The French Imperial Army ( French : Armée Impériale ) was the land force branch of the French imperial military during the Napoleonic era .
131-652: The beginnings of the Imperial Army were seeded in the reorganisation of the French Army in 1803, which helped pave the way for the well-known French-style army organisation. Under this reorganisation, the old-style military district system was reorganised so that it included the new departments. These districts were known as 'Military Divisions', or divisions militaires , which were tasked with local administration of garrisons, recruitment, and providing National Guard and local forces for invasion. The Imperial Army
262-467: A cavalry reserve of 22,000 troopers organized into two cuirassier divisions , four mounted dragoon divisions and two divisions of dismounted dragoons and light cavalry, all supported by 24 artillery pieces. By 1805, the Grande Armée had grown to a force of 350,000, was equipped and trained. It possessed a competent officer class where almost all from sergeants to marshals had experience in
393-767: A legion . Districts might also provide companies of veterans and young citizens, respectively drawn from volunteers over 60 or under 18. Where possible, there was provision for mounted detachments and artillery batteries under the Guard. On 2 July 1792, the Assembly authorized the National Guard's attendance as part of the Festival of Federation on 14 July, thus circumventing a royal veto. Section assemblies were permitting "passive" citizens to join their National Guard companies without seeking formal permission. On 11 July,
524-619: A " Bourgeois Guard " ( "garde bourgeoise" ) for Paris was discussed by the National Assembly on 11 July 1789 in response to the King's sudden and alarming replacement of minister for finance and state, Jacques Necker , with the Baron de Breteuil on that day. The replacement caused rapidly spread anger and violence throughout Paris. The National Assembly declared the formation of a "Bourgeois Militia" ( "milice bourgeoise" ) on 13 July. In
655-609: A conclusion. On 15 October Ney's troops successfully charged the Michelsberg encampments and on the 16th the French began to bombard Ulm itself. Austrian morale was at a low point and Mack began to realize that there was little hope of rescue. On 17 October Napoleon's emissary, Ségur , signed a convention with Mack in which the Austrians agreed to surrender on 25 October if no aid came by that date. Gradually, however, Mack heard of
786-618: A containment of the French until the Russians under Kutuzov could arrive and alter the odds against Napoleon. Ulm was protected by the heavily fortified Michelsberg heights, giving Mack the impression that the city was virtually impregnable from outside attack. Fatally, the Aulic Council decided to make Northern Italy the main theater of operations for the Habsburgs . Archduke Charles was assigned 95,000 troops and directed to cross
917-487: A growing challenge. Britain resented having to turn over all colonial conquests since 1793, and France was angry that British troops had not evacuated the island of Malta , as the treaty had promised. The tense situation only worsened since Napoleon sent an expeditionary force to crush the Haitian Revolution . In May 1803, Britain declared war on France. In December 1804, an Anglo- Swedish agreement led to
1048-401: A parole in which they agreed not to take up arms against France until they were exchanged. More than ten general officers were included in this agreement, including Mack, Johann von Klenau , Maximilian Anton Karl, Count Baillet de Latour , Prince Liechtenstein , and Ignaz Gyulai . As the Austrians were marching out of Ulm to surrender, a combined Franco-Spanish fleet was being destroyed at
1179-543: A period of official dissolution from 1827 to 1830 but was reestablished. Soon after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, the National Guard in Paris again became viewed as dangerously revolutionary, which contributed to its dissolution in 1871. In 2016, France announced the reestablishment of the National Guard for the second time, in response to a series of terrorist attacks in the country . The raising of
1310-695: A regiment boldly attacked and captured the abbey at the top of the hill at bayonet point. During the Battle of Elchingen , the Austrian cavalry was also defeated and Reisch's infantry fled toward Ulm. Ney was given the title Duke of Elchingen for his impressive victory. On 13 October Soult's IV Corps fell on Memmingen from the east. After a minor clash that resulted in 16 French casualties, General-Major Karl Spangen von Uyternesse surrendered 4,600 soldiers, eight guns, and nine colors. The Austrians were low on ammunition, cut off from Ulm, and completely demoralized by
1441-423: A total of 6,000 troopers. Murat's pursuit was so effective, however, that only eleven squadrons joined Werneck at Heidenheim. Murat continued his harassment of Werneck and forced him to surrender with 8,000 men at Treuchtlingen on 19 October; Murat also took an entire Austrian field park of 500 vehicles, then swept on towards Neustadt an der Donau and captured 12,000 Austrians. Events at Ulm were now reaching
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#17327656450741572-698: The Grande Armée would move from Hanover in northern Germany and Utrecht in the Netherland to fall on Württemberg ; the right and center, troops from the Channel coast, would concentrate along the Middle Rhine around cities like Mannheim and Strasbourg . While Murat was making demonstrations across the Black Forest, other French forces would then invade the German heartland and swing towards
1703-665: The Armée d'Italie , St. Cyr would march to Naples with 20,000 men, and Marshal Brune would patrol Boulogne with 30,000 troops against a possible British invasion. Murat and Bertrand conducted reconnaissance between the area bordering the Tyrol and the Main as Savary , chief of the planning staff, drew up detailed road surveys of the areas between the Rhine and the Danube. The left wing of
1834-618: The Adige River with Mantua , Peschiera , and Milan as the initial objectives. The Austrians based an army of 72,000 men on Ulm. Nominally commanded by Archduke Ferdinand , the army's real authority was Mack. Austrian strategy required that Archduke John with 23,000 troops secure the Tyrol and provide the link between his brother Charles's army and his cousin Ferdinand's army. The Austrians also detached individual corps to serve with
1965-433: The Battle of 13 Vendémiaire . The Paris National Guard thereafter ceased to play a significant political role. Napoleon did not believe that the middle-class National Guard would be able to maintain order and suppress riots. Therefore, he created a Municipal Guard of Paris , a full-time gendarmerie which was strongly militarized. However, he did not abolish the National Guard but was content to partially disarm it. He kept
2096-471: The Battle of Trafalgar . This decisive British victory ended the naval threat from France and ensured British naval domination for the next century. Despite this setback, the Ulm campaign had been a spectacular victory and had witnessed the elimination of an entire Austrian army at very little cost for the French; additionally, the road to the Austrian capital of Vienna was wide open and Napoleon would conquer
2227-566: The First Coalition in 1797. A Second Coalition was formed in 1798 but this too was defeated by 1801. Britain remained the only opponent for the new French Consulate . In March 1802, France and Britain agreed to end hostilities under the Treaty of Amiens . For the first time in ten years, all of Europe was at peace. There were many problems between the two sides and implementing the agreements that had been reached at Amiens seemed to be
2358-568: The French Revolution . For most of its history the National Guard, particularly its officers, has been widely viewed as loyal to middle-class interests. It was founded as separate from the French Army and existed both for policing and as a military reserve . However, in its original stages from 1792 to 1795, the National Guard was perceived as revolutionary and the lower ranks were identified with sans-culottes . It experienced
2489-666: The Grande Armée plus two more in the Imperial Guard, but unlike cavalry and infantry regiments, these were administrative organisations. The main operational and tactical units were the batteries (or companies) of 120 men each, which were formed into brigades and assigned to the divisions and corps. Battery personnel included not only gun crews, NCOs, and officers, but drummers, trumpeters, metal workers, woodworkers, ouvriers, fouriers, and artificers. They would be responsible for fashioning spare parts, maintaining and repairing
2620-745: The July Revolution . A new National Guard was established in 1831 following the July Revolution in 1830. It played a major role in suppressing the Paris June Rebellion of 1832 against the government of King Louis-Phillipe . However, the same National Guard fought in the Revolution of 1848 in favour of the republicans. This change in allegiance reflected a general erosion in the popularity of Louis-Phillipe and his "Bourgeois Monarchy", rather than any fundamental change in
2751-588: The National Gendarmerie and the National Police in securing major events nationwide while it would perform its historical responsibility as a national military and police reserve service. It was expected that the new Guard would grow to a 72,500-member force in 2017 and grow to an 86,000-member national reserve in 2018. The formation of the revived Guard would be assisted with a dedicated 311-million euro budget and its personnel come from
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#17327656450742882-457: The cuirass could not protect against direct musket fire, it could deflect ricochets and shots from long range, and offered some protection from pistol shots. More importantly, the breastplates protected against the swords and lances of opposing cavalry. Napoleon often combined all of his cuirassiers and carabiniers into a cavalry reserve, to be used at the decisive moment of the battle. In this manner, they proved to be an extremely potent force on
3013-567: The insurrection of 10 August placed a radical revolutionary at the head of the Guard. After the abolition of the monarchy (21 September 1792), the National Guard fought for the Revolution and it had an important role in forcing the wishes of the capital on the French National Assembly which was obliged to give way in front of the force of the "patriotic" bayonets. The Insurrection of 31 May started after François Henriot
3144-574: The Austrian army in the Danube before Russian reinforcements could arrive. Rapid marching let Napoleon conduct a large wheeling maneuver, which captured an Austrian army of 60,000 under General Mack on 20 October at Ulm. The campaign is by some military historians regarded as a strategic masterpiece and was influential in the development of the Schlieffen Plan in the late 19th century. Napoleon himself wrote: The victory at Ulm did not end
3275-517: The Austrian positions, but all failed. Mack then sent in Ignaz Gyulai with seven infantry battalions and fourteen cavalry squadrons to repair the destroyed bridges, but this force was charged and swept away by the delayed French 59th Infantry Regiment. Fierce fighting ensued and the French finally managed to establish a foothold on the right (south) bank of the Danube. While the Battle of Günzburg
3406-401: The Austrians from the northeast. Auffenberg attempted a retreat to the southwest, but he was not quick enough: the Austrians lost nearly their entire force, 1,000 to 2,000 of which were taken prisoner. The Battle of Wertingen had been an easy French victory. The action at Wertingen convinced Mack to operate on the left (north) bank of the Danube instead of making a direct eastwards retreat on
3537-671: The Austrians had expected. The campaign highlighted the utility of the Corps d'Armée system; corps went on to become the fundamental strategic building block for the major wars in the 19th and the 20th centuries. A typical corps might have three infantry divisions, a light cavalry brigade for reconnaissance and reserve artillery batteries in addition to those attached to each division. Their increased size allowed them to fight without support for long periods of time, as Ney did, and their durability permitted them to spread out and subsist by requisitioning local food. The French needed about an eighth of
3668-826: The Corps of Observation of the Alpes, and the Imperial Guard (including the Minister of War, Maréchal Louis-Nicolas Davout , who retired westward to join the hastily formed Armée de la Loire . However, following the end of the Hundred Days, the remainder of the Armée de la Loire was disbanded along with any troops of the Army. The only remaining elements were the board of directors and those soldiers who had no families and were too old to leave. Part of King Louis XVIII 's plan to remove
3799-448: The Danube at Donauwörth . The French encirclement, however, was not deep enough to prevent Kienmayer's escape: the French corps did not all arrive at the same place – they instead deployed on a long west-east axis – and the early arrival of Soult and Davout at Donauwörth incited Kienmayer to exercise caution and evasion. Napoleon gradually became more convinced that the Austrians were massed at Ulm and ordered sizeable portions of
3930-597: The Emperor may have finally ascertained that the majority of the Austrian army was concentrated at Ulm. Accordingly, Napoleon sent the corps of Soult and Marmont towards the Iller, meaning he now had four infantry and one cavalry corps to deal with Mack; Davout, Bernadotte, and the Bavarians were still guarding the region around Munich. Napoleon did not intend to fight a battle across rivers and ordered his marshals to capture
4061-481: The French army to concentrate around Donauwörth; on 6 October three French infantry and cavalry corps headed to Donauwörth to seal off Mack's escape route. Realizing the danger of his position, Mack decided to go on the offensive. On 8 October he commanded the army to concentrate around Günzburg and hoped to strike at Napoleon's lines of communication. Mack instructed Kienmayer to draw Napoleon further east towards Munich and Augsburg. Napoleon did not seriously consider
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4192-471: The French originally thought. During this time, the Russian threat to the east began to preoccupy Napoleon so much that Murat was given command of the right wing of the army, consisting of Ney's and Lannes's corps. The French were separated in two massive wings at this point: the forces of Ney, Lannes, and Murat to the west were containing Mack while those of Soult, Davout, Bernadotte, and Auguste Marmont to
4323-849: The Grace of God and the Constitutions of the Republic , Emperor of the French , King of Italy , Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine Mediator of the Helvetic Confederation By the Grace of God and the Constitutions of the Republic, Emperor of the French (disputed) The duties of the Minister of War were described by historian Ronald Pawley as follows: "... he
4454-505: The Jacobins won an emergency vote in the wavering Assembly, declaring the nation in danger and drafting all Parisians with pikes or pistols into the National Guard. On 17 July the municipality of Paris accepted all citizens armed with a pike for enlistment as part of the capital's own National Guard unit. The citizens kept their weapons and their uniforms at home and set forth with them when required. The initially multi-coloured uniforms of
4585-771: The Military Districts, as previously described. In 1814, following the Abdication of Napoleon, the army was quickly redesignated as the Royal Army (Armée Royale) , and the structure (for the most part) remained, though with regimental name changes and slight uniform changes. After the Return of Napoleon in 1815, almost the entirety of the army (with the exception of some of the Royal Guard (formerly Napoleon's Imperial Guard )) went over to his side along with
4716-707: The Minister of the Armed Forces. Ulm campaign [REDACTED] Archduke Ferdinand The Ulm campaign was a series of French and Bavarian military maneuvers and battles to outflank and capture an Austrian army in 1805 during the War of the Third Coalition . It took place in the vicinity of and inside the Swabian city of Ulm . The French Grande Armée , led by Napoleon , had 210,000 troops organized into seven corps and hoped to knock out
4847-608: The Napoleonic Wars, with the French being the first to reintroduce the back-and-breastplate. In 1809, appalled by their mauling at the hands of Austrian Uhlans , Napoleon ordered that they be given armour. The carabinier's refusal to copy the less elite cuirassiers resulted in them being given special armor, with their helmets and cuirasses being sheathed in bronze for added visual effect. But this did not prevent them from being defeated by Russian cuirassiers at Borodino in 1812, and panicking before Hungarian hussars at Leipzig
4978-456: The National Guard took over this role. In fact, the last commander of the Guet royal ( Chevalier du Guet ), de La Rothière, was elected to head the National Guard in 1791. In the summer of 1792, the fundamental character of the guard changed. The fédérés were admitted to the guard and the subsequent takeover of the guard by Antoine Joseph Santerre when Mandat was murdered in the first hours of
5109-517: The National Guard was expanded to 35,000 men and became the primary force for maintaining order within the city. Under the Restoration in 1814, the National Guard was maintained by Louis XVIII of France. Initially, the Guard, purged of its Napoleonic leadership, maintained good relations with the restored monarchy. The future Charles X served as its Colonel-General, reviewed the force regularly and intervened to veto its proposed disbandment on
5240-481: The National Guard. Clothing and equipment were often in short supply and even the Paris National Guard was obliged to provide pikes as substitute weapons for some of its new recruits. These field and regional units were disbanded in 1814 after the abdication of Napoleon I. Six thousand national guardsmen took part in the Battle of Paris in 1814. Following the occupation of Paris by the allied armies,
5371-467: The National Guard. Their role was the maintenance of law and order and, if necessary, territorial defense in wartime. Following a nationwide scheme decided on in September 1791, the National Guard was organised on the basis of district or canton companies. Five of these neighbourhood units (designated as fusiliers or grenadiers) made up a National Guard infantry battalion. Eight to ten battalions comprised
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5502-491: The Paris units of the National Guard in the uprising of the Paris Commune led to a great degree of hostility towards the National Guard, especially from the army. Perceived as an embodiment of the revolutionary republican "nation in arms" at the time of the Revolution of 1789, the National Guard was formally disbanded on 14 March 1872 as a threat to the security and order of the new Third Republic . The National Guard
5633-509: The Parliament recruited 400,000 National volunteers from the entire French National Guard. On 17 July 1791 Champ de Mars massacre took place. At the end of September a law passed to reorganize the National Guard formations in cantons and districts; each year officers and non-commissioned officers could be elected on 14 July . Under the law of 14 October 1791, all active citizens and their children over 18 years were obliged to enlist in
5764-482: The Polish way of arming only the first line with lances while the second rank carried carbines instead was much more practical and thus was adopted. Lancers were the best cavalry for charging against infantry squares, where their lances could outreach the infantry's bayonets, (as was the case with Colborne 's British brigade at Albuera in 1811) and also in hunting down a routed enemy. Their ability to scour and finish off
5895-800: The Swedish in Pomerania and the British in Naples , though these were designed to confuse the French and divert their resources. In both the campaigns of 1796 and 1800, Napoleon had envisaged the Danube theater as the central focus of French efforts, but in both instances the Italian theater became the most important. The Aulic Council thought Napoleon would strike in Italy again. Napoleon had other intentions: 210,000 French troops would be launched eastwards from
6026-419: The Third Coalition a few weeks later. The French victory highlighted the effectiveness of la manoeuvre sur les derrières , a special type of strategic envelopment first used by Napoleon in his Italian campaign in 1796. The maneuver called for a pinning force that would occupy a broad front of the enemy line while other supporting units positioned themselves at a specific location in the enemy's flank or rear. As
6157-562: The Waterloo campaign. Below is an abbreviated list of dragoon regiments: These fast, light cavalrymen were the eyes, ears, and egos of the Napoleonic armies. They regarded themselves as the best horsemen and swordsmen ( beau sabreurs ) in the entire Grande Armée . This opinion was not entirely unjustified and their flamboyant uniforms reflected their panache. Tactically, they were used for reconnaissance , skirmishing, and screening for
6288-501: The Young Guard. This effectively made the guard an independent fighting corps with everything from its own staff down to its own support units. The infantry during the Napoleonic era provided the majority of the fighting force while on campaign. The nucleus of the army was formed in 1803, when the old 'royalist term' of Régiment replaced the 'republican style' Demi-Brigade , which subsequently referred to provisional units only. At
6419-588: The armed forces. Despite its major role in the Franco-Prussian War, the National Guard was disbanded soon after the establishment of the Third Republic. Having been converted from a volunteer reserve into a much larger force composed mainly of conscripts, the National Guard had lost its identity and raison d'être . It also faced opposition from the regular army which was opposed to such a large armed force outside its direct control. The role of
6550-418: The army to keep their commanders informed of enemy movements while denying the enemy the same information and pursuing fleeing enemy troops. Armed only with curved sabres and pistols, they had reputations for reckless bravery to the point of being almost suicidal. It was said by their most famous commander General Antoine Lasalle that a hussar who lived to be 30 was truly an old guard and very fortunate. Lasalle
6681-443: The battlefield. The British, in particular, who mistakenly believed the cuirassiers were Napoleon's bodyguards, and would later come to adapt their distinctive helmets and breastplates for their own Household Cavalry . There were originally 25 cuirassier regiments, reduced to 12 by Napoleon initially who later added three more. At the beginning of his rule, most of the cuirassier regiments were severely understrength, so Napoleon ordered
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#17327656450746812-418: The best in Europe, but the detachment of many cavalry units to various infantry formations precluded the hitting power of their massed French counterparts, who could be ordered by Napoleon to amass a whole corps of cavalry to influence the battle. The Ulm campaign lasted for nearly a month and saw the French army under Napoleon deliver blow after blow to the confused Austrians. It culminated on 20 October with
6943-563: The best men and horses to be allocated to the first 12 regiments, while the rest were reorganised into dragoons. Below is an abbreviated list of cuirassier regiments: The medium-weight mainstays of the French cavalry, although considered heavy cavalry, were used for battle, skirmishing, and scouting. They were highly versatile being armed not only with distinctive straight swords, but also muskets with bayonets enabling them to fight as infantry as well as mounted, though fighting on foot had become increasingly uncommon for dragoons of all armies in
7074-462: The campaigns in Germany in 1813 and the invasion of north-east France by Coalition forces in 1814. Existing National Guard units, such as those of Paris, were deployed as defence corps in their areas of recruitment. Mass conscription was extended to age groups previously exempt from military service, to provide more manpower for the expanded National Guard. Students and volunteers from gamekeepers and other professional groups formed separate units within
7205-454: The camps of Boulogne and would envelop General Mack's exposed Austrian army if it kept marching towards the Black Forest . Meanwhile, Marshal Murat would conduct cavalry screens across the Black Forest to fool the Austrians into thinking that the French were advancing on a direct west-east axis. The main attack in Germany would be supported by French assaults in other theaters: Marshal Masséna would confront Charles in Italy with 50,000 men of
7336-472: The capitulations at Heidenheim and Neresheim and agreed to surrender five days before schedule on 20 October. Fifteen hundred troops from the Austrian garrison managed to escape, but the vast majority of the Austrian force marched out on 21 October and laid down their arms without incident, all with the Grande Armée drawn up in a vast semicircle observing the capitulation (see infobox picture). The officers were permitted to leave, pending their signatures on
7467-416: The carriages and introduced standard-sized calibres. In general, French guns were 4- pounders , 8-pounders, or 12-pounders and 6-inch (150 mm) howitzers with the lighter calibres being phased out and replaced by 6-pounders later in the Napoleonic Wars. French cannons had brass barrels and their carriages, wheels, and limbers were painted olive green. Superb organisation fully integrated the artillery into
7598-521: The city a month later. The 8th bulletin of the Grande Armée described the scale of the achievement: Thirty thousand men, among them 2,000 cavalry, together with 60 guns and 40 standards have fallen into the hands of the victors....Since the beginning of the war, the total number of prisoners taken can be evaluated at 60,000, the number of standards at 80 without listing the artillery or baggage trains....Never have victories been so complete and less costly. Marshal Augereau 's arrival from Brest with
7729-415: The class one grenadier, one voltigeur, and four fusilier companies by an order of 18 February 1808. That same day, Napoleon decreed that each line and light infantry regiment was to consist of one depot and four field battalions, with the depot acting as the recruitment and reserve unit. The line infantry was the best-known and most valuable infantry branch within the Imperial Army. The line infantry also had
7860-477: The closer attention of the infantry or cavalry. Superb gun-crew training allowed Napoleon to move the weapons at great speed to either bolster a weakening defensive position or else hammer a potential break in enemy lines. Besides superior training, Napoleon's artillery was also greatly aided by the numerous technical improvements to French cannons by General Jean Baptiste de Gribeauval which made them lighter, faster, and much easier to sight, as well as strengthened
7991-429: The coalition a few months later. Prior to the formation of the Third Coalition, Napoleon had assembled the "Army of England" , an invasion force that was meant to strike at the British Isles , around six camps at Boulogne in Northern France. Although they never set foot on British soil, Napoleon's troops received careful and invaluable training for any possible military operation. Although boredom quickly set in among
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#17327656450748122-416: The confusion reigning at army headquarters. More actions took place on the 14th. Murat's forces joined Dupont at Albeck just in time to drive off an Austrian attack from Werneck; together Murat and Dupont beat the Austrians to the north in the direction of Heidenheim . By night on the 14th, two French corps were stationed in the vicinity of the Austrian encampments at Michelsberg, right outside of Ulm. Mack
8253-455: The creation of the Third Coalition. British Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger spent 1804 and 1805 in a flurry of diplomatic activity to form a new coalition against France. Mutual suspicion between the British and the Russians eased in the face of several French political mistakes, and by April 1805, the first two had signed a treaty of alliance. Having been defeated twice in recent memory by France and keen on revenge, Austria also joined
8384-479: The critical decision to stay and defend Ulm rather than retreat to the south, which would have offered a reasonable opportunity at saving the bulk of his forces. Napoleon had little accurate information about Mack's intentions or maneuvers; he knew that Kienmayer 's Corps was sent to Ingolstadt east of the French positions, but his agents greatly exaggerated its size. On 5 October Napoleon ordered Ney to join Lannes , Soult , and Murat in concentrating and crossing
8515-490: The decades preceding Napoleon. The versatility of a dual-purpose soldier came at the cost of their horsemanship and swordsmanship often not being up to the same standards as those of other cavalry. Finding enough large horses proved a challenge. Some infantry officers were even required to give up their mounts for the dragoons, creating resentment towards them from this branch as well. There were 25, later 30, dragoon regiments. In 1815, only 15 could be raised and mounted in time for
8646-424: The districts for not more than a year. They were united on 14 July 1790 under Lafayette, who was appointed "Commandant General of all the National Guards of the Kingdom" and was responsible to the King as commander-in-chief of the armed forces. On 5 December 1790 Robespierre held a speech on the urgent topic of the National Guard; envisaging an evolution from semi-organised militia to citizen-soldiers independent from
8777-408: The early morning of the next day, the search for weapons for this new militia led to the storming of the town hall, the Hotel des Invalides and then the storming of the Bastille . Lafayette was elected to the post of commander in chief of the Bourgeois Militia on 14 July, and it was renamed the " National Guard of Paris ". When the French Guards mutinied and were disbanded during the same month,
8908-400: The east were charged with guarding against any possible Russian and Austrian incursions. On 11 October Ney made a renewed push on Ulm; the 2nd and 3rd divisions were to march to the city along the right bank of the Danube while Dupont's division, supported by one dragoon division, was to march directly for Ulm and seize the entire city. The orders were hopeless because Ney still did not know that
9039-431: The enemy and throw grenades , of which very few ever actually exploded. However, by the mid-18th century, these troops became elite infantry and were placed on the right of the line, indicating they were the most experienced and held in high regard. France began to experiment with light infantry in 1740 and several legions were raised by 1749. At the same time, a battalion of Chasseurs à Pied (literally Hunters on Foot)
9170-420: The enemy became more embroiled with the pinning force, the flanking troops would attack at a critical spot and seal the victory. In the Ulm campaign, Murat's cavalry served as the pinning force that fooled the Austrians into thinking the main French attack would come from the Black Forest. As Murat lulled the Austrians towards Ulm, the main French forces crashed through Central Germany and separated Mack's army from
9301-481: The entire Austrian army was stationed at Ulm. The 32nd Infantry Regiment in Dupont's division marched from Haslach towards Ulm and ran into four Austrian regiments holding Boefingen. The 32nd carried out several ferocious attacks, but the Austrians held firm and repulsed every one. The Austrians flooded the battle with more cavalry and infantry regiments to Ulm-Jungingen hoping to score a knockout blow against Ney's corps by enveloping Dupont's force. Dupont sensed what
9432-584: The establishment of a new third National Guard. By his words, the Guard would be formed using military reserve forces. On 12 October 2016, during a weekly meeting of the Cabinet, the National Guard was officially reconstituted after 145 years, as the fifth service branch of the French Armed Forces under the Ministry of the Armed Forces . The revitalized Guard would also reinforce elements of
9563-412: The fact, the most agile, smallest men in each fusilier company were concentrated into the new company. During this period, a depot battalion consisted of a senior captain who was mounted, one depot captain, one 'Quartermaster Treasurer', and 4 x Fusilier Companies. Grenadiers had historically been the tallest and most experienced. These soldiers would line up in straight lines and advance to 5–10 feet of
9694-441: The finest in the world. Until 1812, it was undefeated in any large engagements above the regimental level. There were two primary types of cavalry for different roles, heavy and light. The French fielded inferior cavalry as compared to their Hessian, Baden, Polish, British, Prussian and Austrian counterparts. However, French cavalry won many more engagements than their enemies, with many reasons combining to achieve this. One factor
9825-468: The first company of every regiment's first escadron, was always designated as 'elite', with presumably, the best men and horses. In the revolution's wake, the cavalry suffered the greatest from the loss of experienced aristocratic officers and NCOs still loyal to the Ancien Régime . Consequently, the quality of French cavalry drastically declined. Napoleon rebuilt the branch, turning it into arguably
9956-407: The following year. The heavy cavalry, wearing a heavy cuirass (breastplate) and helmets of brass and iron and armed with straight long sabres, pistols, and later carbines . Like medieval knights, they served as mounted shock troops . Because of the weight of their armour and weapons, both the trooper and the horse had to be big and strong, and could put a lot of force behind their charge. Though
10087-406: The force in reserve and mobilised it for the defence of French territory in 1809 and 1814. In Paris during this period the National Guard comprised twelve thousand bourgeois property owners, serving part-time and equipped at their own expense, whose prime function was to guard public buildings on a roster basis. Between 1811 and 1812 the National Guard was organized in "cohorts" to distinguish it from
10218-456: The fur busby worn by some French hussars), green coats, green breeches, and short boots. They were, however, the most numerous of the light cavalry, with 31 regiments in 1811, six of which comprised Flemish, Swiss, Italians and Germans. These cavalry was composed of chasseurs but on the horse, they could load into melee or shoot as light infantry. Below is an abbreviated list of regiments (unless stated all formerly existed prior to 1803): Some of
10349-478: The grounds of economy by the Conseil . However, by 1827, the middle-class men who still composed the Guard had come to feel a degree of hostility towards the reactionary monarchy. Following hostile cries, at a review on 29 April Charles X dissolved the Guard the following day, on the grounds of offensive behaviour towards the crown. He neglected to disarm the disbanded force, and its muskets resurfaced in 1830 during
10480-438: The guard consisted of some of the youngest regiments of the army. Their history is thus relatively short and simple compared to the ancient regiments of the line, many of which were raised in the 16th century. The life span of most of the guard regiments was also very short: a royal decree of 12 May 1814 (just after the Treaty of Fontainebleau ) completely disbanded the Young Guard, and the units were broken up and distributed among
10611-423: The guns, carriages, caissons and wagons, as well as tending the horses and storing munitions. Below is an abbreviated list of regiments (again, there were really only administrative units): National Guard (France) The National Guard (French: Garde nationale ) is a French military, gendarmerie , and police reserve force , active in its current form since 2016 but originally founded in 1789 during
10742-435: The imperial stain was to completely reconstitute the army on a new regional basis and destroy the imperialist esprit-de-corps . This marked the effective disbandment of the Imperial Army. The French " Levée en masse " method of conscription brought around 2,300,000 French men into the Army between the period of 1804 and 1813. To give an estimate of how much of the population this was, modern estimates range from 7 to 8% of
10873-468: The important bridges around Ulm. He also began shifting his forces to the north of Ulm because he expected a battle in that region rather than an encirclement of the city itself. These dispositions and actions would lead to a confrontation at Elchingen on the 14th as Ney's forces advanced on Albeck. At this point in the campaign, the Austrian command staff was in full confusion. Ferdinand began to openly oppose Mack's command style and decisions, charging that
11004-480: The infantry and cavalry units it supported, yet also allowed it to operate independently if the need arose. There were two basic types, Artillerie à pied (foot artillery) and Artillerie à cheval (horse artillery). As the name indicates, these gunners marched alongside their guns, which were, of course, pulled by horses when limbered (undeployed). Hence, they travelled at the infantry's pace or slower. In 1805, there were eight, later ten, regiments of foot artillery in
11135-443: The latter spent his days writing contradictory orders that left the Austrian army marching back and forth. On 13 October Mack sent two columns out of Ulm in preparation for a breakout to the north: one under Johann Sigismund Riesch headed towards Elchingen to secure the bridge there and the other under Franz von Werneck went north with most of the heavy artillery. Ney hurried his corps forward to reestablish contact with Dupont, who
11266-602: The line. Certain units were attached to the guard in 1813, for example, the Saxon Life Grenadier Guards (Saxe Leibgrenadiergarde ) and a battalion of Polish grenadiers, but these were not part of the guard and did not wear the guard button. The guard was separated into three 'echelons', of which each consisted many different types of units, these consisted of the Old Guard , the Middle Guard, and
11397-572: The loss of an entire Austrian army. General Mack thought that Austrian security relied on sealing off the gaps through the mountainous Black Forest area in Southern Germany that had witnessed much fighting during the campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars. Mack believed that there would be no action in central Germany. Mack decided to make the city of Ulm the centerpiece of his defensive strategy, which called for
11528-479: The main Austrian advance out of Ulm. Uncertain of what to do and having little hope for reinforcements, Auffenberg was in a dangerous position. The first French forces to arrive were Murat's cavalry divisions – Louis Klein 's 1st Dragoon Division, Marc Antoine de Beaumont's 3rd Dragoon Division, and Nansouty's 1st Cuirassier Division. They began to assault the Austrian positions and were soon joined by Nicolas Oudinot 's grenadiers, who were hoping to outflank
11659-461: The majority of its staff. Though the 1815 campaign was a disaster for France, it is still seen by many military historians as a success, as France was able to form several field armies and win multiple battles, with almost no preparation whatsoever. After Napoleon's second abdication, some elements of the army refused to give up, including the Armée de l'Ouest fighting an insurrection in the Vendée ,
11790-652: The majority of this former royal regiment's rank and file became the full-time cadre of the Paris National Guard. Similar bodies of National Guards were spontaneously created in the towns and rural districts of France in response to widespread fears of chaos or counter-revolution. "Bourgeois Militia" changed its name to National Guard, like in Limoges in November 1789, where no other military bodies were allowed. Initially, each city, town and village maintained National Guard units operated by their respective local governments in
11921-519: The make-up of the National Guard, which remained a middle-class body. Napoleon III confined the National Guard during the Second Empire to subordinate tasks to reduce its liberal and republican influence. During the Franco-Prussian War the Government of National Defense of 1870 called on the Guard to undertake a major role in defending Paris against the invading Prussian army. During
12052-400: The most bitter enemies of France. In peacetime, the regiments of dragoons, lancers, chasseurs and hussars had colour of horses according to squadron: However, already during the campaign in 1805, only some colonels insisted on keeping up these peacetime practices. The heavy cavalry, carabiniers and cuirassiers, rode on black horses. The elite among all French heavy cavalry line formations,
12183-534: The most brilliant year of Napoleon's career. His army had been trained to perfection; his plans were faultless". Historians often analyze the campaign on a wide strategic level that does not include tactical confrontations, but they were common and relevant. The decisive victory at Ulm is also believed to be a product of the long training and preparation the Grande Armée received at the camps of Boulogne. The Grande Armée carried little baggage, invaded enemy territory at harvest time and marched far faster than
12314-713: The most feared cavalry in the Grande Armée were the Polish lancers of the Vistula Uhlans. Nicknamed Hell's Picadors or Los Diablos Polacos (The Polish Devils) by the Spanish, these medium and light horse ( Chevaux-Légers Lanciers ) cavalry had near equal speed to the hussars, shock power almost as great as the cuirassiers, and were nearly as versatile as the dragoons. They were armed with, as their name indicates, lances along with sabres and pistols. Initially, French ministers of war insisted on arming all lancers identically. Real battlefield experience, however, proved that
12445-474: The most regiments throughout the war, with the following an abbreviated list of all regiments: From 1792 till 14 March 1804, a line infantry regiment consisted of three battalions: 2 x Field battalions (8 x Fusilier and 1 x Grenadier Companies), and the Depot Battalion. On 20 September 1804, the line infantry battalions were modified by the conversion of one of the 8 fusilier companies to voltigeurs; in
12576-585: The movements of units stationed within the borders of France (Intendent General of the Army), and Monsieur Tabarié, Director General of the Personnel Department. Prince de Neuchâtel Duc de Feltre Duc d'Auerstaedt Prince d'Eckmühl The Imperial Guard (Garde Impériale) was the senior branch of the army, consisting of the senior troops and those who had distinguished themselves during battle, however (rather ironically)
12707-506: The new main commander in Austria's army, instituting reforms on the infantry on the eve of war that called for a regiment to be composed of four battalions of four companies , rather than the older three battalions of six companies. The sudden change came with no corresponding officer training; new units were led by commanders who had not been given sufficient tactical training in using their units. Austrian cavalry forces were regarded as
12838-521: The newly formed VII Corps gave the French one more piece of good news. In the Capitulation of Dornbirn on 13 November, Franjo Jelačić 's division was cornered and forced to surrender. The Russians withdrew to the northeast after Mack's capitulation and Vienna fell on 12 November. The Allies were thoroughly defeated at the Battle of Austerlitz in December and Austria was permanently knocked out of
12969-430: The other theaters of the war. The Ulm campaign is considered to be one of the greatest historical examples of a strategic turning movement ; for instance, in his Harper Encyclopedia of Military History, Dupuy would describe it in the following terms: "Ulm was not a battle; it was a strategic victory so complete and so overwhelming that the issue was never seriously contested in tactical combat. Also, This campaign opened
13100-480: The peace establishments of men were 75 for fusiliers, 68 for chasseurs, and 123 for voltigeurs. Including the staff, a battalion had 700 men in peacetime and 1,100 in war. A regiment of two battalions would have 46 officers and 1,375 men in peacetime and 38 officers and 2,162 men in war; a regiment of three battalions would have 39 officers and 2,054 men in peacetime and 42 officers and 3,234 in war. The line and light infantry battalion organisations were standardised to
13231-553: The population of France proper, while the First World War used around 20 to 21%. The French Imperial Army was commanded, as its predecessors by the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, who was Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte from 1804, and in 1815. Under him sat the effective commander of the Army, the Minister of War ( Ministre de la Guerre ). Below is a list of the officers who held the position. By
13362-680: The possibility that Mack would cross the Danube and move away from his central base, but he did realize that seizing the bridges at Günzburg would yield a large strategic advantage. To accomplish this objective, Napoleon sent Ney's Corps to Günzburg, completely unaware that the bulk of the Austrian army was heading to the same destination. On 8 October, however, the campaign witnessed its first serious battle at Wertingen between Auffenberg's troops and those of Murat and Lannes. For reasons not entirely clear, on 7 October Mack ordered Franz Xaver von Auffenberg to take his division of 5,000 infantry and 400 cavalry from Günzburg to Wertingen in preparation for
13493-625: The recent Revolutionary Wars. Archduke Charles , brother of the Austrian Emperor, had started to reform the Austrian army in 1801 by taking away power from the Hofkriegsrat ( Aulic Council ), the military-political council responsible for decision making in the Austrian armed forces. Charles was Austria's most able field commander, but he was unpopular with the royal court and lost much influence when, against his advice, Austria decided to go to war with France. Karl Mack became
13624-569: The regular army, and for home defence only . By a skilful appeal to patriotism, and judicious pressure applied through the prefects , it became a useful reservoir of half-trained men for new battalions of the active army. After the disastrous campaign in Russia in 1812, dozens of National Guard cohorts were called up for field duty the next year; four cohorts being combined to form one line infantry regiment. The 135ème to 156ème Régiments d'Infanterie de Ligne were thus formed. Many of these fought in
13755-458: The regular army. He repeated his ideas in the following year. On 18 December it was decreed to supply the National Guard with 50,000 fusils. In January 1791 Robespierre promoted the idea not only the National Guard but also the people had to be armed if necessary with pikes. On 27 April 1791, Robespierre again opposed the plans for reorganizing the National Guard and restricting its membership to active citizens . On 22 April and 15 June 1791,
13886-682: The reserves, members from the private sector and active personnel seconded to the service. Unlike the Guard of the Revolutionary Wars, its officers are now seconded from both the Army and the National Gendarmerie and are graduates of their respective academies. As of 2024, Division General François-Xavier Poisbeau serves as the Secretary-General for the National Guard, who reports to the Chief of Defence Staff and
14017-914: The right bank. This would require the Austrian army to cross to the north at Günzburg. On 8 October Ney was operating under Louis Alexandre Berthier 's directions that called for a direct attack on Ulm the following day. Ney sent in Jean-Pierre Firmin Malher 's 3rd Division to capture the Günzburg bridges over the Danube. In the Battle of Günzburg , a column of this division ran into some Tyrolean jaegers and captured 200 of them, including their commander Konstantin Ghilian Karl d'Aspré , along with two cannons. The Austrians noticed these developments and reinforced their positions around Günzburg with three infantry battalions and 20 cannons. Malher's division conducted several heroic attacks against
14148-535: The southeast by capturing Augsburg , a move that was supposed to isolate Mack and interrupt the Austrian lines of communication. On 22 September Mack decided to hold the Iller line anchored on Ulm. In the last three days of September, the French began the furious marches that would place them at the Austrian rear. Mack believed that the French would not violate Prussian territory, but when he heard that Bernadotte 's I Corps had marched through Prussian Ansbach , he made
14279-412: The time, only some 90 regiments existed, the majority of them consisting of three battalions. By 1804, each battalion had been obliged to convert one of its fusilier companies into voltigeurs , thus augmenting the French light infantry establishment. The war/peace establishment of a grenadier or carabinier company was 3/3 officers and 83/75 men. All other companies had 3 officers and 123 men in wartime;
14410-431: The transport used by contemporary armies, which gave them a level of mobility and flexibility unseen at that time. Invasions of southern Germany by Marlborough and Moreau covered a narrow front, but the Grande Armée invaded in 1805 on a front that was 100 miles (161 km) wide, an action that took the Austrians by complete surprise and caused them to underestimate the gravity of the situation. The Ulm campaign
14541-452: The troops, Napoleon paid many visits to conduct lavish parades to maintain their morale. The men at Boulogne formed the core for what Napoleon would later call " La Grande Armée " ("The Great Army"). At the start, the French army had about 200,000 men organized into seven corps , which were large field units, containing about 36 to 40 cannon each and capable of independent action until other corps could arrive. On top, Napoleon created
14672-543: The two regiments of mounted carabiniers had a very similar appearance with the mounted grenadiers of the Imperial Guard; bearskins, long blue coats, etc. and were mounted exclusively on black horses prior to 1813. They were largely used in identical manner to the Cuirassiers, but being (initially) unarmored, they were less suited for close-quarters, melee combat. Unarmored heavy cavalry was the norm in Europe during most of
14803-632: The uprising of the Paris Commune , from March to May 1871, the National Guard in Paris was expanded to include all able-bodied citizens capable of carrying weapons. Following the Commune's defeat by the regular French Army, the National Guard was officially abolished and its units disbanded. Also disbanded was the Mobile National Guard ( Garde Nationale Mobile ) raised in 1866 to provide personnel and officers for rapid deployment operations nationwide, as well as to provide reserve personnel for
14934-452: The various provincial National Guard units were standardised in 1791, using as a model the dark blue coats with red collars, white lapels and cuffs worn by the Paris National Guard since its creation. This combination of colours matched those of the then young revolutionary tricolour flag. The uniform headdress was the tricorne. The former Guet royal had held responsibility for the maintenance of law and order in Paris from 1254 to 1791, when
15065-399: The war since a large Russian army under Kutuzov was near Vienna to defend the city against the French. The Russians withdrew to the northeast to await reinforcements and to link up with Austrian army units. The French moved aggressively forward and captured Vienna on 12 November. On 2 December, a massive battle at Austerlitz , causing around 24,000 - 36,000 casualties, removed Austria from
15196-686: The war. The resulting Peace treaty of Pressburg in late December brought the Third Coalition to an end and established Napoleonic France as the major power in Central Europe, which led to the War of the Fourth Coalition against Prussia and Russia the following year. Europe had been by then embroiled in the French Revolutionary Wars since 1792. After five years of war, the French Republic subdued
15327-427: The wounded without ever stepping off their saddle created perfect scenes of horror for the enemy. They could be deadly against other types of cavalry as well, most famously demonstrated by the fate of Sir William Ponsonby and his Scots Greys at Waterloo. Excluding those of the Guard, there were 9 lancer regiments. Below is an abbreviated list of regiments (unless stated all were formed on 18 June 1811): The emperor
15458-517: Was a former artillery officer, and reportedly said "God fights on the side with the best artillery." As such, French cannons were the backbone of the French Imperial Army, possessing the greatest firepower of the three arms and hence the ability to inflict the most casualties in the least amount of time. The French guns were often used in massed batteries (or grandes batteries ) to soften up enemy formations before being subjected to
15589-497: Was attached to each of the six newly raised regiments of Chasseurs à Cheval (literally Hunters on Horses/ Mounted Hunters). In 1788 these battalions were separated from the cavalry, and six more were raised to give 12 Chasseurs battalions in the army. They were designed to perform scouting duties and to act as advance and rear guards. Below is an abbreviated list of the regiments of Régiment (s) Légère (Light Infantry Regiments): On 14 March 1803, under that year's reform, it
15720-431: Was being fought, Ney sent Louis Henri Loison 's 2nd Division to capture the Danube bridges at Elchingen , which were lightly defended by the Austrians. Having lost most of the Danube bridges, Mack marched his army back to Ulm. By 10 October Ney's corps had made significant progress: Malher's 3rd division had crossed to the right (south) bank, Loison's 2nd division held Elchingen, and Pierre Dupont de l'Étang 's 1st Division
15851-442: Was certainly their superior organization, at higher levels, to most of their opponents. The French command structure and organization made it more likely that a French cavalry had reserves available, and the ability to direct them to exploit a break in the enemy line or plug a gap in their own, or counterattack a victorious enemy. Their discipline and tactics of using larger formations (cavalry divisions and cavalry corps) impressed even
15982-625: Was chosen by the Commune to lead the Paris Guards. After 9 Thermidor , year II (27 July 1794), the new government of the Thermidorian Reaction placed the National Guard under the control of more conservative leadership. Part of the National Guard then attempted to overthrow the Directory during the royalist insurrection on the 13 Vendémiaire, year IV (5 October 1795), but was defeated by forces led by Napoleon Bonaparte in
16113-524: Was divided into three separate types of commands: the largest was the Grande Armée , and its equivalent 'Field Armies', the next smallest were the Corps of Observation which were tasked with overseeing regions with strategic importance and providing rearguards where necessary, the next smallest was the 'Field Corps' which provided the actual fighting potential with the Field Armies, and finally,
16244-465: Was happening and preempted the Austrians by launching a surprise attack on Jungingen, during which he took as prisoner at least 4,000 of the Austrians. Renewed Austrian attacks drove these forces back to Haslach, which the French managed to hold. Dupont was eventually forced to fall back on Albeck, where he joined Louis Baraguey d'Hilliers 's foot dragoons division. The effects of the Battle of Haslach-Jungingen on Napoleon's plans are not fully clear, but
16375-472: Was heading towards Ulm. The demoralized Austrian army arrived at Ulm in the early hours of 10 October. Mack was deliberating his course of action and the Austrian army remained inactive at Ulm until the 11th. Meanwhile, Napoleon was operating under flawed assumptions: he believed the Austrians were moving to the east or southeast and that Ulm was lightly guarded. Ney sensed this misapprehension and wrote to Berthier that Ulm was, in fact, more heavily defended than
16506-516: Was killed at the Battle of Wagram at age 34. There were 10 regiments in 1804, with an 11th added in 1810 and two more in 1813. Below is an abbreviated list of regiments (unless stated all formerly existed prior to 1803): These were light cavalry identical to hussars in arms and role. But, unlike the chasseurs of the Imperial Guard and their infantry counterparts, they were considered less prestigious or elite. Their uniforms were less colourful as well, consisting of infantry-style shakos (in contrast to
16637-496: Was now in a dangerous situation: there was no longer any hope of escaping along the north bank, Marmont and the Imperial Guard were hovering at the outskirts of Ulm to the south of the river, and Soult was moving north from Memmingen to prevent the Austrians escaping south to the Tyrol. Troubles continued with the Austrian command as Ferdinand overrode the objections of Mack and ordered the evacuation of all cavalry from Ulm,
16768-557: Was ordered that each light infantry battalion was to consist of one Carabinier (Grenadier equivalent), eight Chasseur ( Fusilier equivalent), and one Voltigeur . Chasseurs effectively had the same role of the fusiliers, but were shorter and were quickly and typically more agile. By decree of the emperor, cavalry typically were between a fifth and a sixth of the Grande Armée . Cavalry regiments of 800–1,200 men were made up of three or four escadrons of two companies each, plus supporting elements. In light cavalry and dragoon regiments,
16899-571: Was responsible for all matters such as personnel, the ministerial budget, the Emperor's orders regarding troop movements within the Empire, the departments of artillery and engineers, and prisoners of war". When the first Minister, Louis-Alexandre Berthier was on campaign during the Ulm campaign , three members of the ministry replaced him as effective minister. Monsieur Denniée pére , became effective acting minister, Monsieur Gérard became responsible for
17030-410: Was still north of the Danube. Ney led Loison's division to the south of Elchingen on the right bank of the Danube to begin the attack. Malher's division crossed the river farther east and moved west toward Riesch's position. The field was a partially wooded flood plain, rising steeply to the hill town of Elchingen, which had a wide field of view. The French cleared the Austrian pickets from a bridge, then
17161-478: Was superseded by the creation of territorial regiments, made up of older men who had completed their period of full-time military service. These reserve units were embodied only in times of general mobilisation but remained an integral part of the regular army, distinguished only by details of insignia. After several terror attacks in France, which intensified in 2014–15 , French President François Hollande declared
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