Medicalization is the process by which human conditions and problems come to be defined and treated as medical conditions , and thus become the subject of medical study, diagnosis, prevention , or treatment. Medicalization can be driven by new evidence or hypotheses about conditions; by changing social attitudes or economic considerations; or by the development of new medications or treatments.
174-469: A freak show is an exhibition of biological rarities, referred to in popular culture as " freaks of nature". Typical features would be physically unusual humans , such as those uncommonly large or small, those with intersex variations , those with extraordinary diseases and conditions, and others with performances expected to be shocking to viewers. Heavily tattooed or pierced people have sometimes been seen in freak shows (more common in modern times as
348-535: A last universal common ancestor that lived about 3.5 billion years ago . Geologists have developed a geologic time scale that divides the history of the Earth into major divisions, starting with four eons ( Hadean , Archean , Proterozoic , and Phanerozoic ), the first three of which are collectively known as the Precambrian , which lasted approximately 4 billion years. Each eon can be divided into eras, with
522-440: A lipid bilayer , including cholesterols that sit between phospholipids to maintain their fluidity at various temperatures. Cell membranes are semipermeable , allowing small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water to pass through while restricting the movement of larger molecules and charged particles such as ions . Cell membranes also contain membrane proteins , including integral membrane proteins that go across
696-443: A nucleus , and prokaryotic cells, which do not. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms such as bacteria , whereas eukaryotes can be single-celled or multicellular. In multicellular organisms , every cell in the organism's body is derived ultimately from a single cell in a fertilized egg . Every cell is enclosed within a cell membrane that separates its cytoplasm from the extracellular space . A cell membrane consists of
870-508: A number of shapes , ranging from spheres to rods and spirals . Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats . Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs , radioactive waste , and the deep biosphere of the Earth's crust . Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only about 27 percent of
1044-563: A sideshow act), as have attention-getting physical performers such as fire-eating and sword-swallowing acts. Since at latest the medieval period , deformed people have often been treated as objects of interest and entertainment, and crowds have flocked to see them exhibited. A famous early modern example was the exhibition at the court of King Charles I of Lazarus and Joannes Baptista Colloredo , two conjoined brothers born in Genoa, Italy . While Lazarus appeared to be otherwise ordinary,
1218-700: A "family of midgets " which in reality was composed of two men and a borrowed baby. He operated a number of shops in London and Nottingham , and exhibited travelling shows throughout the country. Most famously, in 1884, Norman came into contact with Joseph Merrick , sometimes called "the Elephant Man", a young man from Leicester with extreme deformities. Merrick arrived in London and into Norman's care. Norman, initially shocked by Merrick's appearance and reluctant to display him, nonetheless exhibited him at his penny gaff shop at 123 Whitechapel Road , directly across
1392-436: A 12- to 14-hour day. Changing attitudes about physical differences led to the decline of the freak show as a form of entertainment towards the end of the 19th century. As previously mysterious anomalies were scientifically explained as genetic mutations or diseases , freaks became the objects of sympathy rather than fear or disdain. Laws were passed restricting freak shows for these reasons. For example, Michigan law forbids
1566-411: A band that performed outside. Barnum's American Museum also offered multiple attractions that not only entertained but tried to educate and uplift its working-class visitors. Barnum offered one ticket that guaranteed admission to his lectures, theatrical performances, an animal menagerie, and a glimpse at curiosities both living and dead. One of Barnum's exhibits centered around Charles Sherwood Stratton,
1740-425: A band. Bands typically were made up of Black musicians, blackface minstrel bands, and troupes of dancers dressed as Hawaiians . These entertainers were used to attract crowds and provide a festive atmosphere inside the show tent. By the 1920s, the circus was declining as a major form of amusement due to competition from amusement parks, movie houses and burlesque tours, and the rise of the radio. Circuses also saw
1914-435: A big part in the decline of the freak show, the rise of disability rights was a larger cause of decline. Many now viewed freak shows as wrong and profiting from others' misfortune. Though paid well, the freaks of the 19th century did not always enjoy quality of life. Frank Lentini , the three-legged man, was quoted saying, "My limb does not bother me as much as the curious, critical gaze." The exhibition of human oddities has
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#17327765649332088-474: A cell's size, shape, membrane potential , metabolic activity , and responsiveness to signals, which are largely due to highly controlled modifications in gene expression and epigenetics . With a few exceptions, cellular differentiation almost never involves a change in the DNA sequence itself. Thus, different cells can have very different physical characteristics despite having the same genome . Morphogenesis, or
2262-408: A chemical (e.g., nitrous acid , benzopyrene ) or radiation (e.g., x-ray , gamma ray , ultraviolet radiation , particles emitted by unstable isotopes). Mutations can lead to phenotypic effects such as loss-of-function, gain-of-function , and conditional mutations. Some mutations are beneficial, as they are a source of genetic variation for evolution. Others are harmful if they were to result in
2436-506: A condition linked to intellectual disabilities and characterized by a very small, pointed head and small overall structure, were considered or characterized as "missing links" or as atavistic specimens of an extinct race. Hypopituitary dwarfs who tend to be well proportioned were advertised as lofty. Achondroplastic dwarfs, whose head and limbs tend to be out of proportion to their trunks, were characterized as exotic mode. Those who were armless, legless, or limbless were also characterized in
2610-448: A conversation between consumer and drug company that threatens to cut the doctor out of the loop. Additionally, there is a widespread concern regarding the extent of the pharmaceutical marketing direct to doctors and other healthcare professionals. Examples of this direct marketing are visits by salespeople, funding of journals, training courses or conferences, incentives for prescribing, and the routine provision of "information" written by
2784-520: A drunk who cruelly exploited Merrick. Norman counteracted these claims in a letter in the World's Fair newspaper that year, as well as his own autobiography. Norman's opinion was that he provided Merrick (and his other exhibits) a way of making a living and remaining independent, but that on entering the London Hospital, Merrick remained a freak on display, only with no control over how or when he
2958-408: A fear of ill-health and a strong notion of individual responsibility has been derided as "health fascism" by some scholars as it objectifies the individual without considering emotional or social factors. Several decades on the definition of medicalization is complicated, if for no other reason than because the term is so widely used. Many contemporary critics position pharmaceutical companies in
3132-1233: A few archaea have very different shapes, such as the flat and square cells of Haloquadratum walsbyi . Despite this morphological similarity to bacteria, archaea possess genes and several metabolic pathways that are more closely related to those of eukaryotes, notably for the enzymes involved in transcription and translation . Other aspects of archaeal biochemistry are unique, such as their reliance on ether lipids in their cell membranes , including archaeols . Archaea use more energy sources than eukaryotes: these range from organic compounds , such as sugars, to ammonia , metal ions or even hydrogen gas . Salt-tolerant archaea (the Haloarchaea ) use sunlight as an energy source, and other species of archaea fix carbon , but unlike plants and cyanobacteria , no known species of archaea does both. Archaea reproduce asexually by binary fission , fragmentation , or budding ; unlike bacteria, no known species of Archaea form endospores . The first observed archaea were extremophiles , living in extreme environments, such as hot springs and salt lakes with no other organisms. Improved molecular detection tools led to
3306-403: A final electron acceptor, which is usually the oxidized form of NADP , which is reduced to NADPH, a process that takes place in a protein complex called photosystem I (PSI). The transport of electrons is coupled to the movement of protons (or hydrogen) from the stroma to the thylakoid membrane, which forms a pH gradient across the membrane as hydrogen becomes more concentrated in the lumen than in
3480-512: A form of "healthism", which is moralistic in nature rather than primarily focused on health. Medical doctors Petr Shkrabanek and James McCormick wrote a series of publications on this topic in the late 1980s and early 1990s criticizing the UK's Health of The Nation campaign. These publications exposed abuse of epidemiology and statistics by public health authorities and organizations to support lifestyle interventions and screening programs. Inculcating
3654-410: A form of social control in which medical authority expanded into domains of everyday existence, and they rejected medicalization in the name of liberation. This critique was embodied in works such as Conrad's article "The discovery of hyperkinesis: notes on medicalization of deviance", published in 1973 ( hyperkinesis was the term then used to describe what we might now call ADHD ). Nevertheless, opium
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#17327765649333828-427: A global society, not simply those forms linked to the established (bio)medical professions. Looking at "knowledge", beyond the confines of professional boundaries, may help us understand the multiplicity of ways in which medicalization can exist in different times and societies, and allow contemporary societies to avoid such pitfalls as "demedicalization" (through a turn towards complementary and alternative medicine ) on
4002-402: A hollow sphere of cells , the blastula , during embryonic development . Over 1.5 million living animal species have been described —of which around 1 million are insects —but it has been estimated there are over 7 million animal species in total. They have complex interactions with each other and their environments, forming intricate food webs . Medicalization Medicalization
4176-502: A large decline in audience during the Depression , as economic hard times and union demands made the circus less and less affordable and valuable. Freak shows were viewed as a normal part of American culture in the late 19th to the early 20th centuries. The shows were viewed as a suitable amusement for the middle class and were profitable for the showmen, who exploited freak show performers' disabilities for profit. Ugly laws in
4350-465: A long history: The entertainment appeal of the traditional "freak shows" is arguably echoed in numerous programmes made for television. Extraordinary People on the British television channel Five and BodyShock show the lives of severely disabled or deformed people, and can be seen as the modern equivalent of circus freak shows. To cater to current cultural expectations of disability narratives,
4524-769: A loss of function of genes needed for survival. Gene expression is the molecular process by which a genotype encoded in DNA gives rise to an observable phenotype in the proteins of an organism's body. This process is summarized by the central dogma of molecular biology , which was formulated by Francis Crick in 1958. According to the Central Dogma, genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein. There are two gene expression processes: transcription (DNA to RNA) and translation (RNA to protein). The regulation of gene expression by environmental factors and during different stages of development can occur at each step of
4698-417: A more successful evolutionary theory based on natural selection ; similar reasoning and evidence led Alfred Russel Wallace to independently reach the same conclusions. The basis for modern genetics began with the work of Gregor Mendel in 1865. This outlined the principles of biological inheritance. However, the significance of his work was not realized until the early 20th century when evolution became
4872-413: A necessary and beneficial equivalent to working, thus leading to the popularity of the freak show. The showmen and promoters exhibited all types of freaks. People who appeared non-white or who had a disability were often exhibited as unknown races and cultures. These "unknown" races and disabled whites were advertised as being undiscovered humans to attract viewers. For example, those with microcephaly ,
5046-457: A new cycle. In contrast to mitosis, meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells by undergoing one round of DNA replication followed by two divisions. Homologous chromosomes are separated in the first division ( meiosis I ), and sister chromatids are separated in the second division ( meiosis II ). Both of these cell division cycles are used in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in their life cycle. Both are believed to be present in
5220-627: A number of phenomena considered "deviant", such as alcoholism , drug addiction , prostitution , pedophilia , and masturbation ("self-abuse"), were originally considered as moral, then legal, and now medical problems. Innumerable other conditions such as obesity, smoking cigarettes, draft malingering, bachelorhood, divorce, unwanted pregnancy, kleptomania, and grief, have been declared diseases by medical and psychiatric authorities. Due to these perceptions, peculiar deviants were subjected to moral, then legal, and now medical modes of social control. Similarly, Conrad and Schneider concluded their review of
5394-409: A process known as allopatric speciation . A phylogeny is an evolutionary history of a specific group of organisms or their genes. It can be represented using a phylogenetic tree , a diagram showing lines of descent among organisms or their genes. Each line drawn on the time axis of a tree represents a lineage of descendants of a particular species or population. When a lineage divides into two, it
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5568-408: A region of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that carries genetic information that controls form or function of an organism. DNA is composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix . It is found as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes , and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes . The set of chromosomes in a cell is collectively known as its genome . In eukaryotes, DNA
5742-541: A role in the synthesis and packaging of proteins, respectively. Biomolecules such as proteins can be engulfed by lysosomes , another specialized organelle. Plant cells have additional organelles that distinguish them from animal cells such as a cell wall that provides support for the plant cell, chloroplasts that harvest sunlight energy to produce sugar, and vacuoles that provide storage and structural support as well as being involved in reproduction and breakdown of plant seeds. Eukaryotic cells also have cytoskeleton that
5916-608: A schedule that included 10 to 15 shows a day, and was shuttled back and forth week after week from one museum to another. When a popular freak show performer came to a dime museum in New York, they were overworked and exploited to make the museum money. For example, when Fedor Jeftichew (known as "Jo-Jo, the Dog-Faced Boy") appeared at the Globe Museum in New York, his manager arranged to have him perform 23 shows during
6090-436: A separate clade as some protists may be more closely related to plants, fungi, or animals than they are to other protists. Like groupings such as algae , invertebrates , or protozoans , the protist grouping is not a formal taxonomic group but is used for convenience. Most protists are unicellular; these are called microbial eukaryotes. Plants are mainly multicellular organisms , predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of
6264-423: A single carbon atom can form four single covalent bonds such as in methane , two double covalent bonds such as in carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), or a triple covalent bond such as in carbon monoxide (CO). Moreover, carbon can form very long chains of interconnecting carbon–carbon bonds such as octane or ring-like structures such as glucose . The simplest form of an organic molecule is the hydrocarbon , which
6438-446: A specific enzyme. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy that will not occur by themselves, by coupling them to spontaneous reactions that release energy. Enzymes act as catalysts —they allow a reaction to proceed more rapidly without being consumed by it—by reducing the amount of activation energy needed to convert reactants into products . Enzymes also allow
6612-399: A unified theory as the modern synthesis reconciled Darwinian evolution with classical genetics . In the 1940s and early 1950s, a series of experiments by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase pointed to DNA as the component of chromosomes that held the trait-carrying units that had become known as genes . A focus on new kinds of model organisms such as viruses and bacteria, along with
6786-421: A varied mix of traits, and reproduction is able to increase any population, Darwin argued that in the natural world, it was nature that played the role of humans in selecting for specific traits. Darwin inferred that individuals who possessed heritable traits better adapted to their environments are more likely to survive and produce more offspring than other individuals. He further inferred that this would lead to
6960-492: A water molecule again. In pure water , the number of hydrogen ions balances (or equals) the number of hydroxyl ions, resulting in a pH that is neutral. Organic compounds are molecules that contain carbon bonded to another element such as hydrogen. With the exception of water, nearly all the molecules that make up each organism contain carbon. Carbon can form covalent bonds with up to four other atoms, enabling it to form diverse, large, and complex molecules. For example,
7134-507: A week, making more money than lecture-room variety performers. Freaks were seen to have profitable traits, with an opportunity to become celebrities obtaining fame and fortune. At the height of freak shows' popularity, they were one of the few jobs for dwarfs . Many scholars have argued that freak show performers were exploited by the showmen and managers for profit because of their disabilities. Many freaks were paid generously, but had to deal with museum managers who were often insensitive about
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7308-559: A week. His wealth became so staggering that the New York Times wrote, "He wears very handsome diamond rings and other jewelry, valued altogether at about $ 3,000 [$ 94,699 in 2024 dollars] and usually goes armed to protect himself from persons who might attempt to rob him." Though Costentenus was fortunate, other freaks were not. Upon his death in 1891, he donated about half of his life earnings to other freaks who did not make as much money as he did. One of Barnum's most famous hoaxes
7482-505: A year. Barnum's American Museum was one of the most popular museums in New York City to exhibit freaks. In 1841 Barnum purchased The American Museum, which made freaks the major attraction, following mainstream America in the mid-19th century. Barnum was known to advertise aggressively and make up outlandish stories about his exhibits. The façade of the museum was decorated with bright banners showcasing his attractions and included
7656-536: Is evolution , which explains the unity and diversity of life. Energy processing is also important to life as it allows organisms to move , grow, and reproduce . Finally, all organisms are able to regulate their own internal environments . Biologists are able to study life at multiple levels of organization , from the molecular biology of a cell to the anatomy and physiology of plants and animals, and evolution of populations. Hence, there are multiple subdisciplines within biology , each defined by
7830-508: Is pharmaceuticalization , the influence of the use of pharmaceutical drugs rather than other interventions. Other components are computerization of parts of healthcare such as public health, the creation of a "biopolitical economy" of private research outside of state, the perception of health as a moral obligation. Medicalization has brought health issues to the fore, so people think more and more about things in terms of health and act to promote health. When it comes to health issues, medicine
8004-444: Is a central feature of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes, and the most fundamental function of meiosis appears to be conservation of the integrity of the genome that is passed on to progeny by parents. Two aspects of sexual reproduction , meiotic recombination and outcrossing , are likely maintained respectively by the adaptive advantages of recombinational repair of genomic DNA damage and genetic complementation which masks
8178-641: Is a large family of organic compounds that are composed of hydrogen atoms bonded to a chain of carbon atoms. A hydrocarbon backbone can be substituted by other elements such as oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S), which can change the chemical behavior of that compound. Groups of atoms that contain these elements (O-, H-, P-, and S-) and are bonded to a central carbon atom or skeleton are called functional groups . There are six prominent functional groups that can be found in organisms: amino group , carboxyl group , carbonyl group , hydroxyl group , phosphate group , and sulfhydryl group . In 1953,
8352-480: Is a small polar molecule with a bent shape formed by the polar covalent bonds of two hydrogen (H) atoms to one oxygen (O) atom (H 2 O). Because the O–H bonds are polar, the oxygen atom has a slight negative charge and the two hydrogen atoms have a slight positive charge. This polar property of water allows it to attract other water molecules via hydrogen bonds, which makes water cohesive . Surface tension results from
8526-918: Is a term of convenience as not all algae are closely related. Algae comprise several distinct clades such as glaucophytes , which are microscopic freshwater algae that may have resembled in form to the early unicellular ancestor of Plantae. Unlike glaucophytes, the other algal clades such as red and green algae are multicellular. Green algae comprise three major clades: chlorophytes , coleochaetophytes , and stoneworts . Fungi are eukaryotes that digest foods outside their bodies, secreting digestive enzymes that break down large food molecules before absorbing them through their cell membranes. Many fungi are also saprobes , feeding on dead organic matter, making them important decomposers in ecological systems. Animals are multicellular eukaryotes. With few exceptions, animals consume organic material , breathe oxygen , are able to move , can reproduce sexually , and grow from
8700-515: Is applied to behaviors which are not self-evidently medical or biological. The term medicalization entered the sociology literature in the 1970s in the works of Irving Zola , Peter Conrad and Thomas Szasz , among others. According to Eric Cassell 's book, The Nature of Suffering and the Goals of Medicine (2004), the expansion of medical social control is being justified as a means of explaining deviance. These sociologists viewed medicalization as
8874-403: Is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase in a reversible reaction. Lactate can also be used as an indirect precursor for liver glycogen. During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or ethanol fermentation . The ATP generated in this process
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#17327765649339048-512: Is deemed to be justified in terms of public health." Moreover, the pressure for medicalization now comes from society itself as well as from the government and medical professionals. For many years, marginalized psychiatrists (such as Peter Breggin , Paula Caplan , Thomas Szasz ) and outside critics (such as Stuart A. Kirk ) have "been accusing psychiatry of engaging in the systematic medicalization of normality". More recently these concerns have come from insiders who have worked for and promoted
9222-441: Is made by substrate-level phosphorylation , which does not require oxygen. Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organism's metabolic activities via cellular respiration. This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water. In most cases, oxygen
9396-535: Is made up of microtubules , intermediate filaments , and microfilaments , all of which provide support for the cell and are involved in the movement of the cell and its organelles. In terms of their structural composition, the microtubules are made up of tubulin (e.g., α-tubulin and β-tubulin ) whereas intermediate filaments are made up of fibrous proteins. Microfilaments are made up of actin molecules that interact with other strands of proteins. All cells require energy to sustain cellular processes. Metabolism
9570-526: Is mainly in the cell nucleus . In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within the nucleoid . The genetic information is held within genes, and the complete assemblage in an organism is called its genotype . DNA replication is a semiconservative process whereby each strand serves as a template for a new strand of DNA. Mutations are heritable changes in DNA. They can arise spontaneously as a result of replication errors that were not corrected by proofreading or can be induced by an environmental mutagen such as
9744-399: Is one of the key ways a cell releases chemical energy to fuel cellular activity. The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, some of which are redox reactions. Although cellular respiration is technically a combustion reaction , it clearly does not resemble one when it occurs in a cell because of the slow, controlled release of energy from the series of reactions. Sugar in
9918-407: Is pulled to the separate poles of the bacterium as it increases the size to prepare for splitting. Growth of a new cell wall begins to separate the bacterium (triggered by FtsZ polymerization and "Z-ring" formation). The new cell wall ( septum ) fully develops, resulting in the complete split of the bacterium. The new daughter cells have tightly coiled DNA rods, ribosomes , and plasmids . Meiosis
10092-399: Is released as a waste product. Most plants, algae , and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis, which is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth's atmosphere, and supplies most of the energy necessary for life on Earth. Photosynthesis has four stages: Light absorption , electron transport, ATP synthesis, and carbon fixation . Light absorption is
10266-412: Is represented as a fork or split on the phylogenetic tree. Phylogenetic trees are the basis for comparing and grouping different species. Different species that share a feature inherited from a common ancestor are described as having homologous features (or synapomorphy ). Phylogeny provides the basis of biological classification. This classification system is rank-based, with the highest rank being
10440-509: Is studied from a sociologic perspective in terms of the role and power of professionals , patients, and corporations, and also for its implications for ordinary people whose self-identity and life decisions may depend on the prevailing concepts of health and illness. Once a condition is classified as medical, a medical model of disability tends to be used in place of a social model . Medicalization may also be termed pathologization or (pejoratively) " disease mongering ". Since medicalization
10614-468: Is the process by which genes and traits are passed on from parents to offspring. It has several principles. The first is that genetic characteristics, alleles , are discrete and have alternate forms (e.g., purple vs. white or tall vs. dwarf), each inherited from one of two parents. Based on the law of dominance and uniformity , which states that some alleles are dominant while others are recessive ; an organism with at least one dominant allele will display
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#173277656493310788-485: Is the set of chemical reactions in an organism. The three main purposes of metabolism are: the conversion of food to energy to run cellular processes; the conversion of food/fuel to monomer building blocks; and the elimination of metabolic wastes . These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolic reactions may be categorized as catabolic —the breaking down of compounds (for example,
10962-426: Is the social process through which a condition becomes a medical disease in need of treatment, medicalization may be viewed as a benefit to human society. According to this view, the identification of a condition as a disease will lead to the treatment of certain symptoms and conditions, which will improve overall quality of life. The concept of medicalization was devised by sociologists to explain how medical knowledge
11136-410: Is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms . Molecular biology is the branch of biology that seeks to understand the molecular basis of biological activity in and between cells, including molecular synthesis, modification, mechanisms, and interactions. Life arose from the Earth's first ocean, which formed some 3.8 billion years ago. Since then, water continues to be
11310-493: Is to store, transmit, and express hereditary information. Cell theory states that cells are the fundamental units of life, that all living things are composed of one or more cells, and that all cells arise from preexisting cells through cell division . Most cells are very small, with diameters ranging from 1 to 100 micrometers and are therefore only visible under a light or electron microscope . There are generally two types of cells: eukaryotic cells, which contain
11484-546: The American Psychiatric Association (e.g., Robert Spitzer , Allen Frances ). Benjamin Rush , the father of American psychiatry, claimed that Black people had black skin because they were ill with hereditary leprosy. Consequently, he considered vitiligo as a "spontaneous cure". According to Franco Basaglia and his followers, whose approach pointed out the role of psychiatric institutions in
11658-644: The Cambrian explosion . During the Permian period, synapsids , including the ancestors of mammals , dominated the land, but most of this group became extinct in the Permian–Triassic extinction event 252 million years ago. During the recovery from this catastrophe, archosaurs became the most abundant land vertebrates; one archosaur group, the dinosaurs, dominated the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. After
11832-495: The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago killed off the non-avian dinosaurs, mammals increased rapidly in size and diversity . Such mass extinctions may have accelerated evolution by providing opportunities for new groups of organisms to diversify. Bacteria are a type of cell that constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms . Typically a few micrometers in length, bacteria have
12006-535: The Miller–Urey experiment showed that organic compounds could be synthesized abiotically within a closed system mimicking the conditions of early Earth , thus suggesting that complex organic molecules could have arisen spontaneously in early Earth (see abiogenesis ). Macromolecules are large molecules made up of smaller subunits or monomers . Monomers include sugars, amino acids, and nucleotides. Carbohydrates include monomers and polymers of sugars. Lipids are
12180-492: The Precambrian about 1.5 billion years ago and can be classified into eight major clades : alveolates , excavates , stramenopiles , plants, rhizarians , amoebozoans , fungi , and animals. Five of these clades are collectively known as protists , which are mostly microscopic eukaryotic organisms that are not plants, fungi, or animals. While it is likely that protists share a common ancestor (the last eukaryotic common ancestor ), protists by themselves do not constitute
12354-727: The activator is the transcription factor that stimulates transcription when it binds to the sequence near or at the promoter. Negative regulation occurs when another transcription factor called a repressor binds to a DNA sequence called an operator , which is part of an operon, to prevent transcription. Repressors can be inhibited by compounds called inducers (e.g., allolactose ), thereby allowing transcription to occur. Specific genes that can be activated by inducers are called inducible genes , in contrast to constitutive genes that are almost constantly active. In contrast to both, structural genes encode proteins that are not involved in gene regulation. In addition to regulatory events involving
12528-592: The bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory. Archaea constitute the other domain of prokaryotic cells and were initially classified as bacteria, receiving the name archaebacteria (in the Archaebacteria kingdom ), a term that has fallen out of use. Archaeal cells have unique properties separating them from the other two domains , Bacteria and Eukaryota . Archaea are further divided into multiple recognized phyla . Archaea and bacteria are generally similar in size and shape, although
12702-404: The cell . In 1838, Schleiden and Schwann began promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, although they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells, continuing to support spontaneous generation . However, Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow were able to reify
12876-403: The cell membrane of another cell or located deep inside a cell. There are generally four types of chemical signals: autocrine , paracrine , juxtacrine , and hormones . In autocrine signaling, the ligand affects the same cell that releases it. Tumor cells, for example, can reproduce uncontrollably because they release signals that initiate their own self-division. In paracrine signaling,
13050-416: The circulatory systems of animals or vascular systems of plants to reach their target cells. Once a ligand binds with a receptor, it can influence the behavior of another cell, depending on the type of receptor. For instance, neurotransmitters that bind with an inotropic receptor can alter the excitability of a target cell. Other types of receptors include protein kinase receptors (e.g., receptor for
13224-478: The clinical , involving serious side effects worse than the original condition; the social , whereby the general public is made docile and reliant on the medical profession to cope with life in their society; and the structural , whereby the idea of aging and dying as medical illnesses effectively "medicalized" human life and left individuals and societies less able to deal with these "natural" processes. The concept of medicalization dovetailed with some aspects of
13398-528: The domain followed by kingdom , phylum , class , order , family , genus , and species . All organisms can be classified as belonging to one of three domains : Archaea (originally Archaebacteria), bacteria (originally eubacteria), or eukarya (includes the fungi, plant, and animal kingdoms). The history of life on Earth traces how organisms have evolved from the earliest emergence of life to present day. Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago and all life on Earth, both living and extinct, descended from
13572-481: The duplication of its DNA and some of its organelles , and the subsequent partitioning of its cytoplasm into two daughter cells in a process called cell division . In eukaryotes (i.e., animal, plant, fungal , and protist cells), there are two distinct types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis . Mitosis is part of the cell cycle, in which replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei. Cell division gives rise to genetically identical cells in which
13746-403: The kingdom Plantae, which would exclude fungi and some algae . Plant cells were derived by endosymbiosis of a cyanobacterium into an early eukaryote about one billion years ago, which gave rise to chloroplasts. The first several clades that emerged following primary endosymbiosis were aquatic and most of the aquatic photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms are collectively described as algae, which
13920-423: The microscope . It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa , bacteria, infusoria and the diversity of microscopic life. Investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop techniques of microscopic dissection and staining . Advances in microscopy had a profound impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, biologists pointed to the central importance of
14094-412: The mitochondrial cristae . Oxidative phosphorylation comprises the electron transport chain, which is a series of four protein complexes that transfer electrons from one complex to another, thereby releasing energy from NADH and FADH 2 that is coupled to the pumping of protons (hydrogen ions) across the inner mitochondrial membrane ( chemiosmosis ), which generates a proton motive force . Energy from
14268-546: The phenotype of that dominant allele. During gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate, so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene. Heterozygotic individuals produce gametes with an equal frequency of two alleles. Finally, the law of independent assortment , states that genes of different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes, i.e., genes are unlinked. An exception to this rule would include traits that are sex-linked . Test crosses can be performed to experimentally determine
14442-497: The regulation of the rate of a metabolic reaction, for example in response to changes in the cell's environment or to signals from other cells. Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in cells to convert chemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions , which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy. Respiration
14616-409: The "exhibition [of] any deformed human being or human monstrosity, except as used for scientific purposes". At the start of the 20th century, movies and television began to satisfy audiences' thirst for entertainment. People could see similar types of acts and abnormalities from the comfort of their own homes or a nice theater, and no longer needed to pay to see freaks. Though movies and television played
14790-436: The 1870s, dimes grew and grew, peaking in the 1880s and 1890s, available for all from coast to coast. With more dime museums than any place in the world, New York City was the dime museum capital, with an entertainment district that included German beer gardens , theaters, vendors, photography, studios, and a variety of other amusement institutions. Freak shows were the main attraction of most dime museums during 1870–1900, with
14964-432: The 1970s feminist movement. Critics such as Ehrenreich and English (1978) argued that women's bodies were being medicalized by the predominantly male medical profession. Menstruation and pregnancy had come to be seen as medical problems requiring interventions such as hysterectomies . Marxists such as Vicente Navarro (1980) linked medicalization to an oppressive capitalist society. They argued that medicine disguised
15138-481: The Phanerozoic eon that began 539 million years ago being subdivided into Paleozoic , Mesozoic , and Cenozoic eras. These three eras together comprise eleven periods ( Cambrian , Ordovician , Silurian , Devonian , Carboniferous , Permian , Triassic , Jurassic , Cretaceous , Tertiary , and Quaternary ). The similarities among all known present-day species indicate that they have diverged through
15312-602: The United States, starting in the 1860s, banned those who were "diseased, maimed, mutilated, or in any way deformed" from public view—making it hard for such people to support themselves. Exhibitions, however, were specifically excepted. Although freak shows were viewed as a place for entertainment, they were also a place of employment for those who could advertise, manage, and perform in the attractions. In an era before social safety nets or worker's compensation , severely disabled people often found that exhibiting themselves
15486-696: The accumulation of favorable traits over successive generations, thereby increasing the match between the organisms and their environment. A species is a group of organisms that mate with one another and speciation is the process by which one lineage splits into two lineages as a result of having evolved independently from each other. For speciation to occur, there has to be reproductive isolation . Reproductive isolation can result from incompatibilities between genes as described by Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model . Reproductive isolation also tends to increase with genetic divergence . Speciation can occur when there are physical barriers that divide an ancestral species,
15660-589: The body plan and the number, identity, and pattern of body parts. Among the most important toolkit genes are the Hox genes . Hox genes determine where repeating parts, such as the many vertebrae of snakes, will grow in a developing embryo or larva. Evolution is a central organizing concept in biology. It is the change in heritable characteristics of populations over successive generations . In artificial selection , animals were selectively bred for specific traits. Given that traits are inherited, populations contain
15834-450: The breaking down of glucose to pyruvate by cellular respiration ); or anabolic —the building up ( synthesis ) of compounds (such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids). Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy. The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways , in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, each step being facilitated by
16008-407: The circus a hub for the display of human oddities. Most of the museums and sideshows that had traveled with major circuses were owned during most of 1876. By 1880 human phenomena were now combined with a variety of entertainment acts from the sideshows. By 1890 tent size and the number of sideshow attractions began to increase, with most sideshows in large circuses with twelve to fifteen exhibits plus
16182-410: The cohesive force due to the attraction between molecules at the surface of the liquid. Water is also adhesive as it is able to adhere to the surface of any polar or charged non-water molecules. Water is denser as a liquid than it is as a solid (or ice). This unique property of water allows ice to float above liquid water such as ponds, lakes, and oceans, thereby insulating the liquid below from
16356-433: The cold air above. Water has the capacity to absorb energy, giving it a higher specific heat capacity than other solvents such as ethanol . Thus, a large amount of energy is needed to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules to convert liquid water into water vapor . As a molecule, water is not completely stable as each water molecule continuously dissociates into hydrogen and hydroxyl ions before reforming into
16530-461: The control and medicalization of deviant behaviors and social problems, psychiatry is used as the provider of scientific support for social control to the existing establishment, and the ensuing standards of deviance and normality brought about repressive views of discrete social groups. As scholars have long argued, governmental and medical institutions code menaces to authority as mental diseases during political disturbances. According to Kittrie,
16704-475: The criticism it has faced, and to protect its value in contemporary sociological debates. Building on Gadamer 's hermeneutical view of medicine, he focuses on medicine's common traits, regardless of empirical differences in both time and space. Medicalization and social control are viewed as distinct analytical dimensions that in practice may or may not overlap. Correia contends that the idea of "making things medical" needs to include all forms of medical knowledge in
16878-403: The curio halls. Visitors were directed from platform to platform by a lecturer, whose role was to be the master of ceremonies. During his performance, the lecturer, also known as the "Professor", held the audience's attention by describing the freaks displayed on the various stages. The lecturer needed to have both charisma and persuasiveness in addition to a loud voice. His rhetorical style usually
17052-501: The cytoplasm of a cell, there are many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids . In addition to biomolecules, eukaryotic cells have specialized structures called organelles that have their own lipid bilayers or are spatially units. These organelles include the cell nucleus , which contains most of the cell's DNA, or mitochondria , which generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to power cellular processes. Other organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus play
17226-455: The cytoplasm, where it is converted to waste products that may be removed from the cell. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the electron carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate. Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD so it can be re-used in glycolysis. In the absence of oxygen, fermentation prevents the buildup of NADH in the cytoplasm and provides NAD for glycolysis. This waste product varies depending on
17400-677: The development of biological knowledge. He explored biological causation and the diversity of life. His successor, Theophrastus , began the scientific study of plants. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz (781–869), Al-Dīnawarī (828–896), who wrote on botany, and Rhazes (865–925) who wrote on anatomy and physiology . Medicine was especially well studied by Islamic scholars working in Greek philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily on Aristotelian thought. Biology began to quickly develop with Anton van Leeuwenhoek 's dramatic improvement of
17574-418: The development of body form, is the result of spatial differences in gene expression. A small fraction of the genes in an organism's genome called the developmental-genetic toolkit control the development of that organism. These toolkit genes are highly conserved among phyla , meaning that they are ancient and very similar in widely separated groups of animals. Differences in deployment of toolkit genes affect
17748-440: The developmental fate of a cell, which becomes more restrictive during development. Differentiation is the process by which specialized cells arise from less specialized cells such as stem cells . Stem cells are undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells that can differentiate into various types of cells and proliferate indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell. Cellular differentiation dramatically changes
17922-664: The disabilities being created through makeup or effects. However, an article in The Guardian criticized the show, saying it perpetuated the term "freak" and the negative view of disability associated with it. Biological Biology is the scientific study of life . It is a natural science with a broad scope but has several unifying themes that tie it together as a single, coherent field. For instance, all organisms are made up of at least one cell that processes hereditary information encoded in genes , which can be transmitted to future generations. Another major theme
18096-411: The discovery of archaea in almost every habitat , including soil, oceans, and marshlands . Archaea are particularly numerous in the oceans, and the archaea in plankton may be one of the most abundant groups of organisms on the planet. Archaea are a major part of Earth's life . They are part of the microbiota of all organisms. In the human microbiome , they are important in the gut , mouth, and on
18270-420: The discovery of the double-helical structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, marked the transition to the era of molecular genetics . From the 1950s onwards, biology has been vastly extended in the molecular domain. The genetic code was cracked by Har Gobind Khorana , Robert W. Holley and Marshall Warren Nirenberg after DNA was understood to contain codons . The Human Genome Project
18444-411: The dwarf billed as " General Tom Thumb " who was then 4 years of age but was stated to be 11. Charles had stopped growing after the first 6 months of his life, at which point he was 25 inches (64 cm) tall and weighed 15 pounds (6.8 kg). With heavy coaching and natural talent, the boy was taught to imitate people from Hercules to Napoleon . By 5, he was drinking wine, and by 7 smoking cigars for
18618-634: The earliest terrestrial ecosystems , at least 2.7 billion years ago. Microorganisms are thought to have paved the way for the inception of land plants in the Ordovician period. Land plants were so successful that they are thought to have contributed to the Late Devonian extinction event . Ediacara biota appear during the Ediacaran period, while vertebrates , along with most other modern phyla originated about 525 million years ago during
18792-546: The entertainment. However, it was common for Barnum's acts to be schemes and not altogether true. Barnum was fully aware of the improper ethics behind his business as he said, "I don't believe in duping the public, but I believe in first attracting and then pleasing them." During the 1840s Barnum began his museum, which had a constantly rotating acts schedule, which included obese people, "living skeletons" (men who appear emaciated), little people , giants , and other people deemed to be freaks. The museum drew in about 400,000 visitors
18966-494: The exotic mode as animal-people, such as "The Snake-Man", and "The Seal Man". There were four ways freak shows were produced and marketed. The first was the oral spiel or lecture. This featured a showman or professor who managed the presentation of the people or "freaks". The second was a printed advertisement, usually using long pamphlets and broadside or newspaper advertisement of the freak show. The third step included costuming, choreography , performance, and space used to display
19140-541: The exploitation for profit was seen as an accepted part of US-American culture. The attractiveness of freak shows led to the spread of the shows that were commonly seen at amusement parks , circuses , dime museums and vaudeville . The amusement park industry flourished in the United States by the expanding middle class who benefited from short work weeks and a larger income. There was also a shift in US-American culture that influenced people to see leisure activities as
19314-481: The expression of deleterious recessive mutations . The beneficial effect of genetic complementation, derived from outcrossing (cross-fertilization) is also referred to as hybrid vigor or heterosis. Charles Darwin in his 1878 book The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom at the start of chapter XII noted “The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from
19488-751: The floor rather than a tear in their eye". Freak shows are a common subject in Southern Gothic literature, including stories such as Flannery O'Connor 's Temple Of The Holy Ghost , Eudora Welty 's Petrified Man and Keela the Outcast Indian Maiden , Truman Capote 's Tree of Night , and Carson McCullers 's The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter . The musical Side Show centers around Daisy and Violet Hilton and their lives as conjoined twins on exhibition. American Horror Story: Freak Show also focuses on freak shows. Some of its characters are played by disabled people, rather than all of
19662-455: The form of glucose is the main nutrient used by animal and plant cells in respiration. Cellular respiration involving oxygen is called aerobic respiration, which has four stages: glycolysis , citric acid cycle (or Krebs cycle), electron transport chain , and oxidative phosphorylation . Glycolysis is a metabolic process that occurs in the cytoplasm whereby glucose is converted into two pyruvates , with two net molecules of ATP being produced at
19836-622: The giantess Anna Swan and Commodore Nutt , a new Tom Thumb, with whom Barnum visited President Abraham Lincoln at the White House . During the Civil War , Barnum's museum drew large audiences seeking diversion from the conflict. Barnum's most popular and highest grossing act was the Tattooed Man, George Costentenus . He claimed to be a Greek-Albanian prince raised in a Turkish harem . He had 338 tattoos covering his body. Each one
20010-557: The healthcare sector. This has been attributed to the commodification of healthcare and the role of parties other than doctors such as insurance companies, the pharmaceutical industry, and the government, referred to collectively as countervailing powers. The doctor remains an authority figure who prescribes pharmaceuticals to patients . However, in some countries, such as the US, ubiquitous direct-to-consumer advertising encourages patients to ask for particular drugs by name, thereby creating
20184-426: The hormone insulin ) and G protein-coupled receptors . Activation of G protein-coupled receptors can initiate second messenger cascades. The process by which a chemical or physical signal is transmitted through a cell as a series of molecular events is called signal transduction . The cell cycle is a series of events that take place in a cell that cause it to divide into two daughter cells. These events include
20358-611: The human oddity as the king of museum entertainment. There were four types of human abnormalities on display in dime museums: natural freaks, those born with physical or mental abnormalities, such as dwarfs and "pinheads"; self-made freaks who cultivated freakdom, for example tattooed people; novelty artists who were considered freaks for their "freakish" performances, such as snake charmers , mesmerists, hypnotists , and fire-eaters; non-Western freaks who were promoted as exotic curiosities, for example savages and cannibals , usually promoted as being from Africa. Most dime museums had no seats in
20532-414: The initial step of photosynthesis whereby light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll pigments attached to proteins in the thylakoid membranes . The absorbed light energy is used to remove electrons from a donor (water) to a primary electron acceptor, a quinone designated as Q. In the second stage, electrons move from the quinone primary electron acceptor through a series of electron carriers until they reach
20706-406: The last eukaryotic common ancestor. Prokaryotes (i.e., archaea and bacteria) can also undergo cell division (or binary fission ). Unlike the processes of mitosis and meiosis in eukaryotes, binary fission in prokaryotes takes place without the formation of a spindle apparatus on the cell. Before binary fission, DNA in the bacterium is tightly coiled. After it has uncoiled and duplicated, it
20880-405: The ligand diffuses to nearby cells and affects them. For example, brain cells called neurons release ligands called neurotransmitters that diffuse across a synaptic cleft to bind with a receptor on an adjacent cell such as another neuron or muscle cell . In juxtacrine signaling, there is direct contact between the signaling and responding cells. Finally, hormones are ligands that travel through
21054-609: The market for medications. The authors noted: Inappropriate medicalisation carries the dangers of unnecessary labelling, poor treatment decisions, iatrogenic illness, and economic waste, as well as the opportunity costs that result when resources are diverted away from treating or preventing more serious disease. At a deeper level it may help to feed unhealthy obsessions with health, obscure or mystify sociological or political explanations for health problems, and focus undue attention on pharmacological, individualised, or privatised solutions. Public health campaigns have been criticized as
21228-401: The medicalization of deviance by identifying three major paradigms that have reigned over deviance designations in different historical periods: deviance as sin; deviance as crime; and deviance as sickness. According to Thomas Szasz , "the therapeutic state swallows up everything human on the seemingly rational ground that nothing falls outside the province of health and medicine, just as
21402-444: The membrane serving as membrane transporters , and peripheral proteins that loosely attach to the outer side of the cell membrane, acting as enzymes shaping the cell. Cell membranes are involved in various cellular processes such as cell adhesion , storing electrical energy , and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures such as a cell wall , glycocalyx , and cytoskeleton . Within
21576-403: The mitotic phase of an animal cell cycle—the division of the mother cell into two genetically identical daughter cells. The cell cycle is a vital process by which a single-celled fertilized egg develops into a mature organism, as well as the process by which hair, skin, blood cells , and some internal organs are renewed. After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of
21750-437: The most abundant molecule in every organism. Water is important to life because it is an effective solvent , capable of dissolving solutes such as sodium and chloride ions or other small molecules to form an aqueous solution . Once dissolved in water, these solutes are more likely to come in contact with one another and therefore take part in chemical reactions that sustain life. In terms of its molecular structure , water
21924-467: The most common criticisms being that the biological reductionism and other tenets of medicalisation, individualism and naturalism, generally fail to take into account sociocultural factors contributing to human sexuality . The HIV/AIDS pandemic allegedly caused from the 1980s a "profound re-medicalization of sexuality ". The diagnosis of premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) has caused some controversy when fluoxetine (also known as Prozac)
22098-489: The museum, including an albino family, The Living Aztecs, three dwarfs, a Black mother with two albino children, The Swiss Bearded Lady , The Highland Fat Boys, and What Is It? (Henry Johnson, an intellectually disabled Black man). Barnum introduced the "man-monkey" William Henry Johnson , a microcephalic Black dwarf who spoke a mysterious language created by Barnum and was known as Zip the Pinhead . In 1862, he discovered
22272-403: The nature of their research questions and the tools that they use. Like other scientists, biologists use the scientific method to make observations , pose questions, generate hypotheses , perform experiments, and form conclusions about the world around them. Life on Earth, which emerged more than 3.7 billion years ago, is immensely diverse. Biologists have sought to study and classify
22446-441: The observations given in this volume, is that generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented.” Genetic variation , often produced as a byproduct of sexual reproduction, may provide long-term advantages to those sexual lineages that engage in outcrossing . Genetics is the scientific study of inheritance. Mendelian inheritance , specifically,
22620-885: The one hand, or the over-rapid and unregulated adoption of biomedical medicine in non-western societies on the other. The challenge is to determine what medical knowledge is present, and how it is being used to medicalize behaviors and symptoms. Many aspects of human sexuality have been medicalized and pathologised by psychiatry, psychology and the pharmaceutical industry . This includes masturbation, homosexuality, erectile dysfunction and female sexual dysfunction. Medicalization has also been used to justify sexualisation of transgender people, intersex people and those diagnosed with HIV/AIDS . The medicalization of sexuality has resulted in increased social control , disease mongering , surveillance, and increased funding in some research areas of sexology and human physiology. The practice of medicalizing sexuality has been widely criticized, with one of
22794-517: The only class of macromolecules that are not made up of polymers. They include steroids , phospholipids , and fats, largely nonpolar and hydrophobic (water-repelling) substances. Proteins are the most diverse of the macromolecules. They include enzymes , transport proteins , large signaling molecules, antibodies , and structural proteins . The basic unit (or monomer) of a protein is an amino acid . Twenty amino acids are used in proteins. Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides . Their function
22968-404: The organism. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid . This type of fermentation is called lactic acid fermentation . In strenuous exercise, when energy demands exceed energy supply, the respiratory chain cannot process all of the hydrogen atoms joined by NADH. During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate. Lactate formation
23142-571: The performers fairly handsome sums of money. Some of the acts made the equivalent of what some sports stars make today. Barnum's English counterpart was Tom Norman , a renowned Victorian showman , whose traveling exhibitions featured Eliza Jenkins, the "Skeleton Woman", a "Balloon Headed Baby" and a woman who bit off the heads of live rats —the "most gruesome" act Norman claimed to have seen. Other acts included fleas, fat ladies, giants, dwarfs and retired white seamen, painted black and speaking in an invented language, billed "savage Zulus ". He displayed
23316-415: The performers' schedules, working them long hours just to make a profit. This was particularly hard for top performers, since more frequent shows sold more tickets. Many entertainers were abused by small-time museum operators, kept to grueling schedules, and given only a small percentage of their total earnings. Individual exhibits were hired for about one to six weeks by dime museums. The average performer had
23490-483: The pharmaceutical company. The role of patients in this economy has also changed. Once regarded as passive victims of medicalization, patients can now occupy active positions as advocates , consumers , or even agents of change. In response to theory based on medicalisation being insufficient to explain social processes, some scholars have developed a concept of biomedicalization which argues that technical and scientific interventions are transforming medicine. One aspect
23664-428: The possibility of common descent . Serious evolutionary thinking originated with the works of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck , who presented a coherent theory of evolution. The British naturalist Charles Darwin , combining the biogeographical approach of Humboldt , the uniformitarian geology of Lyell , Malthus's writings on population growth, and his own morphological expertise and extensive natural observations, forged
23838-500: The potential reach of medicalization as a form of social control, especially in terms of "psychotechnology" (Chorover,1973). In the 1975 book Limits to medicine: Medical nemesis (1975), Ivan Illich put forth one of the earliest uses of the term "medicalization". Illich, a philosopher, argued that the medical profession harms people through iatrogenesis , a process in which illness and social problems increase due to medical intervention. Illich saw iatrogenesis occurring on three levels:
24012-405: The prevailing biomedical ideology , resulting in a disregard for overarching social causes such as unequal distribution of power and resources. A series of publications by Mens Sana Monographs have focused on medicine as a corporate capitalist enterprise. Scholars argue that in the late 20th century transformation within the health sector in the US altered the relationship between people in
24186-414: The proceedings. Freak show culture normalized a specific way of thinking about gender, race, sexual aberrance, ethnicity, and disability. During the first decade of the 20th century, the popularity of the freak show was starting to dwindle. In their prime, freak shows had been the main attraction of the midway, but by 1940 they were starting to lose their audience, with credible people turning their backs on
24360-907: The process of evolution from their common ancestor. Biologists regard the ubiquity of the genetic code as evidence of universal common descent for all bacteria , archaea , and eukaryotes . Microbial mats of coexisting bacteria and archaea were the dominant form of life in the early Archean eon and many of the major steps in early evolution are thought to have taken place in this environment. The earliest evidence of eukaryotes dates from 1.85 billion years ago, and while they may have been present earlier, their diversification accelerated when they started using oxygen in their metabolism . Later, around 1.7 billion years ago, multicellular organisms began to appear, with differentiated cells performing specialised functions. Algae-like multicellular land plants are dated back to about 1 billion years ago, although evidence suggests that microorganisms formed
24534-539: The process such as transcription , RNA splicing , translation , and post-translational modification of a protein. Gene expression can be influenced by positive or negative regulation, depending on which of the two types of regulatory proteins called transcription factors bind to the DNA sequence close to or at a promoter. A cluster of genes that share the same promoter is called an operon , found mainly in prokaryotes and some lower eukaryotes (e.g., Caenorhabditis elegans ). In positive regulation of gene expression,
24708-517: The promoter, gene expression can also be regulated by epigenetic changes to chromatin , which is a complex of DNA and protein found in eukaryotic cells. Development is the process by which a multicellular organism (plant or animal) goes through a series of changes, starting from a single cell, and taking on various forms that are characteristic of its life cycle. There are four key processes that underlie development: Determination , differentiation , morphogenesis , and growth. Determination sets
24882-406: The proton motive force drives the enzyme ATP synthase to synthesize more ATPs by phosphorylating ADPs . The transfer of electrons terminates with molecular oxygen being the final electron acceptor . If oxygen were not present, pyruvate would not be metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation . The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion but remains in
25056-524: The public's amusement. During 1844–45, Barnum toured with Tom Thumb in Europe and met Queen Victoria , who was amused and saddened by the little man, and the event was a publicity coup. Barnum paid Stratton handsomely – about $ 150.00 a week. When Stratton retired, he lived in the most esteemed neighborhood of New York, owned a yacht, and dressed in the nicest clothing he could buy. In 1860, The American Museum had listed and archived thirteen human curiosities in
25230-545: The road from the London Hospital . Because of its proximity to the hospital, the shop received medical students and doctors as visitors. One of these was a young surgeon named Frederick Treves , who arranged to have Merrick brought to the hospital to be examined. The exhibition of the Elephant Man was reasonably successful, particularly with the added income from a printed pamphlet about Merrick's life and condition. At this time, however, public opinion about freak shows
25404-449: The same time. Each pyruvate is then oxidized into acetyl-CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex , which also generates NADH and carbon dioxide. Acetyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle, which takes places inside the mitochondrial matrix. At the end of the cycle, the total yield from 1 glucose (or 2 pyruvates) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH 2 , and 2 ATP molecules. Finally, the next stage is oxidative phosphorylation, which in eukaryotes, occurs in
25578-680: The second and third stages, respectively, provide the energy and electrons to drive the synthesis of glucose by fixing atmospheric carbon dioxide into existing organic carbon compounds, such as ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) in a sequence of light-independent (or dark) reactions called the Calvin cycle . Cell signaling (or communication) is the ability of cells to receive, process, and transmit signals with its environment and with itself. Signals can be non-chemical such as light, electrical impulses , and heat, or chemical signals (or ligands ) that interact with receptors , which can be found embedded in
25752-541: The show, designed to emphasize the things that were considered abnormal about each performer. The final stage was a collectable drawing or photograph that portrayed the group of freaks on stage for viewers to take home. The collectable printed souvenirs were accompanied by recordings of the showman's pitch, the lecturer's yarn, and the professor's exaggerated accounts of what was witnessed at the show. Exhibits were authenticated by doctors who used medical terms that many could not comprehend but which added an air of authenticity to
25926-425: The show. In the 19th century, science supported and legitimized the growth of freak shows, but by the 20th century, the medicalization of human abnormalities contributed to the end of the exhibits' mystery and appeal. P. T. Barnum was considered the father of modern-day advertising, and one of the most famous showmen and managers of the freak show industry. In the United States he was a major figure in popularizing
26100-553: The skin. Their morphological, metabolic, and geographical diversity permits them to play multiple ecological roles: carbon fixation; nitrogen cycling; organic compound turnover; and maintaining microbial symbiotic and syntrophic communities, for example. Eukaryotes are hypothesized to have split from archaea, which was followed by their endosymbioses with bacteria (or symbiogenesis ) that gave rise to mitochondria and chloroplasts, both of which are now part of modern-day eukaryotic cells. The major lineages of eukaryotes diversified in
26274-458: The societal implications of brand-name drugs generally remain open to these drugs' curative effects – a far cry from earlier calls for a revolution against the biomedical establishment. The emphasis in many quarters has come to be on "overmedicalization" rather than "medicalization" in itself. Others, however, argue that in practice the process of medicalization tends to strip subjects of their social context, so they come to be understood in terms of
26448-545: The space once held by doctors as the supposed catalysts of medicalization. Titles such as "The making of a disease" or "Sex, drugs, and marketing" critique the pharmaceutical industry for shunting everyday problems into the domain of professional biomedicine . At the same time, others reject as implausible any suggestion that society rejects drugs or drug companies and highlight that the same drugs that are allegedly used to treat deviances from societal norms also help many people live their lives. Even scholars who critique
26622-479: The stroma. This is analogous to the proton-motive force generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane in aerobic respiration. During the third stage of photosynthesis, the movement of protons down their concentration gradients from the thylakoid lumen to the stroma through the ATP synthase is coupled to the synthesis of ATP by that same ATP synthase. The NADPH and ATPs generated by the light-dependent reactions in
26796-417: The subjects are usually portrayed as heroic and attention is given to their family and friends and the way they help them overcome their disabilities. In The Guardian , Chris Shaw, however, comments that "one man's freak show is another man's portrayal of heroic triumph over medical adversity" and carries on with "call me prejudiced but I suspect your typical twentysomething watched this show with their jaw on
26970-510: The theological state had swallowed up everything human on the perfectly rational ground that nothing falls outside the province of God and religion". A 2002 editorial in the British Medical Journal warned of inappropriate medicalization leading to disease mongering, where the boundaries of the definition of illnesses are expanded to include personal problems as medical problems or risks of diseases are emphasized to broaden
27144-471: The third tenet, and by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets which consolidated into cell theory . Meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians. Carl Linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735, and in the 1750s introduced scientific names for all his species. Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon , treated species as artificial categories and living forms as malleable—even suggesting
27318-439: The total number of chromosomes is maintained. In general, mitosis (division of the nucleus) is preceded by the S stage of interphase (during which the DNA is replicated) and is often followed by telophase and cytokinesis ; which divides the cytoplasm , organelles and cell membrane of one cell into two new cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. The different stages of mitosis all together define
27492-581: The underdeveloped body of his brother dangled from his chest. When Lazarus was not exhibiting himself, he covered his brother with his cloak to avoid unnecessary attention. As well as exhibitions, freak shows were popular in the taverns and fairgrounds, where the freaks were often combined with talent displays. For example, in the 18th century, Matthias Buchinger , born without arms or lower legs, entertained crowds with astonishing displays of magic and musical ability, both in England and later, Ireland . It
27666-431: The underlying genotype of an organism with a dominant phenotype. A Punnett square can be used to predict the results of a test cross. The chromosome theory of inheritance , which states that genes are found on chromosomes, was supported by Thomas Morgans 's experiments with fruit flies , which established the sex linkage between eye color and sex in these insects. A gene is a unit of heredity that corresponds to
27840-463: The underlying causes of disease, such as social inequality and poverty, and instead presented health as an individual issue. Others examined the power and prestige of the medical profession, including the use of terminology to mystify and of professional rules to exclude or subordinate others. Tiago Correia (2017) offers an alternative perspective on medicalization. He argues that medicalization needs to be detached from biomedicine to overcome much of
28014-656: The various forms of life, from prokaryotic organisms such as archaea and bacteria to eukaryotic organisms such as protists , fungi, plants, and animals. These various organisms contribute to the biodiversity of an ecosystem , where they play specialized roles in the cycling of nutrients and energy through their biophysical environment . The earliest of roots of science, which included medicine, can be traced to ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia in around 3000 to 1200 BCE . Their contributions shaped ancient Greek natural philosophy . Ancient Greek philosophers such as Aristotle (384–322 BCE) contributed extensively to
28188-431: Was a shift in popularity of the dime museum and it began its downward turn. Audiences could now choose from a wide variety of popular entertainments. Circuses, street fairs, world's fairs, carnivals , and urban amusement parks, all of which exhibited freaks, began to take business away from the dime museums. In the circus world, freak shows, also called sideshows , were an essential part of the circus. The largest sideshow
28362-508: Was attached to the most prestigious circus, Ringling Brothers, Barnum and Bailey , known as the "big one". It was a symbol of the peak of the practice and its acceptance in American society. In the early 1800s, single human oddities started joining traveling circuses , but these shows were not organized into anything like typical sideshows until the midcentury. During the 1870s it was common to see freak shows at most circuses, eventually making
28536-582: Was being repackaged as a PMDD therapy under the trade named Sarafem . The psychologist Peggy Kleinplatz has criticized the diagnosis as the medicalization of normal human behavior. Other medicalized aspects of women's health include infertility , breastfeeding , the childbirth process, and postpartum depression . Although it has received less attention, it is claimed that masculinity has also faced medicalization, being deemed damaging to health and requiring regulation or enhancement through drugs, technologies or therapy. Specifically, erectile dysfunction
28710-409: Was early in his career. He hired a blind and paralyzed former slave for $ 1,000. He claimed this woman was 160 years old, but she was actually only 80. This lie helped Barnum make a weekly profit of nearly $ 1,000. This hoax was one of the first, but one of the more convincing. Barnum retired in 1865 when his museum burnt to the ground. Though Barnum was and still is criticized for exploitation, he paid
28884-511: Was in the 19th century, both in the United States and Europe , where freak shows finally reached maturity as successful commercially run enterprises. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, freak shows were at their height of popularity; the period 1840s through to the 1940s saw the organized for-profit exhibition of people with physical, mental , or behavioral rarities. Although not all abnormalities were real, some being alleged,
29058-434: Was launched in 1990 to map the human genome . All organisms are made up of chemical elements ; oxygen , carbon , hydrogen , and nitrogen account for most (96%) of the mass of all organisms, with calcium , phosphorus , sulfur , sodium , chlorine , and magnesium constituting essentially all the remainder. Different elements can combine to form compounds such as water, which is fundamental to life. Biochemistry
29232-400: Was once considered a natural part of the aging process in men, but has since been medicalized as a problem, late-onset hypogonadism . According to Mike Fitzpatrick, resistance to medicalization was a common theme of the gay liberation , anti-psychiatry , and feminist movements of the 1970s, but now there is "virtually no resistance to the advance of government intrusion in lifestyle if it
29406-479: Was ornate and told a story. His story was that he was on a military expedition but was captured by native people, who gave him the choice of either being chopped up into little pieces or receive full body tattoos. This process supposedly took three months and Costentenus was the only hostage who survived. He produced a 23-page book, which detailed every aspect of his experience and drew a large crowd. When Costentenus partnered with Barnum, he began to earn more than $ 1,000
29580-410: Was starting to change and the display of human novelties was beginning to be viewed as distasteful. After only a few weeks with Norman, the Elephant Man exhibition was shut down by the police, and Norman and Merrick parted ways. Treves later arranged for Merrick to live at the London Hospital until his death in 1890. In Treves' 1923 memoir, The Elephant Man and Other Reminiscences made Norman infamous as
29754-401: Was styled after the traditional distorted spiel of carnival barkers, filled with classical and biblical suggestions. Dime museum freak shows also provided audiences with medical testimonials provided by "doctors", psychologists and other behavioral "experts" who were there to help the audience understand a particular problem and to validate a show's subject. At the end of the 19th century, there
29928-487: Was their only opportunity to make a living. In the 19th century performing in an organized freak show was perceived as a "viable" way to earn a living, as opposed to begging. Many freak show performers were lucky and gifted enough to earn a livelihood and have a good life through exhibitions, some becoming celebrities, commanding high salaries and earning far more than acrobats, novelty performers, and actors. The salaries of dime museum freaks usually varied from 25 to 500 dollars
30102-403: Was used to pacify children in ancient Egypt before 2000 BC. These sociologists did not believe medicalization to be a new phenomenon, arguing that medical authorities had always been concerned with social behavior and traditionally functioned as agents of social control (Foucault, 1965; Szasz,1970; Rosen). However, these authors took the view that increasingly sophisticated technology had extended
30276-467: Was viewed. A different way to display a freak show was in a dime museum . In a dime museum, freak show performers were exhibited as an educational display of people with different disabilities. For a cheap admission viewers were awed with its dioramas , panoramas , georamas, cosmoramas , paintings, relics, freaks, stuffed animals, menageries, waxworks, and theatrical performances. No other type of entertainment appealed to such diverse audiences before. In
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