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129-533: The French Louisianians (French: Louisianais ), also known as Louisiana French , are Latin French people native to the states that were established out of French Louisiana . They are commonly referred to as French Creoles (French: Créoles ). Today, the most famous Louisiana French groups are the Alabama Creoles (including Alabama Cajans ), Louisiana Creoles (including Louisiana Cajuns ), and

258-573: A métis ( mixed French and Indigenous ) population. Pine Bluff, Arkansas , for example, was founded by Joseph Bonne , a man of Quapaw-French métis ancestry. In 1679, French explorer René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle was the first European to cross into Indiana after reaching present-day South Bend at the St. Joseph River . He returned the following year to learn about the region. French-Canadian fur traders soon arrived, bringing blankets, jewelry, tools, whiskey and weapons to trade for skins with

387-602: A 6-inch (150 mm) howitzer . Jackson also sent a detachment to the west bank of the Mississippi to man two 24-pounders and two 12-pounders on the grounded warship USS  Louisiana . Jackson in the first week of the New Orleans land campaign that began on December 23 also had the support of the warships in the Mississippi River, including USS Louisiana , USS Carolina , the schooner USS Eagle , and

516-549: A brief engagement. Casualties included 17 British sailors killed and 77 wounded, while 6 Americans were killed, 35 wounded, and the remaining crews captured. The wounded included both Jones and Lockyer. One unintended consequence is that it is believed the gunboat crews in captivity were able to mislead the British as to Jackson's strength in numbers, when they were questioned. There is a popular story concerning Purser Thomas Shields and Surgeon Robert Morrell, who were sent under

645-497: A campaign against New Orleans would weaken American resolve against Canada and hasten a successful end to the war. There was a major concern that the British and their Spanish allies wanted to reclaim the territories of the Louisiana Purchase because they did not recognize any land deals made by Napoleon (starting with the 1800 Spanish cession of Louisiana to France , followed by the 1804 French sale of Louisiana to

774-634: A combination of their nationality , ethnicity and their ancestral origins. In addition to the indigenous population, Latin Americans include people with Old World ancestors who arrived since 1492. Latin America has the largest diasporas of Spaniards , Portuguese , Africans , Italians , Lebanese and Japanese in the world. The region also has large German (second largest after the United States), French , Palestinian (largest outside

903-426: A consequence, the Americans gained time to transform the canal into a heavily fortified earthwork. On Christmas Day, General Edward Pakenham arrived on the battlefield. Two days later he received nine large naval artillery guns from Admiral Cochrane along with a hot shot furnace to silence the two U.S. Navy warships, the sloop-of-war USS  Louisiana and the schooner USS  Carolina , that were harassing

1032-479: A danger to the British, but Jackson ordered the ships' surviving guns and crew to be stationed on the west bank and provide covering fire for any British assault on the river road to Line Jackson (name of the U.S. defensive line at the Rodriguez Canal ) and New Orleans. After silencing the two ships, Pakenham ordered a reconnaissance-in-force on December 28 against the earthworks. The reconnaissance-in-force

1161-475: A few groups in the country's highlands. In Bolivia , Aymara , Quechua and Guaraní hold official status alongside Spanish. Guarani is, along with Spanish, an official language of Paraguay , and is spoken by a majority of the population (who are, for the most part, bilingual), and it is co-official with Spanish in the Argentine province of Corrientes . In Nicaragua , Spanish is the official language, but, on

1290-409: A few hundred yards from breaching the defensive line, but the left side of the reconnaissance-in-force turned into disaster for the British. The surviving artillery guns from the two neutralized warships successfully defended the section of Line Jackson closest to the Mississippi River with enfilading fire , making it look like the British offensive completely failed even though on the section closest to

1419-522: A few merchants and artisans accompanied by their families. The French had easy access to the Indigenous fur trade, and furs were the primary economic resource of Mobile. Along with fur, some settlers also raised cattle as well as produced ships' timbers and naval stores. Indigenous nations gathered annually at Mobile to be wined, dined, and showered with presents by the French. About 2,000 Indigenous descended on Mobile for as long as two weeks. Because of

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1548-459: A few minutes, the American 7th US Infantry arrived, moved forward, and fired upon the British in the captured redoubt; within half an hour, Rennie and nearly all of his men were dead. In the main attack on the right, the British infantrymen flung themselves to the ground, huddled in the canal, or were mowed down by a combination of musket fire and grapeshot from the Americans. A handful made it to

1677-417: A flag of truce to negotiate the return of the prisoners on parole. They were placed in a cabin where their conversation could be heard. Shields, having hearing difficulties, talked loudly and mentioned that 20,000 troops were under Jackson's command. There was nothing in the actions of the British commanders to indicate they believed they were faced with superior numbers. Sixteen hundred British soldiers under

1806-453: A great country this is and make no mistake." All levels of Mobile's classes and society engaged in a frantic pursuit of pleasure. For those of the elite class, life seemed to be a swirl of balls, parties, and parades. Mobile abounded with private social clubs, gentlemen's clubs, militia units, and other organizations that sponsored balls. A January 8 ball to commemorate the Battle of New Orleans

1935-465: A length of time, fixed by the contract of service, to pay back the cost of passage and board. Engagés in Louisiana generally worked for seven years, and their masters provided them housing, food, and clothing. They were often housed in barns and performed hard labor. Starting in 1698, French merchants were obliged to transport a number of men to the colonies in proportion to the ships' tonnage. Some of

2064-642: A majority; some are dominated by inhabitants of European ancestry; and some countries' populations are primarily mulatto . Black , Asian , and zambo (mixed black and native American) minorities are also identified regularly. White Latin Americans are the largest single group, accounting for more than one-third of the population. The Latinobarómetro surveys have asked respondents in 18 Latin American countries what race they considered themselves to belong to. The figures shown below are averages for 2007 through 2011. Don't know/No response. Weighted using 2011 population. Spanish and Portuguese are

2193-566: A passing opportunity to succeed, when he decided to not take the open road from the Rigolets to New Orleans by way of Bayou Chef Menteur. Reilly observes that there has been a general acceptance that Cochrane cajoled Keane into a premature and ill-advised attack, but there is no evidence to support this theory. Codrington's correspondence does imply that the first option was intended to be followed by Cochrane, based upon inaccurate map details, as documented by Cochrane's papers. The shallow waters of

2322-444: A picket, to give advance warning once the British arrived. The decision by General Morgan to deploy his troops in two positions a mile apart, neither defensible, was favorable for the British. Morgan's mismanagement of his Kentucky and Louisiana militiamen was an open invitation to defeat. Whilst the retreat of the militia has been criticized, such a move was no less than prudent. An inquiry, overseen by Major General William Carroll of

2451-533: A population of 30,000. In 1844, a Northern visitor described the diversity and beauty of Mobile: "...clerks of all shapes and sizes, white and red haired men, staid thinking men and brainless flops. Here goes a staid, demeure-faced priest and behind him is a dashing gambler... Here is a sailor just on shore with a pocket full of rocks ready for devilment of any kind and there is a beggar in rags. Pretty Creoles , pale-faced sewing girls, painted vice, big-headed and little-headed men, tall anatomies and short Falstaffs...

2580-587: A real threat to the groups of isolated colonists. The Natchez massacred 250 colonists in Lower Louisiana in retaliation for encroachment by French settlers. The Natchez warriors took Fort Rosalie (now Natchez, Mississippi ) by surprise, killing many settlers. During the next two years, the French attacked the Natchez in return, causing them to flee or, when captured, be deported as slaves to their Caribbean colony of Saint-Domingue (later Haiti). In

2709-494: A second fur trading post at Vincennes. French settlers, who had left the earlier post because of hostilities, returned in larger numbers. In a period of a few years, British colonists arrived from the East and contended against the French for control of the lucrative fur trade. Fighting between the French and British colonists occurred throughout the 1750s as a result. The Native American tribes of Indiana sided with New France during

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2838-525: A slow approach to New Orleans up the Mississippi River, the British chose to advance on an overland route. The first route was to take the Rigolets passage into Lake Pontchartrain, and thence to disembark two miles north of the city. One hindrance was the fort at Petit Coquilles at the Rigolets passage. The second option was to row to the Plain of Gentilly via the Bayou Chef Menteur, and to take

2967-399: A subordinate, Johnston, who went to headquarters to do so. Whilst there, he was observed by General Gibbs, who enquired what he was doing. Upon being told, Gibbs wrote a formal order to Mullins that 'The Commanding Officer of the 44th will ascertain where the fascines and Ladders are deposited this evening.' A map of where the items were stored was given to Johnston. Upon returning, he presented

3096-597: Is a person descended from ancestors in Louisiana before the Louisiana Purchase by the United States in 1803. An estimated 7,000 European immigrants settled in Louisiana during the 18th century, one percent of the number of European colonists in the Thirteen Colonies along the Atlantic coast. Louisiana attracted considerably fewer French colonists than did its West Indian colonies. After the crossing of

3225-628: Is primarily spoken in the Lesser Antilles. It is a French-based creole, that is the local language spoken among the natives of the Caribbean islands of Saint Lucia and Dominica and also in Martinique and Guadeloupe . Creole languages of mainland Latin America, similarly, are derived from European languages and various African tongues. The vast majority of Latin Americans are Christians (90%), mostly Roman Catholics . About 71% of

3354-748: Is the region of the Americas where Romance languages (i.e., those derived from Latin )—particularly Spanish and Portuguese , as well as French —are primarily spoken. It includes 21 countries or territories: Mexico in North America ; Guatemala , Honduras , El Salvador , Nicaragua , Costa Rica and Panama in Central America ; Colombia , Venezuela , Ecuador , Peru , Bolivia , Brazil , Paraguay , Chile , Argentina and Uruguay in South America ; and Cuba , Haiti ,

3483-516: The Caribbean region, creole languages are spoken. The most widely spoken creole language in the Caribbean and Latin America in general is Haitian Creole , the predominant language of Haiti ; it is derived primarily from French and certain West African tongues with indigenous, English, Portuguese and Spanish influences as well. The other most spoken Creole is Antillean Creole French that

3612-562: The Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico in the Caribbean —in summary, Hispanic America , plus Brazil and Haiti . Canada and the United States , despite having sizeable Romance-speaking communities, are almost never included in the definition, primarily for being predominantly English-speaking Anglosphere countries. Latin America, therefore, can be defined as all those parts of the Americas that were once part of

3741-600: The French Quarter of New Orleans , in the current suburb of Chalmette, Louisiana . The battle was the climax of the five-month Gulf Campaign (September 1814 to February 1815) by Britain to try to take New Orleans, West Florida , and possibly Louisiana Territory which began at the First Battle of Fort Bowyer . Britain started the New Orleans campaign on December 14, 1814, at the Battle of Lake Borgne and numerous skirmishes and artillery duels happened in

3870-594: The French and Indian War (also known as the Seven Years' War ). With Britain's victory in 1763, the French were forced to cede to the British crown all their lands in North America east of the Mississippi River and north and west of the colonies . Through both the French and Spanish (late 18th century) regimes, parochial and colonial governments used the term Creole for ethnic French and Spanish people born in

3999-746: The Haitian Revolution , contributing to the Voodoo tradition of the state. During the American period (1804–1820), almost half of the slaves came from the Congo . Latin Americans Latin American countries and their diasporas are multi-ethnic and multi-racial . Latin Americans are a pan-ethnicity consisting of people of different ethnic and national backgrounds. As a result, some Latin Americans do not take their nationality as an ethnicity , but identify themselves with

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4128-621: The Missouri French (Illinois Country Creoles). The term Créole was originally used by French settlers to distinguish people born in French Louisiana from those born elsewhere, thus drawing a distinction between Old-World Europeans and Africans from their Creole descendants born in the Viceroyalty of New France . The term Louisanese (French: Louisianais ) was used as a demonym for Louisiana French people prior to

4257-537: The Nago people , a Yoruba subgroup. In Louisiana, the term Bambara was used as a generic term for African slaves. European traders used Bambara as a term for defining vaguely a region of ethnic origin. Muslim traders and interpreters often used Bambara to indicate Non-Muslim captives. Slave traders would sometimes identify their slaves as Bambara in hopes of securing a higher price, as Bambara slaves were sometimes characterized as being more passive. Further confusing

4386-602: The New World as opposed to Europe. Parisian French was the predominant language among colonists in early New Orleans. Later the regional French evolved to contain local phrases and slang terms. The French Creoles spoke what became known as Colonial French . Because of isolation, the language in the colony developed differently from that in France. It was spoken by the ethnic French and Spanish and their Creole descendants. The commonly accepted definition of Louisiana Creole today

4515-509: The Spanish , Portuguese or French colonial empires, namely Spanish America , Colonial Brazil and New France . . The population of Latin America comprises a variety of ancestries, ethnic groups and races, making the region one of the most diverse in the world. The specific composition varies from country to country: many have a predominance of mixed European and native American, or mestizo , population; in others, native Americans are

4644-488: The world's second largest Christian population , after Europe . According to the 2005 Colombian census or DANE, about 3,331,107 Colombians currently live abroad. The number of Brazilians living overseas is estimated at 2 million people. An estimated 1.5 to two million Salvadorians reside in the United States. At least 1.5 million Ecuadorians have gone abroad, mainly to the United States and Spain. Approximately 1.5 million Dominicans live abroad, mostly in

4773-481: The 32-pounder, a 24-pounder, and a 12-pounder, while some damage was done to the earthworks. The British suffered even greater, losing 13 guns (five British batteries out of seven total batteries were silenced by the Americans). The remaining British artillery finally exhausted its ammunition, and Pakenham canceled the attack. Major General Gibbs during the artillery duel sent soldiers to try to outflank Line Jackson on

4902-426: The 93rd Highlanders, having no orders to advance further or retreat. The light infantry companies commanded by Jones attacked the right flank, but were repulsed by Coffee's troops. The attack having failed, the troops withdrew, and sought cover in the woods. Lieutenant Colonel Jones was mortally injured. General Lambert was in the reserve and took command. He gave the order for his reserve to advance and ordered

5031-495: The American forces defeated a poorly executed assault in slightly more than 30 minutes. The Americans suffered 71 casualties, while the British suffered over 2,000, including the deaths of the commanding general, Major General Sir Edward Pakenham, and his second-in-command , Major General Samuel Gibbs. In August 1814, Britain and the United States began negotiations to end the War of 1812. However, British Secretary of State for War and

5160-533: The Arab states), Chinese and Jewish diasporas . The specific ethnic and/or racial composition varies from country to country and diaspora community to diaspora community: many have a predominance of mixed indigenous and European descent or mestizo , population; in others, native Americans are a majority; some are mostly inhabited by people of European ancestry; others are primarily mulatto . The largest single group are white Latin Americans . Together with

5289-488: The Atlantic Ocean, which lasted more than two months, the colonists had numerous challenges ahead of them in the Louisiana frontier. Their living conditions were difficult: uprooted, they had to face a new, often hostile, environment, with difficult climate and tropical diseases. Many of these immigrants died during the maritime crossing or soon after their arrival. Hurricanes , unknown in France, periodically struck

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5418-419: The British on January 5. This brought the amount of disembarked men to about 8,000. The British battle plan was for an attack against the 20-gun right bank battery, then to turn those guns on the American line to assist the frontal attack. Colonel William Thornton was to cross the Mississippi during the night with his force, move rapidly upriver, storm the battery commanded by Commodore Daniel Patterson on

5547-419: The British reported their losses as 46 killed, 167 wounded, and 64 missing. The action was consequential, since at December 25 Pakenham's forces now had an effective strength of 5,933 out of a headcount of 6,660 soldiers. Historian Robert Quimby states that the British won a "tactical victory, which enabled them to maintain their position", but they "were disabused of their expectation of an easy conquest". As

5676-569: The Caribbean. Dutch is the official language of some Caribbean islands and in Suriname on the continent; however, as Dutch is a Germanic language , these territories are not considered part of Latin America. Indigenous languages are widely spoken in Peru , Guatemala , Bolivia and Paraguay , and, to a lesser degree, in Mexico , Chile and Ecuador . In Latin American countries not named above,

5805-561: The Chef Menteur Road that went from the Rigolets to the city. It was narrow, and could be easily blocked. Jackson was aware of this, and had it well guarded. The third option was to head to Bayou Bienvenue , then Bayou Mazant and via the Villeré Canal to disembark at a point one mile from the Mississippi and seven miles south of the city. This latter option was taken by Keane. Andrew Lambert notes that Keane squandered

5934-664: The Chicachas ), the relationship with the Native Americans was relatively good in Louisiana. French imperialism was expressed through some wars and the slavery of some Native Americans. But most of the time, the relationship was based on dialogue and negotiation. Inability to find labor was the most pressing issue in Louisiana. In 1717, John Law , the French Comptroller General of Finances, decided to import African slaves into Louisiana. His objective

6063-595: The Colonies Henry Bathurst issued Pakenham's secret orders on October 24, 1814, commanding him to continue the war even if he heard rumors of peace. Bathurst expressed concern that the United States might not ratify a treaty and did not want Pakenham either to endanger his forces or miss an opportunity for victory. Prior to that, in August 1814, Vice Admiral Cochrane had convinced the Admiralty that

6192-923: The Latin American population consider themselves Catholic. Membership in Protestant denominations is increasing, particularly in Brazil , Guatemala and Puerto Rico . Argentina hosts the largest communities of both Jews and Muslims in Latin America. Indigenous religions and rituals are practiced in countries with large indigenous populations, especially Bolivia, Guatemala, Mexico and Peru, and Afro-Latin American religions such as Santería , Candomblé , Umbanda , Macumba and Vodou are practiced in countries with large Afro-Latin American populations, especially Cuba, Brazil, Dominican Republic and Haiti. Latin America constitutes, in absolute terms,

6321-468: The McCarty house. The preparations of the British had not gone unnoticed. The Louisiana Militia brigade were reinforced by 200 Kentucky militiamen commanded by Colonel Davis. They arrived at 4am, after a five mile march through mud. Exhausted, they had not eaten since noon the prior day. Morgan deployed them between two positions, a mile apart. The British dug a canal to enable 42 small boats to get to

6450-508: The Native Americans for food. Creole cuisine is the heir of these mutual influences: thus, sagamité , for example, is a mix of corn pulp, bear fat and bacon. Today jambalaya , a word of Seminole origin, refers to a multitude of recipes calling for meat and rice, all very spicy. Sometimes shamans succeeded in curing the colonists thanks to traditional remedies, such as the application of fir tree gum on wounds and Royal Fern on rattlesnake bites. Many French colonists both admired and feared

6579-534: The Native Americans. By 1702, Sieur Juchereau established the first trading post near Vincennes . In 1715, Sieur de Vincennes built Fort Miami at Kekionga , now Fort Wayne . In 1717, another Canadian, Picote de Beletre , built Fort Ouiatenon on the Wabash River , to try to control Native American trade routes from Lake Erie to the Mississippi River . In 1732, Sieur de Vincennes built

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6708-573: The Navy detachment, and Brevet Major Thomas Adair led the Marines. Money was captain of HMS Trave , and Adair was the commanding officer of HMS  Vengeur 's detachment of Marines. Thornton did not make allowance for the current, and it carried him about a thousand yards below the intended landing place. (Remini states the plan was to land three miles south of Morgan's position, but they actually landed four miles south. ) The only British success of

6837-595: The Tennessee Militia, found that the conduct was 'not reprehensible'. Major Paul Arnaud, commanding officer of the 2nd Louisiana militia brigade, was targeted as a scapegoat for the retreat on the Right Bank. His fellow Louisiana Militia officers Dejean, Cavallier and Declouet were admonished, as was Colonel John Davis of the Kentucky Militia. At around 10 am, Lambert was made aware that

6966-512: The United States ). This is why the British invaded New Orleans in the middle of the Treaty of Ghent negotiations. It has been theorized that if the British had won the Battle of New Orleans, they would have likely interpreted that all territories gained from the 1803 Louisiana Purchase would be void and not part of U.S. territory. There was great concern by the Americans that Britain would hold onto

7095-753: The United States. More than 1.3 million Cubans live abroad, most of them in the United States. It is estimated that over 800,000 Chileans live abroad, mainly in Argentina, Canada, United States and Spain. Other Chilean nationals may be located in countries like Costa Rica, Mexico and Sweden. An estimated 700,000 Bolivians were living in Argentina as of 2006 and another 33,000 in the United States. Central Americans living abroad in 2005 were 3,314,300, of which 1,128,701 were Salvadorans , 685,713 were Guatemalans , 683,520 were Nicaraguans , 414,955 were Hondurans , 215,240 were Panamanians and 127,061 were Costa Rica . As of 2006, Costa Rica and Chile were

7224-406: The United States. The Code Noir based on Roman laws also conferred affranchis (ex-slaves) full citizenship and gave complete civil equality with other French subjects. By the mid-18th century, Mobile was populated by West Indian French Creoles, European Frenchmen, French-Canadians, Africans, and Indigenous people. This diverse group was united by Roman Catholicism, the exclusive religion of

7353-632: The ancient world. In 1841 Cowbellion's floats of Greek gods were described as "one of the most gorgeous and unique spectacles that was ever beheld in modern times." The Catholic community of primarily French Creole descent remained numerous and influential. In 1825, the Catholic community began the 15-year construction of the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception . For most of the antebellum era, friction between Protestants and Catholics

7482-446: The approaching army and the position of their encampment. Following Villeré's intelligence report, on the evening of December 23, Jackson led 2,131 men in a brief three-pronged assault from the north on the unsuspecting British troops, who were resting in their camp. He then pulled his forces back to the Rodriguez Canal , about 4 miles (6.4 km) south of the city. The Americans suffered 24 killed, 115 wounded, and 74 missing, while

7611-543: The area and did not interfere with the French. The United States acquired the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, which stimulated migration of English-speaking settlers to this area. They renamed Écore Fabre as Camden . During years of colonial rule of New France , many of the ethnic French fur traders and voyageurs had an amicable relationship with the Quapaw, as they did with many other trading tribes. Many Quapaw women and French men married and had families together, creating

7740-422: The army did not do it, his sailors would, and the meeting settled the method and place of the attack. When the British reconnaissance force withdrew, the Americans immediately began constructing earthworks to protect the artillery batteries, further strengthening Line Jackson. They installed eight batteries, which included one 32-pound gun, three 24-pounders, one 18-pounder, three 12-pounders, three 6-pounders, and

7869-560: The army for 24 hours per day the past week from the Mississippi River. The Carolina was sunk in a massive explosion by the British, but the Louisiana survived thanks to the Baratarian pirates aboard getting into rowboats and tying the ship to the rowboats and rowing it further north away from the British artillery. The Louisiana was not able to sail northward under her own power due to the attack. These two vessels were now no longer

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7998-500: The artillery duel and the Americans lost 11 killed and 23 wounded. The Americans had constructed three lines of defense, with the forward line four miles south of the city. It was strongly entrenched at the Rodriguez Canal, which stretched from a swamp to the river, with a timber, loop-holed breastwork and earthworks for artillery. General Lambert and two infantry battalions totaling 1700 soldiers disembarked and reinforced

8127-475: The battle was the delayed attack on the right bank of the Mississippi River, where Thornton's brigade of the 85th Regiment of Foot and detachments from the Royal Navy and Royal Marines attacked and overwhelmed the American line. The 700 militiamen were routed. Reilly felt the fault lay with Morgan, who had dispersed his troops, rather than concentrating most of them around his main defence, whilst deploying

8256-681: The close and friendly relationship between colonial French and Indigenous peoples, French colonists learned the Indigenous Lingua franca of the area, the Mobilian Jargon , and intermarried with Indigenous women. Mobile was a melting pot of different peoples, and included continental Frenchmen, French-Canadians, and various Indigenous people mingled together in Mobile. The differences between continental Frenchmen and French-Canadians were so great that serious disputes occurred between

8385-477: The coast, destroying whole villages. The Mississippi Delta was plagued with periodic yellow fever epidemics. Europeans also brought the Eurasian diseases of malaria and cholera , which flourished along with mosquitoes and poor sanitation. These conditions slowed colonization. Moreover, French villages and forts were not always sufficient to protect from enemy offensives. Attacks by Native Americans represented

8514-736: The colonial period of French and Spanish rule, men tended to marry later after becoming financially established. French settlers frequently took Native American women as their wives (see Marriage 'à la façon du pays' ), and as slaves began to be imported into the colony, settlers also took African wives. Intermarriage between the different groups of Louisiana created a large multiracial Creole population . Aside from French government representatives and soldiers, colonists included mostly young men who were recruited in French ports or in Paris. Some labored as engagés (indentured servants), i.e. "temporary semi-slaves"; they were required to remain in Louisiana for

8643-489: The colonial population as "French" citizens. New France wished to make Native Americans subjects of the king and good Christians, but the distance from Metropolitan France and the sparseness of French settlement prevented this. In official rhetoric , the Native Americans were regarded as subjects of the Viceroyalty of New France , but in reality, they were largely autonomous due to their numerical superiority. The local authorities of New France (governors, officers) did not have

8772-457: The colonial population, the government also recruited young Frenchwomen, known as filles à la cassette (in English, casket girls , referring to the casket or case of belongings they brought with them) to go to the colony to be wed to colonial soldiers. The king financed dowries for each girl. (This practice was similar to events in 17th-century Quebec: about 800 filles du roi (daughters of

8901-567: The colony. The town's inhabitants included 50 troops, a mixed group of approximately 400 civilians which included merchants, laborers, fur traders, artisans, and slaves. This mixed diverse group and its descendants are called Creoles. Mobile contained approximately 40% of all of Alabama's free black population. Mobile's free people of color were the Creoles. A people of diverse origins, the Creoles formed an elite with their own schools, churches, fire company, and social organizations. Many Creoles were

9030-541: The colony. These women, many of whom were most likely prostitutes or felons, were known as The Baleine Brides . Such events inspired Manon Lescaut (1731), a novel written by the Abbé Prévost , which was later adapted as an opera in the 19th century. Historian Joan Martin maintains that there is little documentation that casket girls (considered among the ancestors of French Creoles) were transported to Louisiana. (The Ursuline order of nuns, who were said to chaperone

9159-490: The command of Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane . An American flotilla of five gunboats, commanded by Lieutenant Thomas ap Catesby Jones , blocked British access to the lakes. On December 14, around 980 British sailors and Royal Marines under Captain Nicholas Lockyer set out to attack Jones's force. Lockyer's men sailed in 42 rowboats, almost all armed with a small carronade . Lockyer captured Jones's vessels in

9288-428: The command of General John Keane were rowed 60 miles west from Cat Island to Pea Island (possibly now Pearl Island), situated about 30 miles (48 km) east of New Orleans. It took six days and nights to ferry the troops, each transit taking around ten hours. There were three potential routes to the east of the Mississippi that the British could take, in addition to traversing up the Mississippi itself. Rather than

9417-404: The country's Caribbean coast English and indigenous languages such as Miskito , Sumo , and Rama also hold official status. Colombia recognizes all indigenous languages spoken within its territory as official, though fewer than 1% of its population are native speakers of these. Nahuatl is one of the 62 native languages spoken by indigenous people in Mexico that are officially recognized by

9546-474: The defenders' casualties were two dead, eleven wounded and nineteen missing. Both Jackson and Commodore Patterson reported that the retreating forces had spiked their cannon , leaving no guns to turn on the Americans' main defense line; Major Michell's diary, however, claims that he had "commenced cleaning enemy's guns to form a battery to enfilade their lines on the left bank". General Lambert ordered his Chief of Artillery Colonel Alexander Dickson to assess

9675-634: The descendants of free blacks at the time of Mobile's capture by American forces, and who retained their freedoms by treaty and treated by the American government as a unique people. Other Creoles were blood relatives of white Mobilians including those of prominent families. Mobile gained the nickname the "Athens of the South" as it became rich and prospered. European immigrants from continental Europe as well as those who had already established themselves in Northern cities flocked to Mobile. By 1860, Mobile boasted

9804-413: The earthworks. Major Wilkinson of the 21st Regiment of Foot reformed his lines and made a third assault. They were able to reach the entrenchments and attempted to scale them. Wilkinson made it to the top before being shot. The Americans were amazed at his bravery and carried him behind the rampart. The British soldiers stood out in the open and were shot apart with grapeshot from Line Jackson, including

9933-401: The east bank of the Mississippi River , 9 miles (14 km) south of New Orleans. They could have attacked the city by advancing a few hours up the undefended river road, but Keane decided to encamp at Lacoste's Plantation and wait for the arrival of reinforcements. The British invaded the home of Major Gabriel Villeré, but he escaped through a window and hastened to warn General Jackson of

10062-660: The establishment of states in the Louisiana Territory , but the term fell into disuse after the Orleans Territory gained admission into the American Union as the State of Louisiana : "The elegant olive-browned Louisianese - the rosy-cheeked maiden from La belle riviere ( La Belle Rivière is the native Louisiana French name for Ohio)..." The Louisiana French speak similar dialects of French,

10191-436: The failure of this operation Pakenham met with General Keane and Admiral Cochrane that evening for an update on the situation. Pakenham wanted to use Chef Menteur Pass as the invasion route, but he was overruled by Admiral Cochrane, who insisted that his boats were providing everything needed. Admiral Cochrane believed that the veteran British soldiers would easily destroy Jackson's ramshackle army, and he allegedly said that if

10320-468: The flank of the main American entrenchments, and then open an enfilading fire on Jackson's line with the captured artillery, directly across from the earthworks manned by the vast majority of the American troops. On the other bank, Major General Samuel Gibbs was to lead the main assault against the center left by his (2nd) brigade. As a feint, a column of light infantry companies (from 4th, 21st Foot) led by Lieutenant Colonel Robert Rennie would march along

10449-478: The girls until they married, have denied the casket girl myth as well.) Martin suggests this account was mythical. The system of plaçage that continued into the 19th century resulted in many young white men having women of color as partners and mothers of their children, often before or even after their marriages to white women. French Louisiana also included communities of Swiss and German settlers; however, royal authorities did not refer to "Louisianans" but described

10578-964: The government as "national languages" along with Spanish. Other European languages spoken in Latin America include: English , by some groups in Argentina , Chile , Costa Rica , Nicaragua , Panama and Puerto Rico , as well as in nearby countries that may or may not be considered Latin American, such as Belize and Guyana ; English is also used as a major foreign language in Latin American commerce and education. Other languages spoken in parts of Latin America include German in southern Brazil , southern Chile , Argentina, portions of northern Venezuela and Paraguay; Italian in Brazil , Argentina, Uruguay and Venezuela; Polish , Ukrainian and Russian in southern Brazil; and Welsh in southern Argentina. Hebrew and Yiddish are used by Jewish diasporas in Argentina and Brazil. In several nations, especially in

10707-676: The human resources to establish French law and customs, and instead often compromised with the Indigenous people. Indigenous nations offered essential support for the French: they ensured the survival of the New France's colonists, participated with them in the fur trade, and acted as guides in expeditions. The French alliance with Indigenous nations also provided mutual protection from hostile non-allied tribes and incursions on French and Indigenous peoples' land from enemy European powers . The French and Indigenous alliance proved invaluable during

10836-434: The items were stored. Mullins was dismissive, and stated there would be plenty of time in the morning. Pakenham sent an order to an engineer officer to communicate with Mullins as to where the items were stored, in the redoubt. Coincidentally, Mullins arrived in the presence of the engineer officer and the artillery officer. Upon being read Pakenham's instructions, and being asked if he had any questions, Mullins replied that it

10965-399: The king) were recruited to immigrate to New France under the monetary sponsorship of Louis XIV .) In addition, French authorities deported some female criminals to the colony. For example, in 1721, the ship La Baleine brought close to 90 women of childbearing age from the prison of La Salpêtrière in Paris to Louisiana. Most of the women quickly found husbands among the male residents of

11094-755: The later French and Indian War against the New England colonies in 1753. The French & Indigenous peoples influenced each other in many fields: the French settlers learned the languages of the natives, such as Mobilian Jargon , a Choctaw-based Creole language that served as a trade language in use among the French and various Indigenous nations in the region. Indigenous people bought European goods (fabric, alcohol, firearms, etc.), learned French, and sometimes adopted their religion. The coureurs des bois and soldiers borrowed canoes and moccasins. Many of them ate native food such as wild rice and various meats, like bear and dog. The colonists were often dependent on

11223-693: The local residents in a one-year span. Between 1723 and 1769, most slaves imported to Louisiana were from modern day Senegal, Mali and Congo . A large number of the imported slaves from the Senegambia region were members of the Wolof and Bambara ethnic groups. During the Spanish control of Louisiana , between 1770 and 1803, most of the slaves still came from the Congo and the Senegambia region but they also imported more slaves from modern-day Benin. Other ethnic groups imported during this period included members of

11352-415: The main American line, exposing them to withering artillery fire. The British column had already been disordered by the passage of the 300 returning to the redoubt, and they advanced into a storm of American fire. Without the fascines and ladders, they were unable to scale and storm the American position. The British forces fell into confusion, thrown into disorder by the flight of the advance guard. Most of

11481-621: The major varieties being Lower Louisiana French , Upper Louisiana French , and Louisiana Creole . Adventurers led by Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville moved from Fort Maurepas in Biloxi , Mississippi to a wooded bluff on the west bank of the Mobile River in early 1702, where they founded Mobile , which they named after the Maubilian Nation. The outpost was populated by French soldiers, French-Canadian trappers and fur traders, and

11610-429: The map to Mullins, which he dismissively put in his waistcoat. At 5 pm that evening, Mullins summoned his officers for a meeting, to discuss the attack. One of his subordinates questioned the location of the ladders, and received a caustic rebuke. He was approached by his Captain and hut-mate at 8 pm, and diplomatically suggested preparing for the next day, including the order from Gibbs to personally see where

11739-516: The men brought over were engaged on three-year indenture contracts under which the contract-holder would be responsible for their "vital needs" as well as provide a salary at the end of the contract term. Under John Law and the Compagnie du Mississippi , efforts to increase the use of engagés in the colony were made, notably including German settlers whose contracts were absolved when the company went bankrupt in 1731. During this time, to increase

11868-456: The military power of the Native Americans, though some governors from France scorned their culture and wanted to keep racial purity between the whites and Indigenous people. In 1735, interracial marriages without the approval of the authorities were prohibited in Louisiana. However, by the 1750s in New France, the idea of the Native Americans became one of the "Noble Savage," that Indigenous people were spiritually pure and played an important role in

11997-480: The name's indication of ethnic, linguistic, religious, or other implications, the concurrent Bambara Empire had notoriety for its practice of slave-capturing wherein Bambara soldiers would raid neighbors and capture the young men of other ethnic groups, forcibly assimilate them, and turn them into slave soldiers known as Ton . The Bambara Empire depended on war-captives to replenish and increase its numbers; many of

12126-558: The narrow passes of the Rigolets and the Chef Menteur could not take any vessel drawing eight feet or more. A further hindrance was the lack of shallow draft vessels, which Cochrane had requested, yet the Admiralty had refused. As a consequence, even when using all shallow boats, it was not possible to transport more than 2,000 men at a time. On the morning of December 23, Keane and a vanguard of 1,800 British soldiers reached

12255-552: The natural purity of the New World. Native Americans did marry French settlers, with Indigenous women being consistently considered as good wives to foster trade and help create offspring. Their intermarriage created a large métis ( mixed French and Indigenous ) population in New France. In spite of some disagreements (some Indigenous people killed farmers' pigs, which devastated corn fields), and sometimes violent confrontations ( Fox Wars , Natchez uprisings, and expeditions against

12384-545: The northeast referred to these people as the Akansea or Akansa , referring to geography and meaning "land of the downriver people". As French explorers Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet encountered and interacted with the Illinois before they did the Quapaw, they adopted this exonym for the more westerly people. In their language, they referred to them as Arcansas . English-speaking settlers who arrived later in

12513-595: The only two countries with global positive migration rates. Battle of New Orleans 1813 1814 1815 East Coast Great Lakes / Saint Lawrence River West Indies / Gulf Coast Pacific Ocean The Battle of New Orleans was fought on January 8, 1815, between the British Army under Major General Sir Edward Pakenham and the United States Army under Brevet Major General Andrew Jackson , roughly 5 miles (8 km) southeast of

12642-504: The people of part European ancestry, they combine for almost the totality of the population. Latin Americans and their descendants can be found almost everywhere in the world, particularly in densely populated urban areas. The most important migratory destinations for Latin Americans are found in the United States , Spain , France , Canada , Italy and Japan . Latin America ( Spanish : América Latina or Latinoamérica ; Portuguese : América Latina ; French : Amérique latine )

12771-639: The people who called themselves Bambara were indeed not ethnic Bambara. Africans contributed to the creolization of Louisiana society. They brought okra from Africa, a plant common in the preparation of gumbo . While the Code Noir required that the slaves receive a Christian education, many practiced animism and often combined elements of the two faiths. The Code Noir also conferred affranchis (ex-slaves) full citizenship and gave complete civil equality with other French subjects. Louisiana slave society generated its own distinct Afro-Creole culture that

12900-405: The population of speakers of indigenous languages is small or non-existent. In Peru , Quechua is an official language, alongside Spanish and any other indigenous language in the areas where they predominate. In Ecuador , while holding no official status, the closely related Quichua is a recognized language of the indigenous people under the country's constitution; however, it is only spoken by

13029-402: The position. Dickson reported back that no fewer than 2,000 men would be required to hold the position. Lambert issued orders to withdraw after the defeat of their main army on the east bank and retreated, taking a few American prisoners and cannon with them. The Americans were so dismayed by the loss of this battery, which would be capable of inflicting much damage on their lines when the attack

13158-659: The predominant languages of Latin America. Spanish is the official language of most of the countries on the Latin American mainland, as well as in Puerto Rico (where it is co-official with English), Cuba and the Dominican Republic . Portuguese is spoken only in Brazil , the biggest and most populous country in the region. French is spoken in Haiti , as well as in the French overseas departments of French Guiana in South America and Guadeloupe and Martinique in

13287-403: The redoubt at the double-quick to pick up the fascines and ladders, but it was too late. The other regiments were already advancing behind the 44th, the party of 300 lost formation as they struggled to reach the redoubt, and as day dawned, the attack commenced before the supplies could be brought forward. The main attack began in darkness and a heavy fog, but the fog lifted as the British neared

13416-531: The region adopted the name used by the French, and adapted it to English spelling conventions. Écore Fabre (Fabre's Bluff) was started as a trading post by the Frenchman Fabre and was one of the first European settlements in south-central Arkansas. While the area was nominally ruled by the Spanish from 1763 to 1789, following French defeat in the Seven Years' War , they did not have many colonists in

13545-580: The right bank had been taken, as signalled by a rocket launched by Gubbins. His brigade won their battle, but Thornton was badly wounded, and delegated his command to Gubbins. Army casualties among the 85th Foot were two dead, one captured, and 41 wounded, the battalion reduced to 270 effectives on the Right Bank. Royal Navy casualties were two dead, Captain Rowland Money and 18 seamen wounded. Royal Marine casualties were two dead, with three officers, one sergeant, and 12 other ranks wounded. By contrast,

13674-645: The right due to the near-success of the December 28 skirmish. A combined force of Tennessee militia and Choctaw warriors used heavy small arms fire to repel this maneuver. The Tennessee and Choctaw soldiers even moved forward in front of Line Jackson and counterattacked, guerrilla-style, to guarantee the British withdrawal. After yet another failure to breach Line Jackson Pakenham decided to wait for his entire force of 8,000 men to assemble before continuing his attack (the 40th Foot arrived too late, disembarking on 12 January 1815. ). The British lost 45 killed and 55 wounded in

13803-401: The river and the artillery fire that might hit them, and to move across the open field to join the main force on the right. Keane fell wounded as he crossed the field with the 93rd. Rennie's men managed to attack and overrun an American advance redoubt next to the river, but they could neither hold the position nor successfully storm the main American line behind it without reinforcements. Within

13932-430: The river. Preparations for the attack had floundered early on January 8, as the canal collapsed and the dam failed, leaving the sailors to drag the boats through the mud with Thornton's right bank assault force. This left the force starting off just before daybreak, eight hours late according to Thornton's dispatch, assessed in 2008 to be 12 hours late. In the early morning of January 8, Pakenham gave his final orders for

14061-450: The river. This would be 'considered as belonging to' the (1st) Brigade commanded by General Keane. Keane's men would move to either exploit the success along the river, or move against the center in support of Gibbs. The right flank, along the swamp, was to be protected by light infantry (detached from 7th, 43rd, 93rd Foot) commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Timothy Jones (of the 4th Foot). The (3rd) brigade commanded by Major General John Lambert

14190-419: The senior officers were killed or wounded, including Major General Samuel Gibbs, who was killed leading the main attack column on the right, and Colonel Rennie, who led a detachment on the left by the river. Mullins had compromised their attack. The Highlanders of the 93rd Regiment of Foot were ordered to leave Keane's assault column advancing along the river, possibly because of Thornton's delay in crossing

14319-531: The steamboat Enterprise . The naval warships were neutralized by the heavy naval artillery guns brought in by Pakenham and Cochrane a few days after Christmas. Major Thomas Hinds ' Squadron of Light Dragoons, a militia unit from the Mississippi Territory , arrived at the battle on December 22. The main British army arrived on New Year's Day 1815 and began an artillery bombardment of the American earthworks. Jackson's headquarters, Macarty House,

14448-446: The swamp the British were on the verge of breaking through. Pakenham inexplicably decided to withdraw all the soldiers after seeing the left side of his reconnaissance-in-force collapsing and retreating in panic. The British suffered 16 killed and 43 wounded and the Americans suffered 7 killed and 10 wounded. Luck saved Line Jackson on this day and this was the closest the British came during the whole campaign to defeating Jackson. After

14577-645: The territory indefinitely, but it is left unanswerable due to the outcome of the New Orleans battle. This is contradicted by the content of Bathurst's correspondence, and disputed by Latimer, with specific reference to correspondence from the Prime Minister to the Foreign Secretary dated December 23, 1814. A fleet of British ships had anchored in the Gulf of Mexico to the east of Lake Pontchartrain and Lake Borgne by December 14, 1814, under

14706-479: The third battle of New Orleans' in consequence of his recommendation to evacuate the Right Bank, and that 'he could think of nothing but defense'. This success, being described as 'a brilliant exploit by the British, and a disgraceful exhibition [of General Morgan's leadership] by the Americans,' had no effect on the outcome of the battle. The positions were reoccupied on the 9th, and Patterson reestablished his battery on January 10. The 44th Regiment of Foot

14835-404: The top of the parapet on the right, but they were killed or captured. The riflemen of the 95th Regiment of Foot had advanced in open skirmish order ahead of the main assault force and were concealed in the ditch below the parapet, unable to advance further without support. The two large main assaults were repulsed. Pakenham and Gibbs were fatally wounded while on horseback by grapeshot fired from

14964-489: The two groups. The French also established slavery in 1721. Slaves infused elements of African and West Indian French Creole culture into Mobile, as many of the slaves who came to Mobile worked in the French West Indies . In 1724, the Code Noir , a slave code based on Roman laws , was instituted in French colonies which allowed slaves certain legal and religious rights not found in either British colonies or

15093-404: The two-pronged assault. The frontal attack was not postponed, however, as the British hoped that the force on the right bank would create a diversion, even if they did not succeed in the assault. As a consequence of the sides of the canal caving in and choking the passage that night, only enough boats got through to carry 560 men, just one-third of the intended force. Captain Rowland Money led

15222-484: The weeks leading up to the final battle. The battle took place 15 days after the signing of the Treaty of Ghent , which formally ended the War of 1812 , on December 24, 1814, though it would not be ratified by the United States (and therefore did not take effect) until February 16, 1815, as news of the agreement had not yet reached the United States from Europe. Despite a British advantage in numbers, training, and experience,

15351-717: Was a great favorite. Cotillion balls staged by private clubs were also popular. All Mobilians regardless of their origin enjoyed horse races. The Mobile Jockey Club offered Mobilians the ability to place a bet on their favorite steeds. Cockfighting also became popular during the 1840s and 1850s. Like New Orleans , Mobile prided itself on its vibrant theater arts. Blacks attended Mobile's theaters, and Mobilians were treated to various plays and works by Shakespeare, contemporary comedies, and farce shows. Mardi Gras became of great importance as mystic societies began putting on masked parades with bands, floats, and horses after members attended grand balls. Elaborate floats depicted images of

15480-463: Was assigned by General Edward Pakenham to be the advance guard for the first column of attack on 8 January 1815, and to carry the fascines and ladders which would enable the British troops to cross the ditch and scale the American ramparts. The commanding officer of the 44th, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Mullins had been commended twice during the Chesapeake campaign, and was recently promoted. He

15609-431: Was clear. During the night, an advance battery was set up forward of the advance redoubt , a distance of about 880 yards (800 m) or 500 yards (460 m), positioned 800 yards (730 m) south from Line Jackson. Mullins, thinking this to be the location of the materiel , passed the advance redoubt and halted the regiment at the battery. Upon discovering his mistake, he sent about 300 of his 427 men back to

15738-409: Was designed to test Line Jackson and see how well-defended it was, and if any section of the line was weak the British would take advantage of the situation, break through, and call for thousands of more soldiers to smash through the defenses. On the right side of this offensive the British soldiers successfully sent the militia defenders into a retreating panic with their huge show of force and were just

15867-417: Was fired at for the first 10 minutes of the skirmish while Jackson and his officers were eating breakfast. The house was completely destroyed but Jackson and the officers escaped harm. The Americans recovered quickly and mobilized their own artillery to fire back at the British artillery. This began an exchange of artillery fire that continued for three hours. Several of the American guns were silenced, including

15996-441: Was held in reserve. Reilly notes that the advance columns of the brigades of Keane and Gibbs would be about 650 yards from the American lines. Given they would be in sight of, and in range of, the artillery, it was important to storm the ditch at first light. The start of the battle was marked by the launch of a signal rocket at 6:20am, soon after followed by artillery fire from the British lines towards Jackson's headquarters at

16125-417: Was noted as being haughty, and less than diligent in his duties as a staff officer in the days prior to the attack. Pakenham ordered Mullins to determine the locations of those fascines and ladders that evening of the 7th, in order that there would be no delays in retrieving them the following morning. Gibbs also instructed him to confirm the locations of those fascines and ladders. Mullins delegated this to

16254-479: Was practically non-existent. The Creoles of Mobile built a Catholic school run by and for Creoles. Mobilians supported several literary societies, numerous book stores, and number of book and music publishers. The Quapaw reached their historical territory, the area of the confluence of the Arkansas and Mississippi rivers, at least by the mid-17th century. The Illinois and other Algonquian -speaking peoples to

16383-508: Was present in religious beliefs and the Louisiana Creole language. The slaves brought with them their cultural practices, languages, and religious beliefs rooted in spirit and ancestor worship , as well as Roman Catholic Christianity—all of which were key elements of Louisiana Voodoo . In addition, in the early nineteenth century, many Saint-Domingue Creoles also settled in Louisiana, both free people of color and slaves, following

16512-421: Was renewed, that they were preparing to abandon the town when they received the news that the British were withdrawing, according to one British regimental historian. Reilly does not agree, but does note that Jackson was eager to send Humbert to take command of 400 men to retake the position from Thornton's troops. Carson Ritchie goes as far to assert that 'it was not Pakenham, but Sir Alexander Dickson who lost

16641-427: Was to develop the plantation economy of Lower Louisiana. The Royal Indies Company held a monopoly over the slave trade in the area. The colonists turned to sub-Saharan African slaves to make their investments in Louisiana profitable. In the late 1710s the transatlantic slave trade imported slaves into the colony. This led to the biggest shipment in 1716 where several trading ships appeared with slaves as cargo to

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