The Freiburg Circles were a school of economic thought founded in the 1930s in Germany .
88-623: The Circles subsumed three initially religiously motivated working groups whose memberships overlapped, namely the Freiburger Konzil , the Bonhoeffer Kreis , and the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Erwin von Beckerath , that arguably provided the platform for the renaissance of liberal political and economic thinking in post-war Germany. In particular the latter working group, presided over by Erwin von Beckerath, as
176-462: A drumhead court-martial without witnesses, without any evidence against him, with no records of the proceedings or a defense. He was executed in Flossenbürg concentration camp by hanging at dawn on 9 April 1945. Bonhoeffer was stripped of his clothing and led naked into the execution yard where he was hanged with five others: Canaris; General Hans Oster , Canaris's deputy; General Karl Sack ,
264-456: A corporal named Knobloch, even offered to help him escape from the prison and "disappear" with him, and plans were made for that end; eventually Bonhoeffer declined it, fearing Nazi retribution against his family, especially his brother Klaus and brother-in-law Dohnányi, who was also imprisoned. On 4 April 1945, the diaries of Admiral Wilhelm Canaris , head of the Abwehr, were discovered, and in
352-574: A dedicated man of personal faith, resolved to literally carry out the teachings of Christ, revealed in the Gospels. On 15 November 1931, at age 25, he was ordained at Old-Prussian United St. Matthew [ de ] in Berlin-Tiergarten . Bonhoeffer's promising academic and ecclesiastical career was dramatically knocked off course by the Nazi ascent to power on 30 January 1933. He was
440-426: A determined opponent of the regime from its first days. Two days after Hitler was installed as chancellor , Bonhoeffer delivered a radio address in which he attacked Hitler and warned Germany against slipping into an idolatrous cult of the führer (leader), who could very well turn out to be verführer (misleader, seducer). His broadcast was abruptly cut off, though it is unclear whether the newly elected Nazi regime
528-415: A different creed from his new subjects usually would not complicate his takeover by imposing conversions. These enlarged realms spawned diaspora congregations, as immigrants settled in areas where the prevailing creeds differed from their own. This juxtaposition of beliefs in turn brought about more frequent personal changes in denomination, often in the form of marital conversions . Still, regional mobility
616-661: A grave distortion, that Bonhoeffer did not mean to say that God no longer had anything to do with humanity and had become a mere cultural artifact. More recent Bonhoeffer interpretations are more cautious in this regard, respecting the parameters of the neo-orthodox school to which he belonged. Bonhoeffer also influenced the Comboni missionary Father Ezechiele Ramin . English translations of Bonhoeffer's works, most of which were originally written in German, are available. Many of his lectures and books were translated into English over
704-585: A lifelong love for the African-American church. He heard Adam Clayton Powell Sr. preach the "Gospel of Social Justice" and became sensitive to the social injustices experienced by racial and ethnic minorities in the U.S. as well as the ineptitude of churches to bring about integration. Through oppressed Negro churches, he was captivated by the sermons, and he formed the belief that God's commandments were carried out. The originally nationalist Bonhoeffer later changed his views after seeing All Quiet on
792-464: A man his life, and it is grace because it gives a man the only true life. It is costly because it condemns sin, and grace because it justifies the sinner. Above all, it is costly because it cost God the life of his Son [...] Continuing with this idea, Bonhoeffer discusses the idea of simple obedience. He admonishes Christians who come too quickly to the conclusion that God could not possibly have meant his commands literally. Bonhoeffer cites
880-464: A man takes guilt upon himself in responsibility, he imputes his guilt to himself and no one else. He answers for it... Before other men he is justified by dire necessity; before himself he is acquitted by his conscience, but before God he hopes only for grace." (In a 1932 sermon, Bonhoeffer said, "The blood of martyrs might once again be demanded, but this blood, if we really have the courage and loyalty to shed it, will not be innocent, shining like that of
968-426: A military jurist; businessman Theodor Strünck ; and German resistance fighter Ludwig Gehre . Eberhard Bethge, a student and close friend of Bonhoeffer, writes of a man who saw the execution: I saw Pastor Bonhoeffer... kneeling on the floor praying fervently to God. I was most deeply moved by the way this lovable man prayed, so devout and so certain that God heard his prayer. At the place of execution, he again said
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#17327723099271056-503: A number of the republican free imperial cities such as Augsburg , the Free City of Frankfurt , and Regensburg , made their territories de facto bi-denominational, but the two denominations did not usually have equal legal status. The Peace of Augsburg protected Catholicism and Lutheranism , but not Calvinism . Thus, in 1613, when John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg converted from Lutheranism to Calvinism, he could not exercise
1144-709: A pastor of two German-speaking Protestant churches in London: the German Lutheran Church in Dacres Road, Sydenham , and the German Reformed Church of St Paul's, Goulston Street, Whitechapel . He explained to Barth that he had found little support for his views on devotion to literally following the words of Jesus—even among friends—and that "it was about time to go for a while into the desert." Barth regarded this as running away from
1232-542: A private continuation of the former Arbeitsgemeinschaft Volkswirtschaftslehre (Working Committee of Political Economy), which was established within the Akademie für Deutsches Recht (Academy for German Law) in 1940, but suspended on 1 March 1943, was concerned with the transformation of a wartime economy into a peacetime one and finding an order to govern it. At the first meeting in Freiburg im Breisgau on 21 March 1943,
1320-504: A radical proposal. In August 1933, Bonhoeffer and Hermann Sasse were deputized by opposition church leaders to draft the "Bethel Confession," as a statement of faith in opposition to the Deutsche Christen movement. Notable for affirming God's fidelity to Jews as His chosen people, the "Bethel Confession" was eventually so watered down to make it more palatable that ultimately Bonhoeffer refused to sign it. In September 1933,
1408-401: A rage upon reading them, Hitler ordered that the other Abwehr members be executed. Bonhoeffer was led away just as he concluded his final Sunday service and asked an English prisoner, Payne Best , to remember him to Bell if Best should ever reach his home: "This is the end—but for me it is the beginning of Life!" Bonhoeffer was sentenced to death on 8 April 1945 by SS judge Otto Thorbeck at
1496-541: A real battle. He sharply rebuked Bonhoeffer, saying, "I can only reply to all the reasons and excuses which you put forward: 'And what will now happen to the people of the German Church?'" Barth accused Bonhoeffer of abandoning his post and wasting his "splendid theological armory" while "the house of your church is on fire", and chided him to return to Berlin "by the next ship". Bonhoeffer, however, did not go to England simply to avoid trouble at home; he hoped to put
1584-399: A short prayer and then climbed the few steps to the gallows, brave and composed. His death ensued after a few seconds. In the almost fifty years that I worked as a doctor, I have hardly ever seen a man die so entirely submissive to the will of God. This is the historical account of Bonhoeffer's death, which over the decades went unchallenged; however, some recent biographers see problems with
1672-419: Is grace without discipleship, grace without the cross, grace without Jesus Christ, living and incarnate. [...] Costly grace is the gospel which must be sought again and again, the gift which must be asked for, the door at which a man must knock . Such grace is costly because it calls us to follow, and it is grace because it calls us to follow Jesus Christ . It is costly because it costs
1760-638: Is known to a large audience as a worship song. The song is often sung at funerals. In 2021 it was voted the most popular hymn in Germany. The best-known melody was written by Siegfried Fietz in 1970. Bonhoeffer's theology is subject to diverse and contradictory interpretations, sometimes necessarily based on speculation for example, while his Christocentric approach appeals to conservative, confession-minded Protestants, other commentators note his commitment to justice, and ideas about "religionless Christianity". He also argued that Christians should not retreat from
1848-473: Is obedient, and only he who is obedient believes". Years after Bonhoeffer's death, some Protestant thinkers such as Richard L. Rubenstein developed his critique into a thoroughgoing attack against traditional Christianity in the " Death of God " movement, which briefly attracted the attention of the mainstream culture in the mid-1960s. However, some critics—such as Jacques Ellul —have charged that those radical interpretations of Bonhoeffer's insights amount to
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#17327723099271936-689: Is sometimes identified as a martyr and other times not. His commemoration in the liturgical calendar of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America uses the liturgical color of white, which is typically used for non-martyred saints. In 2008, the General Conference of the United Methodist Church , which does not enumerate saints, officially recognized Bonhoeffer as a "modern-day martyr". He
2024-593: The Abwehr , the German military intelligence service. Bonhoeffer also learned from Dohnányi that war was imminent. He was particularly troubled by the prospect of being conscripted. As a committed Christian pacifist opposed to the Nazi regime, he could never swear an oath to Hitler and would never commit any violence or fight in Hitler's army, though refusal to do so was potentially a capital offense. He worried also about consequences his refusing military service could have for
2112-476: The Confessing Church . His writings on Christianity's role in the secular world have become widely influential; his 1937 book The Cost of Discipleship is described as a modern classic. Apart from his theological writings, Bonhoeffer was known for his staunch resistance to the Nazi dictatorship, including vocal opposition to Adolf Hitler 's euthanasia program and genocidal persecution of Jews . He
2200-614: The Peace of Augsburg in 1555, the principle that the religion of the ruler dictated the religion of the ruled ( cuius regio, eius religio ) was observed throughout the Holy Roman Empire . Section 24 of the Peace of Augsburg ( ius emigrandi ) guaranteed members of denominations other than the ruler's the freedom of emigration with all their possessions. Political stalemates among the government members of different denominations within
2288-674: The Allies for a post-Hitler government. In May 1942, he met Anglican Bishop George Bell of Chichester , a member of the House of Lords and an ally of the Confessing Church, contacted by Bonhoeffer's exiled brother-in-law Leibholz; through him feelers were sent to British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden . However, the British government ignored these, as it had all other approaches from the German resistance, considering all Germans to be
2376-1018: The Bonhoeffer corpus individually published in English Confessing Church Central Europe Germany Italy Spain ( Spanish Civil War ) Albania Austria Baltic states Belgium Bulgaria Burma Czechia Denmark France Germany Greece Italy Japan Jewish Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Romania Slovakia Spain Soviet Union Yugoslavia Germany Italy Netherlands Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom United States The Confessing Church (German: Bekennende Kirche , pronounced [bəˈkɛnəndə ˈkɪʁçə] )
2464-590: The Confessing Church, as it was a move that would be frowned upon by most nationalist Christians and their churches at the time. It was at this juncture that Bonhoeffer left for the United States in June 1939 at the invitation of Union Theological Seminary in New York. After much inner turmoil, he soon regretted his decision and returned after only two weeks despite strong pressures from his friends to stay in
2552-526: The Confessing Church, insisted that Christ, not the führer , is the head of the Church. The adoption of the declaration has often been viewed as a triumph, although only about 20% of German pastors supported the Confessing Church. When Bonhoeffer was offered a parish post in eastern Berlin in the autumn of 1933, he refused it in protest at the Nationalist policy, and he accepted a two-year appointment as
2640-521: The Gestapo banned Bonhoeffer from Berlin. In the summer of 1939, the seminary was able to move to Sigurdshof, an outlying estate ( Vorwerk ) of the von Kleist family in Wendisch Tychow . In March 1940, the Gestapo shut down the underground seminary there following the outbreak of World War II . Bonhoeffer's semi-monastic communal life and teaching at the underground Finkenwalde seminary formed
2728-485: The Lutheran churches of Bavaria , Hanover , and Württemberg . The anti-Nazi Christian opposition regarded these bodies as uncorrupted "intact churches", as opposed to the other so-called "destroyed churches". In opposition to Nazification , Bonhoeffer urged an interdict to stop offering all pastoral ceremonial services (baptisms, confirmations, weddings, funerals, etc.), but Karl Barth and others advised against such
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2816-470: The Philharmonic at age 11. Walter Bonhoeffer, the second born of the Bonhoeffer family, was killed in action during World War I when Bonhoeffer was 12 years old. At age 14, Bonhoeffer decided to pursue his education in theology despite the criticism of his older brothers Klaus (a lawyer) and Karl (a scientist). He took Hebrew as an elective in school and attended many evangelical meetings, moved by
2904-569: The USPD, he attempted to implement a number of plans, which included: After storms of protests from both Protestants and Catholics, Hoffmann was forced to resign and, by political means, the churches were able to prevent complete disestablishment. A compromise was reached — one which favored the Protestant church establishment. There would no longer be state churches, but the churches remained public corporations and retained their subsidies from
2992-443: The United States. He wrote to Reinhold Niebuhr : I have come to the conclusion that I made a mistake in coming to America this time. I must live through this difficult period in our national history along with the people of Germany. I will have no right to participate in the reconstruction of Christian life in Germany after the war if I do not share the trials of this time with my people ... Christians in Germany will have to face
3080-667: The University of Berlin. Deeply interested in ecumenism, he was appointed by the World Alliance for Promoting International Friendship through the Churches (a forerunner of the World Council of Churches ) as one of its three European youth secretaries. At this time he seems to have undergone a personal conversion, as he changed from being a theologian primarily attracted to the intellectual side of Christianity, to being
3168-515: The Western Front , which shows the horrors of war. Later in life he favored the views of pacifism because of love for all and a high value on each individual life. Bonhoeffer became involved with the ecumenical Christian movement, which eventually led him to resist Adolf Hitler and the Nazis . After returning to Germany in 1931, Bonhoeffer became a lecturer in systematic theology at
3256-460: The Word of God. Only then – after they strive to the best of their ability – should God's grace come into play. He contrasts cheap grace with costly grace, writing: Cheap grace is the grace we bestow on ourselves. Cheap grace is the preaching of forgiveness without requiring repentance, baptism without church discipline, Communion without confession, absolution without personal confession. Cheap grace
3344-483: The basis of his books, The Cost of Discipleship and Life Together . Bonhoeffer's sister, Sabine, along with her Jewish-classified husband Gerhard Leibholz and their two daughters, escaped to England by way of Switzerland in 1938. In February 1938, Bonhoeffer made an initial contact with members of the German resistance when his brother-in-law Hans von Dohnányi introduced him to a group seeking Hitler's overthrow at
3432-471: The camp along with hundreds of other recently executed or dead prisoners, or American troops may have placed his body in one of several mass graves in which they interred the unburied dead of the camp. Bonhoeffer is commemorated in the liturgical calendars of several Christian denominations on the anniversary of his death, 9 April. This includes many parts of the Anglican Communion , where he
3520-661: The churches effectively changed with the introduction of chairpersons elected by church synods instead of being appointed by the state. Accordingly, in this initial period of the Weimar Republic , in 1922, the Protestant Church in Germany formed the German Evangelical Church Confederation of 28 regional (or provincial) churches (German: Landeskirchen ), with their regional boundaries more or less delineated by those of
3608-465: The collapse of the Nazi regime. Bonhoeffer was born on 4 February 1906 in Breslau , Germany (now Poland), into a large family. Dietrich had a twin sister, Sabine Bonhoeffer Leibholz : he and Sabine were the sixth and seventh children out of eight. His father was Karl Bonhoeffer , a psychiatrist and neurologist, noted for his criticism of Sigmund Freud ; his mother Paula Bonhoeffer was a teacher and
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3696-491: The conceptual development of the Social Market Economy . According to the economists around Erwin von Beckerath, the economic and socio-political reconstruction of post-war Germany could be achieved only by the reinstatement of a market economy fostering individual freedom and entrepreneurship. However, the predominant thinking was that a certain form of planning was necessary for a transitional period following
3784-713: The ecumenical movement to work in the interest of the Confessing Church. He continued his involvement with the Confessing Church, running up a high telephone bill to maintain his contact with Martin Niemöller. In international gatherings, Bonhoeffer rallied people to oppose the Deutsche Christen movement and its attempt to amalgamate Nazi nationalism with Christianity. When Bishop Theodor Heckel [ de ] —the official in charge of German Lutheran Church foreign affairs—traveled to London to warn Bonhoeffer to abstain from any ecumenical activity not directly authorized by Berlin, Bonhoeffer refused to abstain. In 1935, Bonhoeffer
3872-524: The enemy. In addition, British war policy was to conduct area bombing of civilian cities, which Bell opposed , a view that had become unpopular in Britain. Dohnányi and Bonhoeffer were also involved in Abwehr operations to help German Jews escape to Switzerland. During this time, Bonhoeffer worked on his book Ethics and wrote letters to keep up the spirits of his former students. He intended Ethics as his magnum opus , but it remained unfinished when he
3960-433: The eponym of the consortium, Erwin von Beckerath, invited the economists Constantin von Dietze , Walter Eucken , Adolf Lampe , and Clemens Bauer from the University of Freiburg, Jens Jessen and Heinrich von Stackelberg from the University of Berlin, Günter Schmölders and Theodor Wessels from Cologne University, as well as Erich Preiser and the jurist Franz Böhm from the University of Jena. For further meetings,
4048-475: The example of the rich man who asks Jesus how he can enter the kingdom of heaven . He writes that people often simply assume that Jesus did not mean literally to leave everything and follow him and that instead it was a matter of faith or a command to be inwardly detached. Bonhoeffer writes that God says exactly what he means and that Christians need to follow simple obedience to him by following divine commands as they are written. He writes "only he who believes
4136-508: The federal states. This federal system allowed for a great deal of regional autonomy in the governance of German Protestantism, as it allowed for a national church parliament that served as a forum for discussion and that endeavored to resolve theological and organizational conflicts. Many Protestants voted for the Nazis in the elections of summer and autumn 1932 and March 1933 . This differed noticeably from Catholic populated areas, where
4224-487: The first witnesses for the faith. On our blood lies heavy with guilt, the guilt of the unprofitable servant who is cast into outer darkness." ) Under cover of the Abwehr, Bonhoeffer served as a courier for the German resistance movement to reveal its existence and intentions to the Western Allies in hope of garnering their support. Through his ecumenical contacts abroad, he hoped to secure possible peace terms with
4312-592: The former chief editor of the Industrie- und Handelszeitung , Hans Gestrich , received invitations; he unexpectedly died in November 1943. Additionally, the social policy specialist at University of Marburg, Gerhard Albrecht , and the editor of the business section of the Kölnische Zeitung , Fritz Hauenstein , joined the working group pursuing a new liberal and social economic order. In the context of
4400-400: The granddaughter of Protestant theologian Karl von Hase and painter Stanislaus von Kalckreuth . Bonhoeffer's family dynamic and his parents' values enabled him to receive a high level of education and encouraged his curiosity, which impacted his ability to lead others around him, specifically in the church setting. He learned how to play the piano at age 8 and composed the songs performed at
4488-672: The intent of attaining a Sloane Fellowship at New York City's Union Theological Seminary . Bonhoeffer was greatly unimpressed with American theology. He described the students as lacking interest in theology and would "laugh out loud" when learning a passage from Martin Luther 's "Sin and Forgiveness." During his time there, he met Frank Fisher, a black seminarian who introduced him to the Abyssinian Baptist Church in Harlem , where Bonhoeffer taught Sunday school and formed
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#17327723099274576-437: The job of reviving political prisoners after they had been hanged until they were almost dead, in order to prolong the agony of their dying." Another critic charges that Fischer-Hüllstrung's "subsequent statement about Bonhoeffer as kneeling in wordy prayer ... belongs to the realm of legend," although without evidence to the contrary. The disposition of Bonhoeffer's remains is not known. His body may have been cremated outside
4664-512: The many sufferings that resulted from war such as food insecurity and orphaned children. Bonhoeffer began his studies at Tübingen and eventually moved to the University of Berlin , where he submitted his successful dissertation: "Sanctorum Communio." At age 21, on 17 December 1927, he went on to complete his Doctor of Theology degree from Humboldt University of Berlin, graduating summa cum laude . In 1930, Bonhoeffer moved to America with
4752-532: The nationalist church synod at Wittenberg voluntarily passed a resolution to apply the Aryan paragraph within the church, meaning that pastors and church officials of Jewish descent were to be removed from their posts. Regarding this as an affront to the principle of baptism, Martin Niemöller founded the Pfarrernotbund (Pastors' Emergency League). In November, a rally of 20,000 Deutsche Christens demanded
4840-480: The old-Prussian Ecclesiastical Province of Pomerania . The von Blumenthal family hosted the underground seminary on its estate of Groß Schlönwitz . The pastors of Groß Schlönwitz and neighbouring villages supported the education of young men who voluntarily housed these seminarians (among whom was Eberhard Bethge , who later became his best friend and edited Bonhoeffer's Letters and Papers from Prison ) and employing them as vicars in their congregations. In 1938,
4928-463: The principle grew impracticable in the 17th and 18th centuries, which experienced continuous territorial changes arising from annexations and inheritances, and the religious conversion of rulers. For instance, Saxon Augustus II the Strong converted from Lutheranism to Catholicism in 1697, but did not exercise his cuius regio, eius religio privilege. A conqueror or successor to the throne who adhered to
5016-431: The principle of Cuius regio, eius religio ' ("whose realm, their religion"). This situation paved the way for bi- or multi-denominational monarchies, wherein a ruler adhering to a creed different from most of his subjects would permit conversions to his minority denomination and immigration of his fellow faithful. In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia extended the principle of cuius regio, eius religio to Calvinism. However,
5104-422: The proper functioning of market forces, was embodied by a so-called ‘ marktliche Wirtschaftsordnung ’ (Market Economic Order). Bonhoeffer Bible Translators Theologians Dietrich Bonhoeffer ( German: [ˈdiːtʁɪç ˈbɔnhøːfɐ] ; 4 February 1906 – 9 April 1945) was a German Lutheran pastor, neo-orthodox theologian and anti- Nazi dissident who was a key founding member of
5192-405: The regional churches lost their secular rulers. With revolutionary fervor in the air, the conservative church leaders had to contend with socialists ( Social Democrats (SPD) and Independent Social Democrats (USPD)), who mostly held to disestablishmentarianism . When Adolph Hoffmann , a strident secularist, was appointed Prussian Minister of Education and Public Worship in November 1918 by
5280-493: The rehabilitation of classical economics in the face of the Nazis’ plans for an autarkic economic system, but even more due to its submitting reports directly to the political leader of the anti- Hitler resistance, Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Erwin von Beckerath has predominantly been viewed as an opposition circle to National Socialism . The group’s advocacy of a neo-liberal economic policy also accounts for
5368-868: The removal of the Jewish Old Testament from the Bible, which was seen by many as heresy , further swelling the ranks of the Pastors Emergency League. Within weeks of its founding, more than a third of German pastors had joined the Emergency League. It was the forerunner of the Bekennende Kirche ( Confessing Church ), which aimed to preserve historical, Biblically based Christian beliefs and practices. The Barmen Declaration , drafted by Barth in May 1934 and adopted by
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#17327723099275456-405: The respective congregations within the then-existing state borders. In the case of Protestant ruling dynasties, each regional church affiliated with the regnal houses , and the crown provided financial and institutional support for its church. Church and State were, therefore, to a large extent combined on a regional basis. In the aftermath of World War I with its political and social turmoil,
5544-516: The results of votes cast in favor of the Nazis were lower than the national average, even after the Machtergreifung ("seizure of power") of Hitler. The [Protestant] churches did not reject National Socialism on principle. The idea of a strong authority and a close bond between throne and altar, of the kind that existed in the empire between 1871 and 1918, was in keeping with Protestant tradition. Many ... [Protestants] had reservations about
5632-415: The right of irreligionism in 1869, permitting the declaration of secession from all religious bodies. The Protestant Church in Germany was and is divided into geographic regions and along denominational affiliations (Calvinist, Lutheran, and United churches). In the course of the 18th and 19th centuries, the then-existing monarchies and republics established regional churches ( Landeskirchen ), comprising
5720-587: The selection of independent, non-Nazi officials who were dedicated to following Christ. Despite Bonhoeffer's efforts, in the July election an overwhelming number of key church positions went to the Deutsche Christen . The Deutsche Christen won a majority in the Old-Prussian general synod and all its provincial synods except Westphalia , and in synods of all other Protestant church bodies, except for
5808-404: The state governments for services they performed on behalf of the government (running hospitals, kindergartens etc.). In turn, on behalf of the churches, the state governments collected church fees from those taxpayers enlisted as parishioners and distributed these funds to the churches. These fees were, and still are, used to finance church activities and administration. The theological faculties in
5896-484: The story because of Bethge's source. The purported witness was a doctor at Flossenbürg concentration camp, Hermann Fischer-Hüllstrung, who may have wished to minimize the suffering of the condemned men to reduce his own culpability in their executions . J.L.F. Mogensen, a former prisoner at Flossenbürg, cited the length of time it took for the execution to be completed (almost six hours), plus departures from camp procedure that may not have been allowed to prisoners so late in
5984-425: The terrible alternative of either willing the defeat of their nation in order that a future Christian civilization may survive, or else willing the victory of their nation and thereby destroying our civilization and any true Christianity. I know which of these alternatives I must choose but I cannot make that choice from a place of security. Back in Germany, Bonhoeffer was further harassed by the Nazi authorities as he
6072-537: The universities continued to exist, as did religious instruction in the schools, however, allowing the parents to opt out for their children. The rights formerly held by the monarchs in the German Empire simply devolved to church councils instead, and the high-ranking church administrators — who had been civil servants in the Empire ;— simply became church officials instead. The governing structure of
6160-495: The war, as jarring inconsistencies. Considering that the sentences had been confirmed at the highest levels of Nazi government, by individuals with a pattern of torturing prisoners who dared to challenge the regime, Craig J. Slane posits that "the physical details of Bonhoeffer's death may have been much more difficult than we earlier had imagined." Other recent critics of the traditional account are more caustic. It also appears in some instances that "Fischer-Hüllstrung had been given
6248-596: The war; and so the Befehlswirtschaft ( Command Economy ) of the Third Reich and a free market economy were both excluded from consideration. Taking into account the conflicting claims of personal freedom and social orientation in times of pressing economic needs, the concept of mittelbare Wirtschaftssteuerung (Indirect Economic Control) was proposed. This supposed market-compatible government practice, i.e. any stimulation or interference should not eliminate
6336-564: The world but act within it. He believed that two elements were constitutive of faith: the implementation of justice and the acceptance of divine suffering. His book The Cost of Discipleship famously discusses the concept of cheap grace against costly grace. He contends that Christians have relied so much on Christ's forgiveness that they do not challenge themselves enough in actually following his word to their best ability, instead relying on God's grace to save them when they fall. Bonhoeffer says that Christians are instructed to strive to follow
6424-543: The wrong time to marry. A large age gap loomed between Bonhoeffer and Maria: he was 36 to her 18. Bonhoeffer had first met her when she was his confirmation student at age 11. As was considered proper at the time, the two had spent almost no time together alone prior to the engagement and did not see each other between becoming engaged and Bonhoeffer's 5 April arrest. Once he was in prison, however, Maria's status as his fiancée became invaluable, as it meant she could visit Bonhoeffer and correspond with him. While their relationship
6512-669: The years and are available from multiple publishers. These works are listed following the Fortress Press edition of Bonhoeffer's writings. All sixteen volumes of the English Bonhoeffer Works Edition of Bonhoeffer's Oeuvre had been published by October 2013. A volume of selected readings entitled The Dietrich Bonhoeffer Reader which presents a chronological view of Bonhoeffer's theological development became available by 1 November 2013. Fortress Press editions of Bonhoeffer's works Various works in
6600-496: Was a frequent guest. Later he fell in love with Kleist-Retzow's granddaughter, Maria von Wedemeyer , to whom he became engaged three months before his arrest in 1943. By August 1937, SS leader Heinrich Himmler had decreed the education and examination of Confessing Church ministry candidates illegal. In September 1937, the Gestapo closed the seminary at Finkenwalde, and by November 27 pastors and former students were arrested. It
6688-540: Was a movement within German Protestantism in Nazi Germany that arose in opposition to government-sponsored efforts to unify all of the Protestant churches into a single pro-Nazi German Evangelical Church . The following statistics (as of January 1933 unless otherwise stated) are an aid in understanding the context of the political and theological developments discussed in this article. After
6776-480: Was actively involved in the planning. In the face of Nazi atrocities against the Jews and other minorities, the full scale of which Bonhoeffer learned through the Abwehr, he concluded that "the ultimate question for a responsible man to ask is not how he is to extricate himself from this whole affair, but how the coming generation shall continue to survive and live for Truth." He did not justify his action but wrote, "When
6864-601: Was around this time that Bonhoeffer published his best-known book, The Cost of Discipleship , a study on the Sermon on the Mount in which he attacked "cheap grace" as a cover for ethical laxity against the virtues of "costly grace". Bonhoeffer spent the next two years secretly traveling from one eastern German village to another to conduct a "seminary on the run" supervising the continuing education and work of his students, most of whom were working illegally in small parishes within
6952-558: Was arrested in April 1943 by the Gestapo and imprisoned at Tegel Prison for 1½ years. Later, he was transferred to Flossenbürg concentration camp . Bonhoeffer was accused of being associated with the 20 July plot to assassinate Hitler and was tried along with other accused plotters, including former members of the Abwehr (the German Military Intelligence Office). He was hanged on 9 April 1945 during
7040-593: Was arrested in July 1937; and in August 1936, Bonhoeffer's authorization to teach at the University of Berlin was revoked after he was denounced as a "pacifist and enemy of the state" by Theodor Heckel. Bonhoeffer's efforts for the underground seminaries included securing necessary funds. He found a great benefactor in Ruth von Kleist-Retzow . In times of trouble, Bonhoeffer's former students and their wives would take refuge in von Kleist-Retzow's Pomeranian estate, and Bonhoeffer
7128-501: Was arrested. On 5 April 1943 Bonhoeffer and Dohnányi were arrested and imprisoned. On 13 January 1943 Bonhoeffer had become engaged to Maria von Wedemeyer, the granddaughter of his close friend and Finkenwalde seminary supporter, Ruth von Kleist Retzow. Ruth had campaigned for this marriage for several years, although up until late October 1942, Bonhoeffer remained a reluctant suitor despite Ruth being part of his innermost circle. He considered that his responsibilities during wartime made it
7216-505: Was forbidden to speak in public and was required regularly to report his activities to the police. In 1941, he was forbidden to print or to publish anything. In the meantime, Bonhoeffer had joined the Abwehr. Dohnányi, already part of the Abwehr, brought him into the organization on the claim that his wide ecumenical contacts would be of use to Germany, thus protecting him from conscription to active service. Bonhoeffer presumably knew about various 1943 plots against Hitler through Dohnányi, who
7304-482: Was low, especially in the countryside, which generally did not attract newcomers, but experienced rural exodus, so that today's denominational make-up in Germany and Switzerland still represents the former boundaries among territories ruled by Calvinist, Catholic, or Lutheran rulers in the 16th century quite well. In a major departure, the legislature of the North German Confederation instituted
7392-562: Was marked by a struggle within the Old-Prussian Union Protestant Church between the pro-Nazi Deutsche Christen (German Christian) movement and Young Reformers, who were interested in following the Gospel teachings of Jesus—a struggle that threatened to explode into schism . In July 1933, Hitler unconstitutionally imposed new church elections. Bonhoeffer put all his efforts into the election, campaigning for
7480-474: Was offered a coveted opportunity to study non-violent resistance under Mahatma Gandhi in his ashram . However, remembering Barth's rebuke, Bonhoeffer decided to return to Germany instead, where he was the head at an underground seminary in Finkenwalde for training Confessing Church pastors. As the Nazi suppression of the Confessing Church intensified, Barth was driven back to Switzerland in 1935; Niemöller
7568-523: Was responsible. In April 1933, Bonhoeffer raised the first voice for church resistance to Hitler's persecution of Jews, declaring that the church must not simply "bandage the victims under the wheel, but jam a spoke in the wheel itself." In November 1932, two months before the Nazi takeover, there had been an election for presbyters and synodals (church officials) of the German Landeskirche (Protestant mainstream churches). This election
7656-702: Was the first martyr to be so recognized who lived after the Reformation and is one of only two as of 2017. Bonhoeffer is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 9 April . The Deutsche Evangelische Kirche in Sydenham, London, at which he preached between 1933 and 1935, was destroyed by bombing in 1944. A replacement church was built in 1958 and named Dietrich-Bonhoeffer-Kirche in his honor. Dietrich Bonhoeffer's text ' Von guten Mächten ' (translated as 'By Gentle' or 'By Gracious Powers')
7744-674: Was troubled, she was a source of food and smuggled messages. Bonhoeffer made Eberhard Bethge his heir, but Maria, in allowing her correspondence with Bonhoeffer to be published after her death, provided an invaluable addition to this scholarship. For a year and a half, Bonhoeffer was imprisoned at Tegel Prison awaiting trial. There he continued his work in religious outreach among his fellow prisoners and guards. Sympathetic guards helped smuggle his letters out of prison to Bethge and others, and these uncensored letters were posthumously published in Letters and Papers from Prison . One of those guards,
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