blitz air raids upon
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#17327872566933410-589: A separate air force came in March 1935, when the command of all combat air units within the Continental United States (CONUS) was centralized under a single organization called the "General Headquarters Air Force" . Since 1920, control of aviation units had resided with commanders of the corps areas (a peacetime ground forces administrative echelon), following the model established by commanding General John J. Pershing during World War I. In 1924,
3565-473: A standard of combat proficiency had barely surpassed the total originally authorized by the first expansion program in 1940. The extant training establishment, in essence a "self-training" system, was inadequate in assets, organization, and pedagogy to train units wholesale. Individual training of freshly minted pilots occupied an inordinate amount of the available time to the detriment of unit proficiency. The ever-increasing numbers of new groups being formed had
3720-564: A sudden thunderstorm and the resultant reduced visibility immediately prior to the accident had caused the test pilot of the B-24, First Lieutenant John Bloemendal, to be ordered to abandon the test fight and attempt to return to base. The report was unable to discount structural failure of the aircraft in such extreme weather conditions as a factor for the accident, and recommended that American pilots be warned how to respond to British thunderstorms. This aviation accident would prove to be
3875-458: A temporary, nonstandard, headquarters in August 1944. This provisional fighter wing was set up to separate control of its P-38 groups from its P-51 groups. This headquarters was referred to as "XV Fighter Command (Provisional)". Eight air divisions served as an additional layer of command and control for the vast organization, capable of acting independently if the need arose. Inclusive within
4030-471: The Air Transport Command made deliveries of almost 270,000 aircraft worldwide while losing only 1,013 in the process. The operation of the stateside depots was done largely by more than 300,000 civilian maintenance employees, many of them women, freeing a like number of Air Forces mechanics for overseas duty. In all facets of the service, more than 420,000 civilian personnel were employed by
4185-707: The Army Ground Forces , the United States Army Services of Supply (which in 1943 became the Army Service Forces ), and the Army Air Forces. Each of these forces had a commanding general who reported directly to the Army Chief of Staff . The AAF administered all parts of military aviation formerly distributed among the Air Corps, General Headquarters Air Force, and the ground forces' corps area commanders and thus became
4340-456: The Army Service Forces , but the AAF increasingly exerted influence on the curricula of these courses in anticipation of future independence. African-Americans comprised approximately six per cent of this force (145,242 personnel in June 1944). In 1940, pressured by Eleanor Roosevelt and some Northern members of Congress , General Arnold agreed to accept blacks for pilot training, albeit on
4495-858: The Army Transcontinental Air Race , organized by the United States Army Air Service . Seven airmen were killed, two en route to the race. In the interwar period, Miller served many assignments in the United States Army Air Service and then the United States Army Air Corps. When he became commanding officer of Duncan Field Air Depot , he was promoted to brigadier general in the Army Air Corps on 10 July 1941. Training and logistics units had kept
4650-532: The Eighth Air Force . The pilots chosen to conduct these test flights were 27 and 28-year-old first lieutenants, John Allen Bloemendal and Peter Manassero. Both men were experienced test pilots, with Lt. Bloemendal—who had enlisted in the USAAF in March 1942—having accrued over 740 hours' service as a test pilot at BAD-2. Over 250 of these hours had been accrued as he flew B-24 aircraft. Lieutenant Bloemendal
4805-537: The Pacific , and the base's efforts were therefore still required. The Eighth Air Force officially closed BAD-2 on 1 September, returning control of the base to the RAF. Some servicemen briefly remained stationed at the base to dispose of supplies and property while others undertook eight-week training courses in marketable skills prior to their return to the United States. The final American personnel stationed at
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4960-736: The Pancho Villa Expedition of 1916. He was promoted to captain in 1917 and then major in 1918. In 1917, Miller transferred to the Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps and completed primary flight training at Rockwell Field . He served with the American Expeditionary Forces in England from September to December 1918 during the last months of World War I . In 1919, Miller returned to the United States. Between October 8–31, he participated in
5115-624: The Quartermaster Corps and then by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers , because of a lack of familiarity with Air Corps requirements. The outbreak of war in Europe and the resulting need for a wide variety of facilities for both operations and training within the Continental United States necessitated comprehensive changes of policy, first in September 1941 by giving the responsibility for acquisition and development of bases directly to
5270-507: The Sad Sack Snack Bar and a 15-year-old boy within the cafè) died almost instantly, with ten others (four children, two teachers, an American serviceman and three RAF airmen) later dying in hospital from their injuries. Although several thousand aviation accidents involving American aircraft—both minor and major—would occur during World War II, this aviation accident would prove to be the most catastrophic. Almost five per cent of
5425-690: The United States Air Force , James Robinson Risner and Charles E. Yeager . Air crew needs resulted in the successful training of 43,000 bombardiers , 49,000 navigators , and 309,000 flexible gunners, many of whom also specialized in other aspects of air crew duties. 7,800 men qualified as B-29 flight engineers and 1,000 more as radar operators in night fighters , all of whom received commissions. Almost 1.4 million men received technical training as aircraft mechanics, electronics specialists, and other technicians. Non-aircraft related support services were provided by airmen trained by
5580-524: The guard of honour for the funeral processions and as pallbearers for the children's coffins, which were carried in a procession from the ruins of the school and through the village to the Holy Trinity Church, where services were held prior to their interment in a communal grave in the village churchyard dug by American servicemen in the shape of a letter T . Four of the servicemen selected to act as pallbearers specifically requested to carry
5735-536: The 50th anniversary of the disaster in 1994. This particular anniversary saw several hundred former servicemen attend the ceremony, and concluded with local schoolchildren singing Dame Vera Lynn's wartime song " We'll Meet Again ". United States Army Air Forces The United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF or AAF ) was the major land-based aerial warfare service component of the United States Army and de facto aerial warfare service branch of
5890-537: The AAF created a reserve pool that held qualified pilot candidates until they could be called to active duty, rather than losing them in the draft. By 1944, this pool became surplus, and 24,000 were sent to the Army Ground Forces for retraining as infantry , and 6,000 to the Army Service Forces . Pilot standards were changed to reduce the minimum age from 20 to 18, and eliminated the educational requirement of at least two years of college. Two fighter pilot beneficiaries of this change went on to become brigadier generals in
6045-502: The AAF for the first time in its history, and then in April 1942 by delegation of the enormous task by Headquarters AAF to its user field commands and numbered air forces. In addition to the construction of new permanent bases and the building of numerous bombing and gunnery ranges, the AAF utilized civilian pilot schools, training courses conducted at college and factory sites, and officer training detachments at colleges. In early 1942, in
6200-416: The AAF reached a war-time peak of 783 airfields in the Continental United States. At the end of the war, the AAF was using almost 20 million acres of land, an area as large as Massachusetts , Connecticut , Vermont , and New Hampshire combined. By the end of World War II, the USAAF had created 16 numbered air forces ( First through Fifteenth and Twentieth ) distributed worldwide to prosecute
6355-590: The AAF. The huge increases in aircraft inventory resulted in a similar increase in personnel, expanding sixteen-fold in less than three years following its formation, and changed the personnel policies under which the Air Service and Air Corps had operated since the National Defense Act of 1920. No longer could pilots represent 90% of commissioned officers. The need for large numbers of specialists in administration and technical services resulted in
Freckleton air disaster - Misplaced Pages Continue
6510-529: The Air Corps expanded from 15 to 30 groups by the end of the year. On 7 December 1941 the number of activated combat groups had reached 67, with 49 still within the Continental United States. Of the CONUS groups (the "strategic reserve"), 21 were engaged in operational training or still being organized and were unsuitable for deployment. Of the 67 combat groups, 26 were classified as bombardment: 13 Heavy Bomb groups ( B-17 Flying Fortress and B-24 Liberator ), and
6665-557: The Air Corps found entirely inadequate, naming Arnold as acting "Deputy Chief of Staff for Air" but rejecting all organizational points of his proposal. GHQ Air Force instead was assigned to the control of Army General Headquarters, although the latter was a training and not an operational component, when it was activated in November 1940. A division of the GHQ Air Force into four geographical air defense districts on 19 October 1940
6820-480: The Air Corps in October 1940 saw fifteen new general officer billets created. By the end of World War II, 320 generals were authorized for service within the wartime AAF. The Air Corps operated 156 installations at the beginning of 1941. An airbase expansion program had been underway since 1939, attempting to keep pace with the increase in personnel, units, and aircraft, using existing municipal and private facilities where possible, but it had been mismanaged, first by
6975-490: The Air Corps mission remain tied to that of the land forces. Airpower advocates achieved a centralized control of air units under an air commander, while the WDGS divided authority within the air arm and assured a continuing policy of support of ground operations as its primary role. GHQ Air Force organized combat groups administratively into a strike force of three wings deployed to the Atlantic , Pacific, and Gulf coasts but
7130-597: The Air Corps still had only 800 first-line combat aircraft and 76 bases, including 21 major installations and depots. American fighter aircraft were inferior to the British Spitfire and Hurricane , and German Messerschmitt Bf 110 and 109 . Ralph Ingersoll wrote in late 1940 after visiting Britain that the "best American fighter planes already delivered to the British are used by them either as advanced trainers—or for fighting equally obsolete Italian planes in
7285-443: The Air Corps years. The concept of an "operating staff", or directorates, was modeled on the RAF system that had been much admired by the observer groups sent over in 1941, and resulted from a desire to place experts in various aspects of military aviation into key positions of implementation. However functions often overlapped, communication and coordination between the divisions failed or was ignored, policy prerogatives were usurped by
7440-458: The Air Corps". A lawyer and a banker, Lovett had prior experience with the aviation industry that translated into realistic production goals and harmony in integrating the plans of the AAF with those of the Army as a whole. Lovett initially believed that President Roosevelt's demand following the attack on Pearl Harbor for 60,000 airplanes in 1942 and 125,000 in 1943 was grossly ambitious. However, working closely with General Arnold and engaging
7595-606: The Air Corps, which had been the statutory military aviation branch since 1926 and the GHQ Air Force, which had been activated in 1935 to quiet the demands of airmen for an independent Air Force similar to the Royal Air Force which had already been established in the United Kingdom . Although other nations already had separate air forces independent of their army or navy (such as the Royal Air Force and
7750-508: The Air Corps, while 82 per cent of enlisted members assigned to AAF units and bases had the Air Corps as their combat arm branch. While officially the air arm was the Army Air Forces , the term Air Corps persisted colloquially among the public as well as veteran airmen; in addition, the singular Air Force often crept into popular and even official use, reflected by the designation Air Force Combat Command in 1941–42. This misnomer
7905-518: The American servicemen and locals were hospitable, and servicemen are known to have raised funds for the British Army, Navy and Air Force Relief Fund. Some servicemen also formed relationships with local women. On one occasion at Christmas 1943, Freckleton residents were invited to the base for a holiday party, where servicemen gave local children toys and American candy. Several servicemen were known to spend off-duty hours socialising in and around
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#17327872566938060-496: The Army General Headquarters had the power to detach units from AFCC at will by creating task forces, the WDGS still controlled the AAF budget and finances, and the AAF had no jurisdiction over units of the Army Service Forces providing "housekeeping services" as support nor of air units, bases, and personnel located outside the continental United States. Arnold and Marshall agreed that the AAF would enjoy
8215-430: The Freckleton air disaster concluded that the precise cause of the crash was unknown. The possibility of structural failure of the aircraft in the extreme conditions was not discounted, although Major Himes emphasised in his final report that Lt. Bloemendal had not fully realised the danger the incoming storm posed until he was into his final approach , by which time he had insufficient altitude and speed to manoeuvre, given
8370-474: The General Staff planned for a wartime activation of an Army general headquarters (GHQ), similar to the American Expeditionary Forces model of World War I , with a GHQ Air Force as a subordinate component. Both were created in 1933 when a small conflict with Cuba seemed possible following a coup d'état but was not activated. The activation of GHQ Air Force represented a compromise between strategic airpower advocates and ground force commanders who demanded that
8525-617: The German Luftwaffe ), the AAF remained a part of the Army until a defense reorganization in the post-war period resulted in the passage by the United States Congress of the National Security Act of 1947 with the creation of an independent United States Air Force in September 1947. In its expansion and conduct of the war, the AAF became more than just an arm of the greater organization. By
8680-464: The Low Countries in May 1940, Roosevelt asked Congress for a supplemental appropriation of nearly a billion dollars, a production program of 50,000 aircraft a year, and a military air force of 50,000 aircraft (of which 36,500 would be Army). Accelerated programs followed in the Air Corps that repeatedly revised expansion goals, resulting in plans for 84 combat groups, 7,799 combat aircraft, and
8835-471: The Middle East. That is all they are good for." RAF crews he interviewed said that by spring 1941 a fighter engaging Germans had to have the capability to reach 400 mph in speed, fight at 30,000–35,000 feet, be simple to take off, provide armor for the pilot, and carry 12 machine guns or six cannons, all attributes lacking in American aircraft. Following the successful German invasion of France and
8990-543: The Office of Chief of the Air Corps (OCAC), eliminating all its training and organizational functions, which removed an entire layer of authority. Taking their former functions were eleven numbered air forces (later raised to sixteen) and six support commands (which became eight in January 1943). The circular also restated the mission of the AAF, in theory removing from it responsibility for strategic planning and making it only
9145-626: The United Kingdom. Following America's decision to enter World War II in December 1941, many assembled aircraft were initially transported into the UK via Atlantic shipping routes, at great risk, with significant delay, and with numerous losses. As such, the need for the Allies to identify strategic geographical locations to build and maintain aircraft within Britain to fight the Axis powers across Europe became increasingly apparent and urgent. In January 1942,
9300-438: The United States during and immediately after World War II (1941–1947). It was created on 20 June 1941 as successor to the previous United States Army Air Corps and is the direct predecessor of the United States Air Force , today one of the six armed forces of the United States . The AAF was a component of the United States Army , which on 2 March 1942 was divided functionally by executive order into three autonomous forces:
9455-545: The WAACs and WACs as AAF personnel, more than 1,000 as Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs), and 6,500 as nurses in the Army Air Forces, including 500 flight nurses. 7,601 "Air WACs" served overseas in April 1945, and women performed in more than 200 job categories. The Air Corps Act of July 1926 increased the number of general officers authorized in the Army's air arm from two to four. The activation of GHQAF in March 1935 doubled that number to eight and pre-war expansion of
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#17327872566939610-546: The accident was 6-year-old Maureen Denise Clarke, who succumbed to her injuries on the afternoon of 4 September. Clarke was also buried within the communal grave. The four British servicemen killed in the disaster were buried in separate cemeteries across England and the Isle of Man . The ten American servicemen killed in the disaster were initially buried at the Cambridge American Cemetery and Memorial . At
9765-407: The accident, and he had concluded his investigation on 26 August, having interviewed several eyewitnesses and received statements from air traffic control, the station weather officer, and Lt. Manassero. Major Himes was the chief test pilot stationed at RAF Warton at the time of the accident and had been acquainted with Lt. Bloemendal, having flown several missions with him. The official report into
9920-447: The aeronautic ceiling and visibility were rapidly decreasing around the airfield and that both pilots had not been advised by the control tower to instead fly north towards Scotland to escape the storm until after Lt. Bloemendal had already crashed, Major Himes had concluded the most likely reason for the accident was Lt. Bloemendal's "error in the judgement of the violence of the storm". The official report does not hold any inference to
10075-430: The air forces and to avoid binding legislation from Congress, the War Department revised the army regulation governing the organization of Army aviation, AR 95–5. Arnold assumed the title of Chief of the Army Air Forces , creating an echelon of command over all military aviation components for the first time and ending the dual status of the Air Corps and GHQ Air Force, which was renamed Air Force Combat Command (AFCC) in
10230-473: The air forces, commands and divisions were administrative headquarters called wings to control groups (operational units; see section below). As the number of groups increased, the number of wings needed to control them multiplied, with 91 ultimately activated, 69 of which were still active at the end of the war. As part of the Air Service and Air Corps, wings had been composite organizations, that is, composed of groups with different types of missions. Most of
10385-481: The annual addition to the force of 30,000 new pilots and 100,000 technical personnel. The accelerated expansion programs resulted in a force of 156 airfields and 152,125 personnel at the time of the creation of the Army Air Forces. In its expansion during World War II, the AAF became the world's most powerful air force. From the Air Corps of 1939, with 20,000 men and 2,400 planes, to the nearly autonomous AAF of 1944, with almost 2.4 million personnel and 80,000 aircraft,
10540-496: The aviation accident of 23 August 1944 would remain the most paramount and painful memory of their active service at BAD-2. In the months following the accident, the 10,400 American servicemen stationed at BAD-2 raised over $ 44,000 (the equivalent of about $ 752,100, or £591,500, as of 2024) in donations to the Freckleton Memorial Fund. All the money was donated to local authorities to fund a memorial in honour of
10695-422: The base at an altitude of approximately 1,500 feet for approximately five minutes before Lt. Bloemendal informed Lt. Manassero of a cloud formation to their south-southeast. Lt. Manassero would later recollect the formation was "a very impressive sight," reminiscent of a " thunderhead ". Almost simultaneously, staff at BAD-2 were informed via a weather station based at Burtonwood of a violent storm incoming from
10850-418: The base complement squadron. A coroner's inquest into the accident began on 25 August, and concluded on 8 September. This inquest ruled all the fatalities died by misadventure . On the date of the coroner's verdicts, the results of an official military investigation into the aviation accident were received by the USAAF. The USAAF had appointed Major Charles Himes to oversee their official investigation into
11005-500: The base would leave in February 1946. The community of Freckleton later erected an official monument to those killed in the air disaster directly behind the communal grave dug by American servicemen within Freckleton's Holy Trinity Churchyard. The necessary funds to pay for this memorial were raised by the families and friends of those killed. This stone monument was dedicated on 24 May 1947, and resembles an aircraft that has crashed to
11160-401: The burning rubble of the school, although one of these teachers, 20-year-old Jennie Hall, would die of her injuries within hours of her rescue. All survivors recovered from the school were promptly transported to the American military hospital, although six of these individuals would also succumb to their injuries over the following two weeks. All fire crews and civilian rescuers would remain at
11315-522: The capacity of the American automotive industry brought about an effort that produced almost 100,000 aircraft in 1944. The AAF reached its wartime inventory peak of nearly 80,000 aircraft in July 1944, 41% of them first line combat aircraft, before trimming back to 73,000 at the end of the year following a large reduction in the number of trainers needed. The logistical demands of this armada were met by
11470-430: The capitulation of Japan, realignment took place with the complete elimination of OC&R. The now five assistant chiefs of air staff were designated AC/AS-1 through -5 corresponding to Personnel, Intelligence, Operations and Training, Materiel and Supply, and Plans. Most personnel of the Army Air Forces were drawn from the Air Corps. In May 1945, 88 per cent of officers serving in the Army Air Forces were commissioned in
11625-505: The civilians killed in the Freckleton air disaster were buried in a communal grave within the Holy Trinity Churchyard in two separate services held on the afternoon of 26 August. The services were officiated by the vicar of the parish , with assistance from the chaplain of BAD-2. The American military provided coffins for all the deceased and would cover all expenses for the ceremonies. Personnel from RAF Warton served as
11780-437: The coffins of two children they had befriended in the village. Contemporary reports indicate the streets lining the funeral processions were filled with mourners standing up to six deep. Two further children to succumb to their injuries, 6-year-old Beryl Hogarth and 5-year-old Joseph Threlfall, and 64-year-old teacher Louisa Lee Hulme—all of whom died on 25 August—were also later buried in the communal grave. The final fatality of
11935-518: The commanders of GHQ Air Force and the Air Corps, Major Generals Frank M. Andrews and Oscar Westover respectively, clashed philosophically over the direction in which the air arm was moving, exacerbating the difficulties. The expected activation of Army General Headquarters prompted Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall to request a reorganization study from Chief of the Air Corps Maj. Gen. Henry H. Arnold resulting on 5 October 1940 in
12090-573: The commanding generals of the new Army Ground Forces and Services of Supply , the other two components of the Army of the United States . The War Department issued Circular No. 59 on 2 March that carried out the executive order, intended (as with the creation of the Air Service in World War I) as a wartime expedient to expire six months after the end of the war. The three components replaced
12245-441: The conclusion of the ceremony, the base commander of BAD-2 unveiled a seven-ton stone monument bearing a commemorative bronze plaque at the site. The plaque reads: "This playground presented to the children of Freckleton by their neighbours of Base Air Depot No. 2 USAAF in recognition and remembrance of their common loss in the disaster of August 23rd 1944." The number of American servicemen stationed at BAD-2 gradually decreased in
12400-700: The conduct of all aspects of the air war in every part of the world, determining air policy and issuing orders without transmitting them through the Army Chief of Staff. This "contrast between theory and fact is...fundamental to an understanding of the AAF." The roots of the Army Air Forces arose in the formulation of theories of strategic bombing at the Air Corps Tactical School that gave new impetus to arguments for an independent air force, beginning with those espoused by Brig. Gen. Billy Mitchell that led to his later court-martial . Despite
12555-443: The control tower that he was aborting his attempt to land upon the runway, and while raising his landing gear would perform a go-around . Instead of landing, Lt. Manassero opted to fly his B-24 north to escape the storm. He would fly for almost ten miles with his aircraft barely above tree canopies before he was able to regain a safe altitude. Shortly afterwards, and out of sight of Lt. Manassero's aircraft, Lt. Bloemendal crashed into
12710-625: The creation of the Air Service Command on 17 October 1941 to provide service units and maintain 250 depots in the United States; the elevation of the Materiel Division to full command status on 9 March 1942 to develop and procure aircraft, equipment, and parts; and the merger of these commands into the Air Technical Service Command on 31 August 1944. In addition to carrying personnel and cargo,
12865-634: The creation of the Army Air Forces, caused an immediate reassessment of U.S. defense strategy and policy. The need for an offensive strategy to defeat the Axis Powers required further enlargement and modernization of all the military services, including the new AAF. In addition, the invasion produced a new Lend lease partner in Russia, creating even greater demands on an already struggling American aircraft production. An offensive strategy required several types of urgent and sustained effort. In addition to
13020-404: The dangers of British thunderstorms , and the perils of flying into or beneath them. Some individuals have criticised the findings within this report as being an effort to use Lt. Bloemendal as a scapegoat for the tragedy. These individuals have stated that although the report does contain testimony indicating that both pilots had initially been instructed to land upon runway 08 despite the fact
13175-607: The deadliest to occur in Britain during World War II , and would remain the second worst aviation accident in the world (in terms of number of fatalities) until the 1950 Llandlow air disaster . The year after the outbreak of World War II , the British Air Ministry announced plans to construct an aircraft factory and airfield close to the Lancashire village of Warton . The site was also intended to serve as
13330-448: The development and manufacture of aircraft in massive numbers, the Army Air Forces had to establish a global logistics network to supply, maintain, and repair the huge force; recruit and train personnel; and sustain the health, welfare, and morale of its troops. The process was driven by the pace of aircraft production, not the training program, and was ably aided by the direction of Lovett, who for all practical purposes became "Secretary of
13485-469: The direct control of Headquarters Army Air Forces. At the end of 1942 and again in the spring of 1943 the AAF listed nine support commands before it began a process of consolidation that streamlined the number to five at the end of the war. These commands were: "In 1943 the AAF met a new personnel problem, to which it applied an original solution: to interview, rehabilitate, and reassign men returning from overseas. [To do this], an AAF Redistribution Center
13640-413: The direction of Warrington . In response, Lieutenant Colonel William Britton contacted the control tower, ordering the two airborne craft to land "at once". Both pilots—approximately four-and-a-half miles from base—were then ordered to land their B-24 aircraft on runway 08 at the airfield at 10.41 a.m., with both pilots being informed the runway was clear for their landings. Both aircraft descended to
13795-620: The directorates, and they became overburdened with detail, all contributing to the diversion of the directorates from their original purpose. The system of directorates in particular handicapped the developing operational training program (see Combat units below), preventing establishment of an OTU command and having a tendency to micromanage because of the lack of centralized control. Four main directorates—Military Requirements, Technical Services, Personnel, and Management Control—were created, each with multiple sub-directorates, and eventually more than thirty offices were authorized to issue orders in
13950-428: The disaster are inscribed upon the two sloped side panels, believed to symbolise the plane's wings. By 1961, the population of Freckleton had increased to over 3,300. The results of the most recent census published in the United Kingdom lists the population of Freckleton as 6,019 inhabitants. The village of Freckleton commemorates the air disaster on each anniversary of the tragedy. These memorial services are held at
14105-525: The disintegrating aircraft then ploughed into and through the Sad Sack Snack Bar —instantly killing 14 of the 20 staff and customers inside the premises—before sliding across Lytham Road, having burst into flames. The nose turret, engines, fuel tanks, and other debris from the aircraft then collided into the infants' wing of the Holy Trinity School, rupturing, igniting and engulfing pupils and teachers alike with highly flammable aviation fuel as
14260-447: The dormant struggle for an independent United States Air Force. Marshall had come to the view that the air forces needed a "simpler system" and a unified command. Working with Arnold and Robert A. Lovett , recently appointed to the long-vacant position of Assistant Secretary of War for Air, he reached a consensus that quasi-autonomy for the air forces was preferable to immediate separation. On 20 June 1941, to grant additional autonomy to
14415-416: The earth with its nose section buried in the ground. The elevated cross at the centre of the edifice resembles the tail section, rear wings, and rear fuselage section of the aircraft, with the main section of fuselage represented by the centre panel at the base of the structure. This centre panel contains an inscription of remembrance to the disaster and the lives lost. The names of all the civilians killed in
14570-458: The end of 1942. The first American servicemen to be stationed at RAF Warton arrived at the base on 18 August that year. The Royal Air Force (RAF) officially handed all control of Warton Air Depot to the American military on 17 July 1943 in a ceremony which saw Lieutenant General Henry J. F. Miller formally accept control of the base from the RAF. Three months later, the base officially became known as Base Air Depot No. 2. Operational 24 hours
14725-571: The end of World War II, the Army Air Forces had become virtually an independent service. By regulation and executive order, it was a subordinate agency of the United States Department of War (as were the Army Ground Forces and the Army Service Forces) tasked only with organizing, training, and equipping combat units and limited in responsibility to the continental United States. In reality, Headquarters AAF controlled
14880-555: The establishment of an Officer Candidate School in Miami Beach, Florida , and the direct commissioning of thousands of professionals. Even so, 193,000 new pilots entered the AAF during World War II, while 124,000 other candidates failed at some point during training or were killed in accidents. The requirements for new pilots resulted in a massive expansion of the Aviation Cadet program, which had so many volunteers that
15035-460: The failure of Lt. Col. Britton or the Warton control tower personnel to actually warn Lieutenants Bloemendal and Manassero against descending below the incoming storm until both planes had done so. Nor does the report highlight the fact Lt. Col. Britton had no experience as a pilot, and that the control tower were in possession of weather reports from Burtonwood which clearly illustrated the ferocity of
15190-682: The famous iconic " Why We Fight " series, as an animated map graphic of equal prominence to that of the Army and Navy. The Air Corps at the direction of President Roosevelt began a rapid expansion from the spring of 1939 forward, partly from the Civilian Pilot Training Program created at the end of 1938, with the goal of providing an adequate air force for defense of the Western Hemisphere. An initial "25-group program", announced in April 1939, called for 50,000 men. However, when war broke out in September 1939
15345-452: The fateful decision at BAD-2 to postpone the 23 August 1944 test flights by two hours. 2014. Twenty-nine American servicemen stationed at BAD-2 would lose their lives on active service at or close to the base between 1944 and 1945, over a third of whom would die in the Freckleton air disaster. A civilian contractor and a local cyclist would also die in accidents upon or close to the base in incidents involving BAD-2 personnel. However, for many,
15500-426: The fear of the pupils in the infants' classroom, teachers Jennie Hall and Louisa Hulme encouraged the children to sing nursery rhymes with them. Teachers within classrooms containing slightly older children attempted to distract their pupils with activities such as reading poetry and reviewing times tables . The headteacher of the school, a Mr. Billington, instructed a 13-year-old pupil, Jackie Nichol, to check each of
15655-478: The fire, approximately fifty servicemen carried a trailer pump over the debris, then pushed the trailer to nearby Balderstone Mill, where they connected the pump to the local water supply. Initially, the bodies of the children killed outright in the disaster were taken to the storage room of the nearby Coach and Horses pub, which was used as a temporary morgue prior to their identification by next of kin. Several badly injured RAF and American servicemen recovered from
15810-432: The first air organization of the U.S. Army to control its own installations and support personnel. The peak size of the AAF during World War II was over 2.4 million men and women in service and nearly 80,000 aircraft by 1944, and 783 domestic bases in December 1943. By " V-E Day ", the Army Air Forces had 1.25 million men stationed overseas and operated from more than 1,600 airfields worldwide. The Army Air Forces
15965-410: The force array. In the first half of 1942 the Army Air Forces expanded rapidly as the necessity of a much larger air force than planned was immediately realized. Authorization for the total number of combat groups required to fight the war nearly doubled in February to 115. In July it jumped to 224, and a month later to 273. When the U.S. entered the war, however, the number of groups actually trained to
16120-474: The grip" of the storm, and that he and his crew had been fortunate to find ground almost level and with no insurmountable obstructions until they were able to regain a sufficient altitude and fly clear. "If Bloemendal and Manassero had taken their aircraft aloft at 8.30 a.m., there would not have been an accident. Thirty-eight children would have reached adulthood and the promise of their potential. Ten American and four British servicemen would have returned to
16275-660: The ground forces by March 1942. In the spring of 1941, the success in Europe of air operations conducted under centralized control (as exemplified by the British Royal Air Force and the German Wehrmacht 's military air arm, the Luftwaffe ) made clear that the splintering of authority in the American air forces, characterized as " hydra -headed" by one congressman, had caused a disturbing lack of clear channels of command. Less than five months after
16430-409: The happiness, love, and security of their families after the war. The Sad Sack Snack Bar might have remained a popular fixture in post-war Freckleton. One teacher would have retired while another began a rewarding career ... When lives are measured in years, who would have thought two brief hours would be so important?" James Hedtke. Author of The Freckleton, England, Air Disaster , reflecting on
16585-438: The minutes immediately following the accident, many children aged seven and older began to panic and run from the school. Some, such as seven-year-old Patricia Grafton, ran out of the back door to safety. She recalled a large burning beam and smoldering bricks from the school chimney narrowly missing her as she ran. Other children ran in the direction of the school playground, only to be trapped very close to burning debris because
16740-522: The months following the Freckleton air disaster, as several personnel were redeployed to serve in active combat. Approximately 1,700 men had been transferred to frontline combat units by late-March 1945, although production at the base continued unabated. On 8 May, the BAD-2 base commander informed servicemen that the war in Europe was officially over, although the Allies were still fighting the Japanese in
16895-550: The name of the commanding general. Among the headquarters directorates were Technical Services, Air Defense, Base Services, Ground-Air Support, Management Control, Military Equipment, Military Requirements , and Procurement & Distribution. A "strong and growing dissatisfaction" with the organization led to an attempt by Lovett in September 1942 to make the system work by bringing the Directorate of Management Control and several traditional offices that had been moved to
17050-562: The necessary paperwork pertaining to the repairs and refurbishment of the aircraft. Cpl. Lewis also performed all required pre-flight inspections. The paperwork relating to these inspections indicated the fuel tanks of the Classy Chassis II were filled to capacity with 2,793 gallons of aviation fuel . At approximately 10.36 on the morning of 23 August 1944, two newly refurbished B-24 aircraft departed Base Air Depot No. 2 on scheduled test flights prior to their intended delivery to
17205-402: The new organization. The AAF gained the formal "Air Staff" long opposed by the General Staff, and a single air commander, but still did not have equal status with the Army ground forces, and air units continued to report through two chains of command. The commanding general of AFCC gained control of his stations and court martial authority over his personnel, but under the new field manual FM-5
17360-486: The older name while all other units had been redesignated as the United States Army Air Forces on June 20, 1941. He was promoted to major general on February 27, 1942 when he became the chief of the 9th Air Force Air Service Command , based out of Wright Field near Dayton, Ohio . In 1944, while attending a dinner party at Claridge's in London, Miller leaked the date of the upcoming Operation Overlord during
17515-479: The operating staff, including the Air Judge Advocate and Budget Officer, back under the policy staff umbrella. When this adjustment failed to resolve the problems, the system was scrapped and all functions combined into a single restructured air staff. The hierarchical "command" principle, in which a single commander has direct final accountability but delegates authority to staff, was adopted AAF-wide in
17670-961: The operational command was designated by the Roman numeral of its parent numbered air force. For instance, the Eighth Air Force listed the VIII Bomber Command and the VIII Fighter Command as subordinate operational commands. Roman numbered commands within numbered air forces also included "support", "base", and other services commands to support the operational units, such as the VIII Air Force Service and VIII Air Force Composite Commands also part of Eighth Air Force during its history. The Tenth and Fourteenth Air Forces did not field subordinate commands during World War II. Fifteenth Air Force organized
17825-582: The oxygen within the classroom. Only two of the servicemen recovered from the ruins of the Sad Sack Snack Bar , RAF airmen William Bone and Ray Brooke, would survive their injuries. They and three children recovered from the infants' classroom of the Holy Trinity School—George Carey, Ruby Whittle and David Madden—were the only survivors of the aviation accident. All five casualties would endure multiple operations spanning—in some cases—several years, but all would survive their injuries. Many of
17980-490: The probable strength of the downdraughts that had ensued. Noting that at least two eyewitnesses maintained that the Classy Chassis II had been struck by a bolt of lightning at the juncture of the right wing and fuselage moments before the crash, and that many American pilots deployed to the UK commonly believed that British storms were little more than showers, the report recommended that all American pilots gaining flying experience in England should be "emphatically warned" of
18135-469: The proposal the following month which, in the face of Marshall's dissatisfaction with Army GHQ, the War Plans Division accepted. Just before Pearl Harbor, Marshall recalled an Air Corps officer, Brig. Gen. Joseph T. McNarney , from an observer group in England and appointed him to chair a "War Department Reorganization Committee" within the War Plans Division, using Arnold's and Spaatz's plan as
18290-442: The rejection of Arnold's reorganization proposal, a joint U.S.-British strategic planning agreement ( ABC-1 ) refuted the General Staff's argument that the Air Corps had no wartime mission except to support ground forces. A struggle with the General Staff over control of air defense of the United States had been won by airmen and vested in four command units called "numbered air forces", but the bureaucratic conflict threatened to renew
18445-513: The remainder of the aircraft, containing the three crewmen, crashed to the ground and somersaulted down Lytham Road. The clock upon the wall of the infants' classroom of Holy Trinity School stopped at 10.47 a.m. When Lt. Manassero had successfully cleared the thunderstorm, he attempted to initiate radio contact with Lt. Bloemendal, to no avail. The control tower at BAD-2 also unsuccessfully attempted to initiate contact before quickly receiving reports that an aircraft had crashed in Freckleton. In
18600-481: The request of their families, the bodies of six of these servicemen were repatriated to America following the war. The four American servicemen killed in the Freckleton air disaster to remain buried upon British soil are Sergeant Theodore Edwin Nelson, Sergeant Frank Louis Zugel, Corporal Arthur James Rogney, and Private Minas Philip Glitsis. Three of these men worked in the maintenance division of BAD-2, and one within
18755-488: The rest Medium and Light groups ( B-25 Mitchell , B-26 Marauder , and A-20 Havoc ). The balance of the force included 26 Pursuit groups (renamed fighter group in May 1942), 9 Observation (renamed Reconnaissance ) groups, and 6 Transport (renamed Troop Carrier or Combat Cargo ) groups. After the operational deployment of the B-29 Superfortress bomber, Very Heavy Bombardment units were added to
18910-460: The right wing of the B-24 clipped the corner of an unoccupied building as the wings of the aircraft were positioned almost vertical. This impact severed the tip of the wing, which ploughed along the ground and through a hedge. The fuselage of the B-24—still airborne—continued, partly demolishing two further unoccupied houses and further disintegrating. The main wheel, tail turret and other debris of
19065-448: The road. Sudden winds in the vicinity of Freckleton also switched from a northeasterly direction to a southwesterly one and back within a matter of minutes. All these factors significantly reduced the pilots' visibility to approximately 500 yards and lowered the aeronautic ceiling to approximately 400 feet. While Lt. Bloemendal and Lt. Manassero were flying in formation and approaching the airfield and runway 08, Lt. Bloemendal reported to
19220-524: The role of the Army Air Forces, Arnold was given a seat on the Joint Chiefs of Staff , the planning staff that served as the focal point of American strategic planning during the war, in order that the United States would have an air representative in staff talks with their British counterparts on the Combined Chiefs . In effect the head of the AAF gained equality with Marshall. While this step
19375-425: The ruins of the cafè were quickly transported to the base hospital at RAF Warton. The headteacher of the Holy Trinity School himself received severe burns to his hands as he removed debris from the ruins of the infants' wing of the school in his efforts to locate survivors. He was assisted in his efforts by several British and American servicemen; these rescue efforts saw seven children and two teachers pulled alive from
19530-404: The scene until 7 p.m., when the fires had been extinguished and any hope of finding further survivors of the accident was lost. With the assistance of searchlights , many American and British servicemen continued clearing the rubble from the crash site throughout the night. Fifty-one people (the three crew members on the B-24, 34 children, six American servicemen, one RAF airman, six staff at
19685-416: The scene. Several servicemen quickly scaled the six-foot wall of the school playground to hoist panicking children fleeing from the largely undamaged junior classrooms to safety. All rescuers' efforts quickly became coordinated, with the local Methodist church becoming an impromptu command post . As debris from the demolished aircraft and buildings blocked access to the main water supply necessary to combat
19840-631: The school gate was locked and the playground wall was too high to scale. Numerous policemen, locals and multiple American servicemen immediately proceeded to the location of the accident in an effort to locate survivors as others made emergency calls to the National Fire Service . The first emergency responders to arrive at the scene of the accident were crews from the BAD-2 fire service. These responders arrived at approximately 10.48 a.m., although approximately ten minutes would elapse before any national emergency responders would arrive at
19995-399: The school's cloakrooms and classrooms to ensure all windows were closed. Ray Cox, a Freckleton resident walking along Lytham Road, sought refuge from the torrential rain which had also begun to fall by running to an enclosed bus stop across the road from the Sad Sack Snack Bar . Cox later stated the sudden rain was so intense he was unable to see the cafè or any other buildings located across
20150-405: The servicemen stationed at the base, celebrities, musicians and entertainers such as Glenn Miller , Joe Louis , Billy Conn and Mitzi Mayfair frequently visited the base to meet and entertain the troops. With a population slightly below 1,000, the adjacent village to the east of BAD-2, Freckleton, became colloquially known to servicemen and residents alike as 'Little America'. Relations between
20305-496: The standard model, which affected the centre of gravity of the aircraft. The Classy Chassis II had seen action in Occupied France with the 486th Bombardment Group that summer; attacking strategic German strongholds such as airbases. The necessary repairs to be conducted at BAD-2 included flak damage. However, all requested refurbishments were completed by 22 August. That afternoon, Corporal Roy Lewis completed all
20460-461: The storm. The weather officer, a Captain Zdrubek, had informed investigators that, although the storm had been short in duration, it had been the most severe ever recorded at BAD-2. Furthermore, Lt. Manassero had also informed Major Himes of his opinion the storm was too severe for even "the most experienced" of pilots to navigate, that he himself did not have full control of his own aircraft while "in
20615-549: The victims of the tragedy. An area of land close to the scene of the accident was selected to be converted into a memorial garden and children's playground in memory of those lost in the disaster. The money used to fund the construction of this memorial garden and playground was that raised by American servicemen, approximately 600 of whom devoted their off-duty hours to build the playground. This garden and playground were formally dedicated on 20 August 1945. Over 2,000 civilians and servicemen were present at this dedication ceremony. At
20770-400: The village of Freckleton, northeast of the airfield. After contacting the control tower, Lt. Bloemendal—flying at a low altitude and with reduced visibility—began struggling against violent turbulence . In an effort to gain altitude, he ordered his co-pilot, 24-year-old Technical Sergeant James Manuel Parr, to increase the speed of the B-24. His aircraft then severed the top of a tree before
20925-486: The village's Holy Trinity Church. Residents past and present have never held ill-feelings towards the personnel stationed at BAD-2 for the disaster; all have appreciated the fact the incident was a tragic wartime accident which impacted numerous families on both sides of the Atlantic. Several American servicemen stationed at BAD-2 in 1944 have attended these local memorial services, including the service held to commemorate
21080-476: The village's population died in the Freckleton air disaster. Seven of the child victims were either first or second cousins to one other. Three others were evacuees from Greater London who had been relocated to Freckleton to protect them from German air raids. Only one of these three evacuees would survive. Several children who escaped from the relatively unscathed junior classrooms would struggle with survivor guilt throughout their lives. One of these individuals
21235-450: The village, drinking in local pubs such as The Ship Inn and the Coach and Horses and visiting the amusements in nearby Blackpool. One popular location in Freckleton was the Sad Sack Snack Bar , which was a popular eatery with locals and both American and British servicemen. The Sad Sack Snack Bar was a converted garage on Lytham Road which had been reconstructed into a cafè. Named after
21390-494: The war, plus a general air force within the continental United States to support the whole and provide air defense. The latter was formally organized as the Continental Air Forces and activated on 15 December 1944, although it did not formally take jurisdiction of its component air forces until the end of the war in Europe. Half of the numbered air forces were created de novo as the service expanded during
21545-461: The war-time Army Air Forces. The AAF was willing to experiment with its allotment from the unpopular Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAACs) and became an early and determined supporter of full military status for women in the Army ( Women's Army Corps or WACs). WACs serving in the AAF became such an accepted and valuable part of the service they earned the distinction of being commonly (but unofficially) known as "Air WACs". Nearly 40,000 women served in
21700-630: The war. Some grew out of earlier commands as the service expanded in size and hierarchy (for example, the V Air Support Command became the Ninth Air Force in April 1942), and higher echelons such as United States Strategic Air Forces (USSTAF) in Europe and U.S. Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific became necessary to control the whole. Within numbered air forces, operational commands were created to divide administrative control of units by function (eg fighters and bombers). The numbering of
21855-404: The wings of World War II, however, were composed of groups with like functions (denoted as bombardment , fighter , reconnaissance , training , antisubmarine , troop carrier , and replacement ). The six support commands organized between March 1941 and April 1942 to support and supply the numbered air forces remained on the same chain of command echelon as the numbered air forces, under
22010-422: Was Jackie Nichol, who had just begun to open the door to the infants' classroom to ensure all windows were closed when fuel and other debris collided into the classroom. Nichol observed a "blinding orange flash" and a fireball immediately spread across the ceiling as teacher Louisa Hulme, standing close to the classroom door, became "engulfed in flames". Nichol's own lungs briefly deflated as the fire rapidly consumed
22165-622: Was a remarkable expansion. Robert A. Lovett, the Assistant Secretary of War for Air, together with Arnold, presided over an increase greater than for either the ground Army or the Navy, while at the same time dispatching combat air forces to the battlefronts. "The Evolution of the Department of the Air Force" – Air Force Historical Studies Office The German invasion of the Soviet Union , occurring only two days after
22320-542: Was also used on official recruiting posters (see image above) and was important in promoting the idea of an "Air Force" as an independent service. Jimmy Stewart , a Hollywood movie star serving as an AAF pilot, used the terms "Air Corps" and "Air Forces" interchangeably in the narration of the 1942 recruiting short " Winning Your Wings " . The term "Air Force" also appeared prominently in Frank Capra 's 1945 War Department indoctrination film " War Comes to America " , of
22475-581: Was concurrent with the creation of air forces to defend Hawaii and the Panama Canal . The air districts were converted in March 1941 into numbered air forces with a subordinate organization of 54 groups. The likelihood of U.S. participation in World War II prompted the most radical reorganization of the aviation branch in its history, developing a structure that both unified command of all air elements and gave it total autonomy and equality with
22630-457: Was created in June 1941 to provide the air arm greater autonomy in which to expand more efficiently, to provide a structure for the additional command echelons required by a vastly increased force, and to end an increasingly divisive administrative battle within the Army over control of aviation doctrine and organization that had been ongoing since the creation of an aviation section within the U.S. Army Signal Corps in 1914. The AAF succeeded both
22785-664: Was demoted to lieutenant colonel and sent back to the United States. Miller was born on September 10, 1890, in Alloway Township, New Jersey , to John and Mary Miller. After attending local public schools, he was accepted to the United States Military Academy and graduated with the class of 1915 . After graduation, Miller was assigned as a second lieutenant in the United States Cavalry and served near El Paso, Texas , during
22940-498: Was established on 7 August 1943, and given command status on 1 June 1944. as the AAF Personnel Distribution Command. This organization was ordered discontinued, effective 30 June 1946." The primary combat unit of the Army Air Forces for both administrative and tactical purposes was the group , an organization of three or four flying squadrons and attached or organic ground support elements, which
23095-404: Was expanded, with numerous hangars , test sheds, a hospital and barracks constructed, and the three existing runways extended to accommodate the requirements of American military aircraft. These modifications saw the airbase significantly expand to encompass a large area in and around Warton and the neighbouring village of Freckleton. Despite some initial delays, the air depot was almost complete by
23250-481: Was named the Classy Chassis II and featured nose art depicting a scantily clad brunette sat upon a cloud, glancing backwards and suggestively smiling while unfastening her bra. The USAAF serial number of this aircraft was 42-50291 . Constructed in Fort Worth, Texas at the beginning of the year by Consolidated Aircraft , this aircraft featured unique changes in both the nose turret and tail turret from
23405-502: Was never officially recognized by the United States Navy , and was bitterly disputed behind the scenes at every opportunity, it nevertheless succeeded as a pragmatic foundation for the future separation of the Air Force. Under the revision of AR 95–5, the Army Air Forces consisted of three major components: Headquarters AAF, Air Force Combat Command, and the Air Corps. Yet the reforms were incomplete, subject to reversal with
23560-411: Was selected to pilot the Classy Chassis II . This test flight had originally been scheduled for 8.30 a.m. However, immediately prior to all crew boarding their aircraft, Lt. Bloemendal, as officer of the day , received a phone call informing him he was needed elsewhere on base. As such, a decision was made for the test flights to be postponed for two hours. Both pilots flew their B-24s north from
23715-464: Was small in comparison to European air forces. Lines of authority were difficult, at best, since GHQ Air Force controlled only operations of its combat units while the Air Corps was still responsible for doctrine, acquisition of aircraft, and training. Corps area commanders continued to exercise control over airfields and administration of personnel, and in the overseas departments, operational control of units as well. Between March 1935 and September 1938,
23870-460: Was the rough equivalent of a regiment of the Army Ground Forces . The Army Air Forces fielded a total of 318 combat groups at some point during World War II, with an operational force of 243 combat groups in 1945. The Air Service and its successor the Air Corps had established 15 permanent combat groups between 1919 and 1937. With the buildup of the combat force beginning 1 February 1940,
24025-535: Was threatened. Henry J. F. Miller Henry Jervis Friese Miller (September 10, 1890 – January 7, 1949) served as a general in the United States Army Air Forces during World War II . While serving in the European theater , Miller made publicly recorded comments about the top secret date of the Allied invasion of Normandy in May 1944. After Supreme Allied Commander Dwight D. Eisenhower found out, Miller
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