146-659: The French Imperial Eagle ( French : Aigle de drapeau , lit. ' flag eagle ' ) refers to the figure of an eagle on a staff carried into battle as a standard by the Grande Armée of Napoleon I during the Napoleonic Wars . Although they were presented with regimental colours , Napoleon's regiments tended to carry at their head the Imperial Eagle. On 5 December 1804, three days after his coronation , Napoleon I distributed aigles based on
292-744: A French official to teachers in the department of Finistère , in western Brittany, included the following: "And remember, Gents: you were given your position in order to kill the Breton language". The prefect of Basses-Pyrénées in the French Basque Country wrote in 1846: "Our schools in the Basque Country are particularly meant to replace the Basque language with French..." Students were taught that their ancestral languages were inferior and they should be ashamed of them; this process
438-571: A bold feint against Golitsyn, hoping that this unexpected maneuver would dissuade the Russians from launching an assault on Davout. The Guardsmen were organized into attack columns, and the remaining artillery of the Grande Armée was readied for combat. Napoleon's strategy aimed to delay the Russians long enough to gather the forces of Davout and Ney, allowing the retreat to resume before Kutuzov could launch an attack or attempt to outflank him on
584-431: A bridge, beyond which immediately lay a line of heights to climb. This passage became the scene of a tremendous congestion of vehicles of all kinds. After three hours of a halt, I was informed that all movement of vehicles, all passage on the bridge had ceased, and the congestion was impenetrable. Finally, after a thousand hardships, the head of the column reached the bridge, which still needed to be cleared, and penetrated to
730-431: A comprehensive academic study entitled "The World's 10 most influential languages". In the article, Weber ranked French as, after English, the second-most influential language of the world, ahead of Spanish. His criteria were the numbers of native speakers, the number of secondary speakers (especially high for French among fellow world languages), the number of countries using the language and their respective populations,
876-797: A considerable number of his infantrymen managed to rally in Krasny. Once Davout and Mortier established communication, Napoleon initiated his retreat upon Lyady with the Old Guard. However, the Dutch 3rd Regiment Grenadiers and Red Lancers were left to support Mortier and engage the Russians. The rearguard of Davout's corps, consisting of the chasseurs from the Dutch 33rd Regiment, faced relentless attacks from Cossacks, cuirassiers , and infantry, becoming encircled and running low on ammunition. The regiment formed defensive squares and successfully repelled
1022-415: A counterattack and drove Ozharovski's detachment back from the brook. In the ensuing combat, the Russians were taken by surprise during their sleep and, despite their fierce resistance, were routed. As many as half of Ozharovsky's troops were killed with bayonets or captured, and the remainder threw their weapons in a pond and fled. Lacking cavalry, Roguet was unable to pursue Ozharovsky's remaining troops. On
1168-677: A devastating artillery barrage that inflicted heavy casualties on the Young Guardsmen. Kutuzov ordered Miloradovich to reposition his forces, linking up with Golitsyn's lines and concentrating their strength behind Golitsyn's position. This maneuver prevented Miloradovich from completing the destruction of Davout's troops. As Davout's troops continued their westward movement, they were relentlessly harassed by Cossacks, and Russian artillery under Stroganov pounded Davout's corps with grapeshot, causing devastating casualties. Although Davout's personal baggage train suffered significant losses,
1314-432: A force of 50,000 to 60,000 regular troops, which included a substantial cavalry unit and around 50/200 cannon, some transported on sledges. Kutuzov's forces were organized into two columns. The larger contingent, under the leadership of General Tormasov , formed the left flank and maneuvered around Krasny so Napoleon could not withdraw. Meanwhile, the second column, led by Golitsyn and his brother-in-law Stroganov , held
1460-555: A foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050. French is the fastest growing language on the continent (in terms of either official or foreign languages). French is increasingly being spoken as a native language in Francophone Africa, especially in regions like Ivory Coast , Cameroon , Gabon, Madagascar , and
1606-543: A number of regiments that were present at the Battle of Austerlitz by the city of Paris. The eagle's right claw was raised. Beneath it should have been a thunderbolt but, on the 87th's trophy, it was missing. It is believed to have been dislodged during its capture. Several years later, the eagle was stolen from the Royal Hospital. It was broken from its staff and smuggled away to an unknown fate. Many rumours abounded,
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#17327721125791752-705: A period of prosperity and prominence among European nations. Richelieu established the Académie française to protect the French language. By the early 1800s, Parisian French had become the primary language of the aristocracy in France. Near the beginning of the 19th century, the French government began to pursue policies with the end goal of eradicating the many minorities and regional languages ( patois ) spoken in France. This began in 1794 with Henri Grégoire 's "Report on
1898-607: A relatively clear path, he approached the Losvinka brook around nine in the morning. Unfortunately for Davout, Miloradovich, with Kutuzov's permission, initiated a sudden and intense artillery barrage on Davout's corps. This unexpected attack instilled panic among the French troops, resulting to a hasty retreat from the road and leaving the rear guard (Dutch 33rd Regiment) on the verge of annihilation. Davout's corps suffered severe casualties, with only 4,000 men remaining. An intriguing, though poorly documented incident occurred near
2044-494: A relic of the old nominal case system of Latin longer than most other Romance languages (with the notable exception of Romanian which still currently maintains a case distinction), differentiating between an oblique case and a nominative case. The phonology was characterized by heavy syllabic stress, which led to the emergence of various complicated diphthongs such as -eau which would later be leveled to monophthongs. The earliest evidence of what became Old French can be seen in
2190-425: A result of this murdering combat, the Russians withdrew from their positions, without moving away, and we stood on the field of battle throughout the day. Golitzin therefore decided to await Miloradovich's co-operation before pressing his advance. Jean-François Boulart described the situation when he arrived at the Losvinka on the previous evening: A little further on, there was a ravine that had to be crossed on
2336-587: A second language. French is the second most taught foreign language in the EU. All institutions of the EU use French as a working language along with English and German ; in some institutions, French is the sole working language (e.g. at the Court of Justice of the European Union ). French is also the 16th most natively spoken language in the world, the sixth most spoken language by total number of speakers , and
2482-526: A second language. However it has also become a native language in a number of urban areas, especially in regions like Ivory Coast , Cameroon , Gabon, Madagascar , and the Democratic Republic of the Congo . In some North African countries, though not having official status, it is also a first language among some upper classes of the population alongside indigenous languages, but only
2628-941: A second one among the general population. In 2015, approximately 40% of the Francophone population (including L2 and partial speakers) lived in Europe, 36% in sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian Ocean, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas, and 1% in Asia and Oceania. French is the second most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union . Of Europeans who speak other languages natively, approximately one-fifth are able to speak French as
2774-453: A significant battle. In the intervening space between and around these French corps, nearly 40,000 disintegrated troops formed mobs of unarmed, disorganized stragglers. As the soldiers, including the sick, blind and wounded, improvised unconventional methods to withstand the cold, the scene resembled a disordered carnival procession. (Napoleon complained to the Duke of Feltre about the quality of
2920-462: A small French battalion. They were expelled by Ozharovsky's flying column. In the afternoon of 15 November, Napoleon himself arrived at Krasny accompanied by his 12,000-strong Imperial Guard. He planned to await the arrival of the troops of Eugène , Davout and Ney over the next several days before recommencing the retreat. During the same period, the main Russian army under Kutuzov followed
3066-570: A substantial sum of (forged) money as part of the haul. The exact location of this incident, whether it occurred east of Krasny in the morning or west of Krasny in the afternoon, remains unclear. On the 17th, at daybreak, it was announced that the Emperor, at the head of the Guard, was going to move towards the defile in question to dislodge the Russians and open the passage for the corps that were stopped there in an awkward position. Four batteries of
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#17327721125793212-464: A three-pronged attack on Krasny: Miloradovich was to hold his strategic position on the hill, blocking the advance of Davout and Ney. The main army would split into two groups: Golitsyn would lead 15,000 troops and halt on the right bank of the Losvinka, in full sight of Krasny, while Tormasov commanded 20,000 troops tasked with encircling Krasny and cutting off the French retreat route to Orsha. Ozharovsky's flying column , weakened after their defeat by
3358-547: A variant of Canadian French , is spoken in parts of New England . Missouri French was historically spoken in Missouri and Illinois (formerly known as Upper Louisiana ), but is nearly extinct today. French also survived in isolated pockets along the Gulf Coast of what was previously French Lower Louisiana , such as Mon Louis Island , Alabama and DeLisle, Mississippi (the latter only being discovered by linguists in
3504-437: Is 95%, and in the French collectivity of Wallis and Futuna , it is 84%. In French Polynesia and to a lesser extent Wallis and Futuna, where oral and written knowledge of the French language has become almost universal (95% and 84% respectively), French increasingly tends to displace the native Polynesian languages as the language most spoken at home. In French Polynesia, the percentage of the population who reported that French
3650-472: Is a widespread second language among the Lebanese people , and is taught in many schools along with Arabic and English. French is used on Lebanese pound banknotes, on road signs, on Lebanese license plates , and on official buildings (alongside Arabic). Today, French and English are secondary languages of Lebanon , with about 40% of the population being Francophone and 40% Anglophone. The use of English
3796-489: Is also a working language in nonprofit organisations such as the Red Cross (alongside English, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic and Russian), Amnesty International (alongside 32 other languages of which English is the most used, followed by Spanish, Portuguese, German, and Italian), Médecins sans Frontières (used alongside English, Spanish, Portuguese and Arabic), and Médecins du Monde (used alongside English). Given
3942-430: Is among the top five most studied languages worldwide, with about 120 million learners as of 2017. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 16th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. French has a long history as an international language of literature and scientific standards and is a primary or second language of many international organisations including
4088-462: Is an official language in 27 countries , as well as one of the most geographically widespread languages in the world, with about 50 countries and territories having it as a de jure or de facto official, administrative, or cultural language. Most of these countries are members of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF), the community of 54 member states which share
4234-652: Is enacted only in New Brunswick, where about one third of the population is Francophone. French is also an official language of all of the territories ( Northwest Territories , Nunavut , and Yukon ). Out of the three, Yukon has the most French speakers, making up just under 4% of the population. Furthermore, while French is not an official language in Ontario , the French Language Services Act ensures that provincial services are available in
4380-503: Is growing in the business and media environment. Out of about 900,000 students, about 500,000 are enrolled in Francophone schools, public or private, in which the teaching of mathematics and scientific subjects is provided in French. Actual usage of French varies depending on the region and social status. One-third of high school students educated in French go on to pursue higher education in English-speaking institutions. English
4526-404: Is known as Old French. The period of Old French spanned between the 8th and 14th centuries. Old French shared many characteristics with Latin. For example, Old French made use of different possible word orders just as Latin did because it had a case system that retained the difference between nominative subjects and oblique non-subjects . The period is marked by a heavy superstrate influence from
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4672-469: Is often considered to be a useful skill by business owners in the United Kingdom; a 2014 study found that 50% of British managers considered French to be a valuable asset for their business, thus ranking French as the most sought-after foreign language there, ahead of German (49%) and Spanish (44%). MIT economist Albert Saiz calculated a 2.3% premium for those who have French as a foreign language in
4818-828: Is one of the official languages of such major international and regional courts, tribunals, and dispute-settlement bodies as the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights , the Caribbean Court of Justice , the Court of Justice for the Economic Community of West African States , the Inter-American Court of Human Rights , the International Court of Justice , the International Criminal Tribunal for
4964-576: Is taught in universities around the world, and is one of the world's most influential languages because of its wide use in the worlds of journalism, jurisprudence , education, and diplomacy. In diplomacy, French is one of the six official languages of the United Nations (and one of the UN Secretariat 's only two working languages ), one of twenty official and three procedural languages of the European Union , an official language of NATO ,
5110-553: Is the language of business and communication, with French being an element of social distinction, chosen for its emotional value. French is an official language of the Pacific Island nation of Vanuatu , where 31% of the population was estimated to speak it in 2023. In the French special collectivity of New Caledonia , 97% of the population can speak, read and write French while in French Polynesia this figure
5256-483: Is the native language of about 23% of the Swiss population, and is spoken by 50% of the population. Along with Luxembourgish and German, French is one of the three official languages of Luxembourg , where it is generally the preferred language of business as well as of the different public administrations. It is also the official language of Monaco . At a regional level, French is acknowledged as an official language in
5402-492: Is the second-most spoken language (after English) in the states of Maine and New Hampshire . In Louisiana , it is tied with Spanish for second-most spoken if Louisiana French and all creoles such as Haitian are included. French is the third most spoken language (after English and Spanish) in the states of Connecticut , Rhode Island , and New Hampshire . Louisiana is home to many distinct French dialects, collectively known as Louisiana French . New England French , essentially
5548-424: Is the sole official language in the province of Quebec , where some 80% of the population speak it as a native language and 95% are capable of conducting a conversation in it. Quebec is also home to the city of Montreal , which is the world's fourth-largest French-speaking city, by number of first language speakers. New Brunswick and Manitoba are the only officially bilingual provinces, though full bilingualism
5694-633: The 1st Régiment de Grenadiers à pied de la Garde Impériale [ fr ] , was among the items stolen in 1990 from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston , Massachusetts . The 1st Régiment de Grenadiers had formed two squares at the Battle of Waterloo, one of which was formed around Napoleon himself. In May 2015, the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum offered a reward of $ 100,000 for
5840-606: The 8th Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne [ fr ] . Keogh only managed to get a hand on the shaft when he was shot, bayoneted, and killed. Masterson took over and, after killing several men, wrenched the Eagle from the dying hands of its bearer, Lieutenant Gazan. ( His great grandson was decorated with the Victoria Cross 90 years later.) The eagle was taken back to the United Kingdom and put on display in
5986-764: The Aosta Valley region of Italy where it is the first language of approximately 50% of the population, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands . It is also spoken in Andorra and is the main language after Catalan in El Pas de la Casa . The language is taught as the primary second language in the German state of Saarland , with French being taught from pre-school and over 43% of citizens being able to speak French. The majority of
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6132-462: The Aosta Valley region of Italy; and various communities elsewhere. French is estimated to have about 310 million speakers, of which about 80 million are native speakers. According to the OIF, approximately 321 million people worldwide are "able to speak the language" as of 2022, without specifying the criteria for this estimation or whom it encompasses. In Francophone Africa, it is spoken mainly as
6278-549: The Battle of Bailén , an entire French corps led by General Pierre Dupont surrendered after being defeated by a Spanish army led by generals Francisco Javier Castaños and Theodor von Reding ; this was the first surrender of an Imperial field army. As part of the capitulation terms, the French gave up their flags and banners, including three eagles. These eagles were kept in the Cathedral of Seville until they were recovered by
6424-539: The Democratic Republic of Congo . There is not a single African French , but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages . Sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth. It is also where the language has evolved the most in recent years. Some vernacular forms of French in Africa can be difficult to understand for French speakers from other countries, but written forms of
6570-847: The Earl of Uxbridge ; the 1st The Royal Dragoons captured the eagle of the 105th Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne [ fr ] ; (now held at the National Army Museum , Chelsea) and the Royal Scots Greys captured the eagle of the 45th Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne [ fr ] (now held at the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards Museum in Edinburgh Castle ). Before the Duke of Wellington died in 1852, he had asked that all his battle trophies be carried at his funeral. As
6716-485: The European Union , French was the dominant language within all institutions until the 1990s. After several enlargements of the EU (1995, 2004), French significantly lost ground in favour of English, which is more widely spoken and taught in most EU countries. French currently remains one of the three working languages, or "procedural languages", of the EU, along with English and German. It is the second-most widely used language within EU institutions after English, but remains
6862-559: The Francien dialect is one that not only continued but also thrived during the Middle French period (14th–17th centuries). Modern French grew out of this Francien dialect. Grammatically, during the period of Middle French, noun declensions were lost and there began to be standardized rules. Robert Estienne published the first Latin-French dictionary, which included information about phonetics, etymology, and grammar. Politically,
7008-877: The International Olympic Committee , the Council of Europe , the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development , Organization of American States (alongside Spanish, Portuguese and English), the Eurovision Song Contest , one of eighteen official languages of the European Space Agency , World Trade Organization and the least used of the three official languages in the North American Free Trade Agreement countries. It
7154-566: The Losvinka when the rear end of the I Corps baggage train, including Davout's jammed carriages, fell into the hands of the Cossacks. Among the items seized by the Russians were Davout's war chest, numerous maps depicting the Middle East, Central Asia, and India, his Marshal baton and an item of significance – a concept or copy of the treaty – in the peace negotiations with Tsar Alexander; some sources even mention
7300-626: The Oaths of Strasbourg and the Sequence of Saint Eulalia , while Old French literature began to be produced in the eleventh century, with major early works often focusing on the lives of saints (such as the Vie de Saint Alexis ), or wars and royal courts, notably including the Chanson de Roland , epic cycles focused on King Arthur and his court , as well as a cycle focused on William of Orange . It
7446-615: The Prittwitz Hussars captured the eagle. In 1807, near Eylau , the 18th Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne [ fr ] lost its flag and eagle to the Russian St. Petersburg Dragoons [ ru ] . In 1812, at Krasnoi , the 18th Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne again lost its eagle and was "virtually destroyed" by the Russian Life Guard Uhlans [ ru ] . In 1808, at
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#17327721125797592-508: The Royal Hospital Chelsea . It was around 10 inches tall, set on a plinth marked with the numeral 8 . It was made of silver, but gilded, which led many to think it was solid gold. In fact, the only golden part of the eagle was a laurel wreath which hung around its neck. This wreath was an honour conferred upon the 8th Regiment by Napoleon himself, and was not common to all eagles at the time. The gold leaves were presented to
7738-1012: The United Nations , the European Union, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization , the World Trade Organization , the International Olympic Committee , the General Conference on Weights and Measures , and the International Committee of the Red Cross . French is a Romance language (meaning that it is descended primarily from Vulgar Latin ) that evolved out of the Gallo-Romance dialects spoken in northern France. The language's early forms include Old French and Middle French . Due to Roman rule, Latin
7884-435: The eagle standards of the Roman legions . The standards represented the regiments raised by the various departments of France , and were intended to institute feelings of pride and loyalty among the troops who would be the backbone of Napoleon's new Imperial regime . Napoleon gave an emotional speech in which he insisted that troops should defend the standards with their lives. This event was depicted in The Distribution of
8030-456: The 180 grain-mills which were sent and distributed.) A blizzard struck on 14 November, bringing heavy snowfall of approximately 5 ft (1.5 m) and a temperature plummet to -21 °R (= -24°C or -11°F). This led to further casualties among men, horses, and the abandonment of artillery. The intense cold enfeebled, first of all, the brain of those whose health had already suffered, especially of those who had had dysentery, but soon, while
8176-455: The 1990s) but these varieties are severely endangered or presumed extinct. French is one of two official languages in Haiti alongside Haitian Creole . It is the principal language of education, administration, business, and public signage and is spoken by all educated Haitians. It is also used for ceremonial events such as weddings, graduations, and church masses. The vast majority of the population speaks Haitian Creole as their first language;
8322-411: The 1st Royal Dragoons) and the Royal Anglian Regiment (descended from the 44th Foot) both wear the eagle as an arm badge, while the cap badge of the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers and Greys) (descended from the Royal Scots Greys) is an eagle. The Royal Irish Regiment wear the eagle of the 8th on the back pouch of the officers' black cross belt. A French Imperial Eagle, which had belonged to
8468-474: The 20th century, when it was replaced by English as the United States became the dominant global power following the Second World War . Stanley Meisler of the Los Angeles Times said that the fact that the Treaty of Versailles was written in English as well as French was the "first diplomatic blow" against the language. During the Grand Siècle (17th century), France, under the rule of powerful leaders such as Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIV , enjoyed
8614-405: The 3,500-strong flying advance guard of Adam Ozharovsky took possession of the town, located in the Pale of Settlement , and destroyed magazines and stock before the French arrived. On the same day, the 18,000 troops of Miloradovich established a strong position, across the high road about 4 km (2.5 mi) before Krasny. This movement effectively separated Eugene, Davoust, and Ney from
8760-510: The Canadian capital, is also effectively bilingual, as it has a large population of federal government workers, who are required to offer services in both French and English, and is just across the river from the Quebecois city of Gatineau . According to the United States Census Bureau (2011), French is the fourth most spoken language in the United States after English, Spanish, and Chinese, when all forms of French are considered together and all dialects of Chinese are similarly combined. French
8906-614: The Caribbean that are collectively referred to as the French West Indies , namely Guadeloupe , Saint Barthélemy , Saint Martin , and Martinique . French is the official language of both French Guiana on the South American continent, and of Saint Pierre and Miquelon , an archipelago off the coast of Newfoundland in North America. French was the official language of the colony of French Indochina , comprising modern-day Vietnam , Laos , and Cambodia . It continues to be an administrative language in Laos and Cambodia, although its influence has waned in recent decades. In colonial Vietnam,
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#17327721125799052-407: The Eagle Standards , an 1810 painting by Jacques-Louis David . The original design was sculpted by Antoine-Denis Chaudet and then copies were cast in the workshop of Pierre-Philippe Thomire , with the first eagles presented on 5 December 1804. It was a bronze sculpture of an eagle on a plinth, with one claw resting on " Jupiter 's spindle". weighing 1.85 kg (4 lb), mounted on top of
9198-476: The Emperor. On 16 November Kutuzov's 35,000-strong main force slowly approached from the south, and halted 5 km from the main road to Krasny. Another 20,000 Cossack irregulars, operating mostly in small bands, supplemented the main army by harassing the French at all points along the long road to Krasny. In the first skirmishes at Krasny, the French still showed stubborn resistance and desperate courage. Seeing that all our Asiatic attacks were collapsing against
9344-408: The Empire, this local elite had been slowly abandoning Gaulish entirely, but the rural and lower class populations remained Gaulish speakers who could sometimes also speak Latin or Greek. The final language shift from Gaulish to Vulgar Latin among rural and lower class populations occurred later, when both they and the incoming Frankish ruler/military class adopted the Gallo-Roman Vulgar Latin speech of
9490-417: The French in 1810 and sent back to Paris . The first French eagles to be captured by the British were taken during the Invasion of Martinique including the Eagle of the 82nd French Regiment of the Line. Subsequently the 87th Regiment of Foot took an Imperial Eagle at the Battle of Barrosa on 5 March 1811. At Barrosa, Ensign Edward Keogh and Sergeant Patrick Masterson captured the French Imperial Eagle of
9636-500: The French on a parallel southern road. This route passed through Medyn and Yelnya , the latter became a significant center for the partisan movement. Unlike the Grande Armée , the main Russian army approached Krasny in a much less weakened state, but still had to contend with the same, extreme weather conditions and scarcity of food. Kutuzov promoted an easy retreat for the French army and initially forbade his generals to cut off their retreat. General Bennigsen , who disagreed,
9782-416: The Germanic Frankish language , which non-exhaustively included the use in upper-class speech and higher registers of V2 word order , a large percentage of the vocabulary (now at around 15% of modern French vocabulary ) including the impersonal singular pronoun on (a calque of Germanic man ), and the name of the language itself. Up until its later stages, Old French , alongside Old Occitan , maintained
9928-406: The Guard were requested. During the three or four hours that the affair lasted, I was far from remaining idle and at rest. The retreat was anticipated; it was necessary to get rid of everything that could not be taken along because the number of my horses, already greatly diminished, had suffered further losses by the obligation to complete the teams of the batteries that were going into battle, and it
10074-431: The Imperial Guard with Napoleon ploughed through our Cossacks like a 100-gun ship through fishing skiffs. Before dusk, Napoleon entered Krasny. He planned to remain so that Eugene, Davout and Ney could catch up with him. However, part of this small town was set on fire after the Old Guard took shelter in the monastery, barns and houses. The streets were filled with soldiers and there was not much to eat or drink. As there
10220-451: The Imperial Guard. He ordered Miloradovich to assist, delayed Tormasov for three hours and eventually abandoned the planned offensive, despite the Russians' clear numerical advantage. Napoleon did not retreat, but decided to attack with the Young Guards in order to force Kutuzov to draw Miloradovich to him. At some time Miloradovich moved south to reinforce Golitsyn against the Young Guards. When Miloradovich left his commanding position on
10366-399: The Losvinka. Reduced to only 3,500 combatants, without any cannons or supplies, Eugène was left with no choice but to wait until nightfall and then find an alternate route around the Russian forces. Eugène fooled the Russian general by attacking his army on the left flank but managed to escape with part of his soldiers to the right. This escape was partly due to Kutuzov's decision to prevent
10512-518: The Russian army had suffered equally due to harsh conditions and was a couple of days behind. Underestimating the potential for a Kutuzov-led offensive, Napoleon made the tactical blunder of resuming his retreat. He dispatched the individual corps of the Grande Armée from Smolensk on four successive days, starting on Friday 13 November with the Polish Corps under Zajączek , who replaced
10658-419: The Russian artillery. On a beautiful plateau according to Roguet. The Krasnoy defile was an excellent place to stop a retreating army. In a deep, steep-sided gully, a steep road, made even more difficult by the icy conditions, led to a narrow bridge. A large number of carriages and baggage piled up on the bridge. The infantry marched on, hampered by the other disorganized arms. The Emperor stepped back from
10804-554: The Russian encampment, which was not protected by pickets. The operation against their center was first entrusted to General Rapp , but at the last moment, he was replaced with General Roguet ; the Guardsmen were divided into three columns. Shortly after midnight, it was two o'clock when the movement began on Ozharovsky's force. They began a silent advance although the snow was up to their knees. (The Old Guard stayed behind and did not fight.) The Young Guard (under Delaborde ) launched
10950-444: The Russians could capture Krasny or block his escape route. Kutusow opted not to commit his entire force against his adversary but instead chose to pursue the French relentlessly, employing both large and small detachments to continually harass and weaken the French army. Overall, the Battle of Krasnoi inflicted devastating losses upon the French forces, amplifying their already continuous losses during their perilous retreat. Despite
11096-458: The Russians could capture the town. In this critical moment, Napoleon's "sense of initiative" resurfaced, marking the first time in weeks. As Caulaincourt's described it: "This turn of events, which upset all the Emperor's calculations... would have overwhelmed any other general. But the Emperor was stronger than adversity, and became the more stubborn as danger seemed more imminent." Before daylight broke, Napoleon prepared his Imperial Guard for
11242-556: The Young Guard, would operate independently west of Krasny. The remnants of Eugène's Westphalian Corps were incapable of taking any part in the action, when they arrived late in the evening. Napoleon ordered it to defile on the road to Orsha as Krasny was full with soldiers. However, at some point, Kutuzov received information from prisoners ( quartermaster Puybusque and his son) that Napoleon intended to remain in Krasny and wait for Ney and not withdraw as Kutuzov had anticipated upon
11388-515: The advent of an early and harsh " Russian Winter ", commencing on 5/7 November. By 8/9 November, when the French reached Smolensk, the strategic situation in Russia had turned decisively against Napoleon. Merely 40% (37,000) of the remaining Grande Armée was still combat-ready. Concurrent losses on other fronts further exacerbated their dire circumstances. Encircled by encroaching Russian armies that imperiled their retreat, Napoleon recognized
11534-408: The army's center and launched an attack on Krasny. Miloradovich's position anchored the Russian right flank, controlling a vital road to Krasny. This road required the French army to cross a stream within a gully . Despite Miloradovich's pivotal role, he left his strategic position to aid Golitsyn against the Young Guard. Consequently, Davout managed to successfully cross the Losvinka brook, albeit at
11680-431: The arrival of Davout. This revelation caused Kutuzov to reconsider the planned offensive after Ozharovsky's defeat, as reported by Nafziger and Gourgaud . The day began at 3:00 a.m. when Davout's I Corps set out towards Krasny upon receiving troubling reports of Eugene's defeat the previous day. Originally, Davout had intended to wait for Ney's III Corps, which was still at Smolensk, to catch up. However, sensing
11826-533: The battle, the Russians were able to retreat in good order and the eagle was not recovered, much to the emperor's regret. In 1807, at Heilsberg , the 55th Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne [ fr ] was overthrown by Prussian cavalry and Russian infantry. An eagle was lost and several officers, including a colonel, were killed. The eagle was captured by NCO Anton Antonov of the Pernov Musketeers . Prussian historians dispute this, claiming that
11972-491: The blue regimental flagpole. They were made from six separately cast pieces designed along Roman lines and, when assembled, measured 310 mm (12 in) in height and 255 mm (10 in) in width. On the base would be the regiment's number or, in the case of the Imperial Guard , Garde Impériale . The eagle bore the same significance to French Imperial regiments as the colours did to British regiments - to lose
12118-549: The closed formation of the European one, I decided to send the Chechen regiment forward in the evening to break down the bridges on the way to Krasny, block up the road, and try in every possible way to block the enemy's march; but with all our forces, encircling right and left and crossing the road in front, we exchanged fire with they were, so to speak, the vanguard of the vanguard of the French army. In total, Kutuzov commanded
12264-508: The cold increased daily, its pernicious effect was noticed in all...actions of the afflicted manifested mental paralysis and the highest degree of apathy. Ostermann-Tolstoy , part of Miloradovich's avant-guard, shelled Napoleon and his guards, but the assault was repelled. While Miloradovich desired to attack, he was not granted permission by Kutuzov. Meanwhile, Claparède and the Vistula-legion arrived at Krasny since August occupied by
12410-552: The cost of his rearguard's sacrifice. Outside Smolensk, leaving the floodplain of the Dniepr, there is a steep slope passing into a long descent, slightly undulating until Krasny. The rear of the Imperial Guard was harassed by the Cossacks of Orlov-Denisov , who captured 1,300 soldiers, 400 carts and 1,000 horses. Near Merlino, around noon, the Imperial Guard, marched past Miloradovich's troops, who were positioned left of
12556-553: The country near French-speaking Quebec, however, it is the foreign language more commonly taught. Vowel phonemes in French Battle of Krasnoi The Battle of Krasnoi (at Krasny or Krasnoe) unfolded from 15 to 18 November 1812 marking a critical episode in Napoleon 's arduous retreat from Moscow . Over the course of six skirmishes the Russian forces under field marshal Kutuzov inflicted significant blows upon
12702-519: The demographic prospects of the French-speaking nations of Africa, researcher Pascal-Emmanuel Gobry wrote in 2014 that French "could be the language of the future". However, some African countries such as Algeria intermittently attempted to eradicate the use of French, and as of 2024 it was removed as an official language in Mali and Burkina Faso . Significant as a judicial language, French
12848-452: The eagle captured by the 87th Regiment of Foot was not available, it was decided to make a replica. The mould was made by Garrard's and was designed from a sketch of the original drawn by an officer of the 87th at the time of Barrosa. The capture of an eagle was celebrated through the addition of the eagle as a symbol or accoutrement to a regiment's colour or uniform. The Blues and Royals (Royal Horse Guards and 1st Dragoons) (descended from
12994-668: The eagle of the 22nd Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne [ fr ] (displayed today in the Lancashire Infantry Museum at Fulwood Barracks in Preston, Lancashire ), while Lieutenant William Pearce of the 2nd Battalion of the 44th Regiment of Foot took the eagle of the 62nd Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne [ fr ] (displayed today in the Chelmsford Museum in Essex ). Following
13140-478: The eagle would bring shame to the regiment, who had pledged to defend it to the death. Upon Napoleon's fall, the restored monarchy of King Louis XVIII ordered all eagles to be destroyed; only a very small number were preserved. When the former emperor returned to power in 1815 (known as the Hundred Days ), he immediately had more eagles produced, although the quality did not match the originals. The workmanship
13286-448: The economic power of the countries using the language, the number of major areas in which the language is used, and the linguistic prestige associated with the mastery of the language (Weber highlighted that French in particular enjoys considerable linguistic prestige). In a 2008 reassessment of his article, Weber concluded that his findings were still correct since "the situation among the top ten remains unchanged." Knowledge of French
13432-594: The elites primarily spoke French, while many servants who worked in French households spoke a French pidgin known as " Tây Bồi " (now extinct). After French rule ended, South Vietnam continued to use French in administration, education, and trade. However, since the Fall of Saigon and the opening of a unified Vietnam's economy, French has gradually been effectively displaced as the first foreign language of choice by English in Vietnam. Nevertheless, it continues to be taught as
13578-403: The evening, Kutuzov faced pressure from the disagreeing junior generals, especially Wilson, urging him to launch a decisive attack against Napoleon. The Russians were able to surround Napoleon and overwhelm him by their sheer superior numbers. However, he remained cautious and only planned for an offensive. He forbade his commanders from executing it until daylight. The Russian battle plan involved
13724-516: The first government authority to adopt Modern French as official was the Aosta Valley in 1536, while the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts (1539) named French the language of law in the Kingdom of France . During the 17th century, French replaced Latin as the most important language of diplomacy and international relations ( lingua franca ). It retained this role until approximately the middle of
13870-915: The former Yugoslavia , International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda , the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea the International Criminal Court and the World Trade Organization Appellate Body . It is the sole internal working language of the Court of Justice of the European Union , and makes with English the European Court of Human Rights 's two working languages. In 1997, George Weber published, in Language Today ,
14016-408: The front. The eyewitness description of this encounter by the partisan leader Davidov , which eloquently portrays the comportment of the Old Guard, forming a "fortress-like square", has become one of the most often quoted in the histories of the 1812 war: ...after midday, we sighted the Old Guard, with Napoleon riding in their midst... the enemy troops, sighting our unruly force, got their muskets at
14162-829: The gender of the corresponding word in Gaulish. The estimated number of French words that can be attributed to Gaulish is placed at 154 by the Petit Robert , which is often viewed as representing standardized French, while if non-standard dialects are included, the number increases to 240. Known Gaulish loans are skewed toward certain semantic fields, such as plant life ( chêne , bille , etc.), animals ( mouton , cheval , etc.), nature ( boue , etc.), domestic activities (ex. berceau ), farming and rural units of measure ( arpent , lieue , borne , boisseau ), weapons, and products traded regionally rather than further afield. This semantic distribution has been attributed to peasants being
14308-403: The head of our column charged into the Russian camp, we passed several hundred Russians stretched on the snow; we believed them to be dead or dangerously wounded. These men now jumped up and fired on us from behind, so that we had to make a demi-tour to defend ourselves. Unluckily for them, a battalion in the rear came up behind, so that they were taken between two fires, and in five minutes not one
14454-479: The head of the congestion. The path was clear, indeed, but it immediately began to ascend rapidly, and the ground was icy. One hour before daybreak, all my artillery was at the top. In the afternoon of 16 November, the Italian corps of Viceroy Beauharnais arrived at gully . On the other side Mikhail Miloradovich put up a barrier next to and across the road, by a detachment of infantry, light cavalry and half of
14600-415: The high road. Despite the Russian army's superiority in horse and manpower, Kutuzov hesitated to launch a full offensive, according to Mikhail Pokrovsky fearing the risks associated with facing Napoleon head-on. Instead, he hoped that hunger, cold and decay in discipline would ultimately wear down the French forces. This strategy, however, led him in a nearly perpendicular course, placing him amidst of
14746-427: The hill to join the battle, he left behind a small detachment of Cossacks. This allowed Davout to successfully fight his way through and enter Krasny. The Guard's audacious feint rescued Davout's corps from potential annihilation. At nine in the morning, Davout's rear guard, the 33rd regiment, formed a defensive square at the Losvinka. It was on this particular day that limited close-quarters combat unfolded during
14892-454: The language are very closely related to those of the rest of the French-speaking world. French is the second most commonly spoken language in Canada and one of two federal official languages alongside English. As of the 2021 Canadian census , it was the native language of 7.7 million people (21% of the population) and the second language of 2.9 million (8% of the population). French
15038-479: The language, although it has now given way to Tamil and English. A former French mandate , Lebanon designates Arabic as the sole official language, while a special law regulates cases when French can be publicly used. Article 11 of Lebanon's Constitution states that "Arabic is the official national language. A law determines the cases in which the French language is to be used". The French language in Lebanon
15184-612: The language. The Act applies to areas of the province where there are significant Francophone communities, namely Eastern Ontario and Northern Ontario . Elsewhere, sizable French-speaking minorities are found in southern Manitoba, Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island and the Port au Port Peninsula in Newfoundland and Labrador, where the unique Newfoundland French dialect was historically spoken. Smaller pockets of French speakers exist in all other provinces. The Ontarian city of Ottawa ,
15330-479: The last to hold onto Gaulish. The beginning of French in Gaul was greatly influenced by Germanic invasions into the country. These invasions had the greatest impact on the northern part of the country and on the language there. A language divide began to grow across the country. The population in the north spoke langue d'oïl while the population in the south spoke langue d'oc . Langue d'oïl grew into what
15476-420: The main road. Fyodor Petrovich Uvarov succeeded to cut off Eugène de Beauharnais and his IV corps from the rest of the army but refrained from launching an attack on the rear with his cavalry. In contrast, Miloradovich's troops dealt a severe blow to Prince Eugène who refused to surrender. In this skirmish, his Italian Corps lost one-third of its original strength, along with its baggage train and artillery at
15622-422: The morning and early afternoon. The Young Guard initiated an attack to provide cover for Davout's crossing of the Losvinka further north. Uvarovo, located just a half-hour's walk from Krasny, was initially held by two battalions of Golitsyn's infantry, serving as a fragile forward outpost ahead of the main Russian army. However, the Russians were eventually forced to withdraw from Uvarovo. Stroganov responded with
15768-420: The necessity and means to annihilate the patois and to universalize the use of the French language". When public education was made compulsory , only French was taught and the use of any other ( patois ) language was punished. The goals of the public school system were made especially clear to the French-speaking teachers sent to teach students in regions such as Occitania and Brittany . Instructions given by
15914-652: The official use or teaching of French. It is spoken as a first language (in descending order of the number of speakers) in France; Canada (especially in the provinces of Quebec, Ontario, and New Brunswick); Belgium ( Wallonia and the Brussels-Capital Region ); western Switzerland (specifically the cantons forming the Romandy region); parts of Luxembourg; parts of the United States (the states of Louisiana, Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont); Monaco;
16060-570: The other langues d'oïl —languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, which French ( Francien ) largely supplanted. French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the ( Germanic ) Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to the French colonial empire , there are numerous French-based creole languages , most notably Haitian Creole . A French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French
16206-534: The other main foreign language in the Vietnamese educational system and is regarded as a cultural language. All three countries are full members of La Francophonie (OIF). French was the official language of French India , consisting of the geographically separate enclaves referred to as Puducherry . It continued to be an official language of the territory even after its cession to India in 1956 until 1965. A small number of older locals still retain knowledge of
16352-471: The preferred language of certain institutions or administrations such as the Court of Justice of the European Union , where it is the sole internal working language, or the Directorate-General for Agriculture . Since 2016, Brexit has rekindled discussions on whether or not French should again hold greater role within the institutions of the European Union. A leading world language , French
16498-534: The ready and proudly continued on their way without hurrying their step... Like blocks of granite, they remained invulnerable... I shall never forget the unhurried step and awesome resolution of these soldiers, for whom the threat of death was a daily and familiar experience. With their tall bearskin caps, blue uniforms, white belts, red plumes, and epaulettes, they looked like poppies on the snow-covered battlefield... Column followed upon column, dispersing us with musket fire and ridiculing our useless display of chivalry...
16644-479: The remnants of the Grande Armée , already severely weakened by attrition warfare . These confrontations, though not escalated into full-scale battles, led to substantial losses for the French due to their depleted weapons and horses. Throughout the four days of combat, Napoleon attempted to rush his troops, stretched out in a 30 mi (48 km) march, past the parallel-positioned Russian forces along
16790-471: The rest largely speak French as a first language. As a French Creole language , Haitian Creole draws the large majority of its vocabulary from French, with influences from West African languages, as well as several European languages. It is closely related to Louisiana Creole and the creole from the Lesser Antilles . French is the sole official language of all the overseas territories of France in
16936-576: The road and stretching into the rear; it was a true spectacle of desolation and one of the most distressing scenes. – General Bon Boulart Napoleon, fully aware of the grave danger confronting the Grande Armée , faced a critical decision. Waiting for Ney in Krasny was no longer a viable option; any determined attack by Kutuzov could spell disaster for the entire army. Furthermore, the starving French troops urgently needed to reach their closest supply source, 70 km (43 mi) west at Orsha , before
17082-614: The road, backed by a forest. Impressed by the order and composure of the elite guardsmen, Miloradovich had orders from Kutuzov not to attack the flanks, and settled instead for bombarding the French at extreme range. The Russian cannon fire inflicted little damage on the large corps of Guards which continued moving toward Krasny. As Napoleon and the Imperial Old Guard approached, it was fired upon by Ozharovsky and Russian infantry and artillery. A surprised army did not expect that they had been overtaken and could be attacked from
17228-428: The road, called together the officers and non-commissioned officers of the old guard, and told them he would not see the bonnets of his Grenadiers amid of such disorder: I am counting on you as you can count on me to accomplish great deeds. On this day, the situation took a turn for the worse for the French. The whole day was spent in waiting for the three corps that had left Smolensk when Kutuzov's forces closed in on
17374-663: The role of a general leading the Young Guards, relinquishing his position as the supreme commander of the army. I have played the Emperor long enough! It is time to play general! The Guardsmen found themselves facing Russian infantry columns, bolstered by imposing artillery batteries commanded by Golitsyn and Stroganov. As Ségur poetically put it: "Russian battalions and batteries barred the horizon on all three sides – in front, on our right, and behind us" Kutuzov, lacking comprehensive information, reacted hesitantly to Napoleon's presence and audacious maneuver with
17520-522: The route to Orsha. At 2:00 a.m., four regiments of the Imperial Guards departed from Krasny to secure the terrain immediately to the east and southeast of the town. This marked a significant moment as Napoleon deployed the Old Guard , consisting of 5,000 exceptionally tall and well-trained men, to confront the Cossacks who had blocked the road near the Losvinka. Napoleon himself chose
17666-823: The safe return of the Eagle which remains missing. French language French ( français [fʁɑ̃sɛ] or langue française [lɑ̃ɡ fʁɑ̃sɛːz] ) is a Romance language of the Indo-European family . Like all other Romance languages, it descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire . French evolved from Gallo-Romance , the Latin spoken in Gaul , and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are
17812-463: The same evening Alexander Seslavin captured Lyady; he destroyed two warehouses and took many prisoners, according to Davidov. According to sergeant Bourgogne: On the evening of our arrival the Russian army surrounded us, in front, to the right, left and from behind. General Roguet received the order to attack during the night, with a party of Guard regiments of fusiliers-chasseurs, grenadiers, voltigeurs and tirailleurs. I have omitted to say that, as
17958-774: The same ravaged path he had hoped to avoid. Smolensk, situated approximately 360 km (220 mi) to the west, was the nearest French supply depot. Despite fair weather, the three-week march to Smolensk, moving approximately 18 km (11 mi) a day, proved disastrous, subjecting the Grande Armée to challenges like traversing a sparsely populated area with continuous forest, abandoned villages, grappling with demoralization, disciplinary breakdowns, hunger, extensive loss of horses and crucial supplies, as well as persistent harassment from Cossacks and partisans who made it impossible to forage. While sources are not definitive, it's estimated that he arrived with 37,000 infantry, and 12,000 cavalry and artillery. The situation worsened with
18104-497: The separated French corps. On 17 November a pivotal moment occurred when the French Imperial Guard executed an aggressive feint. This maneuver prompted Kutuzov to delay what could have been a decisive final assault, leading him to seek support from both his left and right flanks. This strategic decision allowed Napoleon to successfully withdraw Davout and his corps but it also led to his immediate retreat before
18250-430: The skirmish from escalating into a full-scale battle, much to the surprise of both Russian and French forces. Earlier that day, Kutuzov's main army finally arrived within 26 km (16 mi) of Krasny, taking up positions around the hamlets of Novoselye and Zhuli. Despite being in a favorable position to attack the French, Kutuzov hesitated. He opted for a day of rest for his troops, delaying any decisive action. In
18396-764: The strongest being that it had been repatriated by a Frenchman. More likely it was melted down and sold. The original staff is still held in the Royal Irish Fusiliers Museum , located in the Sovereign's House on The Mall in Armagh , Northern Ireland . The British took two eagles at the Battle of Salamanca in July 1812. Ensign John Pratt of the Light Company of the 30th Regiment of Foot (later 1st Battalion, East Lancashire Regiment ) captured
18542-537: The surrender of the French at the capture of Madrid on 14 August 1812, two eagles were found belonging to the 13th Régiment de Dragons and the 51st Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne [ fr ] . Two of the newer French regimental eagles were captured during the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. The French I Corps under the command of the Comte d'Erlon was charged by the British heavy cavalry , commanded by
18688-466: The total number of French speakers will reach approximately 500 million in 2025 and 650 million by 2050, largely due to rapid population growth in sub-Saharan Africa . OIF estimates 700 million French speakers by 2050, 80% of whom will be in Africa. In a study published in March 2014 by Forbes , the investment bank Natixis said that French could become the world's most spoken language by 2050. In
18834-679: The two official languages—along with Dutch —of the Brussels-Capital Region , where it is spoken by the majority of the population (approx. 80%), often as their primary language. French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland, along with German, Italian, and Romansh , and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland, called Romandy , of which Geneva is the largest city. The language divisions in Switzerland do not coincide with political subdivisions, and some cantons have bilingual status: for example, cities such as Biel/Bienne and cantons such as Valais , Fribourg and Bern . French
18980-429: The untenability of his position at Smolensk. On 11 November, he ordered Berthier that the new troops should not come to Smolensk but return to Krasny or Orsha. Consequently, the new strategic goal became leading the Grande Armée westward into winter quarters, targeting the area of the extensive French supply depot of Minsk . Having lost contact with Kutuzov over the past two weeks, Napoleon mistakenly assumed that
19126-508: The urban intellectual elite. The Gaulish language likely survived into the sixth century in France despite considerable Romanization . Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French contributing loanwords and calques (including oui , the word for "yes"), sound changes shaped by Gaulish influence, and influences in conjugation and word order. Recent computational studies suggest that early gender shifts may have been motivated by
19272-485: The use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, and legal contracts; advertisements must bear a translation of foreign words. In Belgium, French is an official language at the federal level along with Dutch and German. At the regional level, French is the sole official language of Wallonia (excluding a part of the East Cantons , which are German-speaking ) and one of
19418-476: The valiant efforts of the Imperial Guard, the confrontation left the French military in dire straits and without supplies and food, further weakening their already battered army. Consisting of 100,000 combat-ready yet undersupplied troops, the Grande Armée, departed Moscow on 18 October, aiming to secure winter quarters via an alternative route to Kaluga . Following the loss at the Battle of Maloyaroslavets Kutuzov compelled Napoleon to shift northward, retracing
19564-536: The workplace. In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese . In English-speaking Canada, the United Kingdom, and Ireland, French is the first foreign language taught and in number of pupils is far ahead of other languages. In the United States, French is the second-most commonly taught foreign language in schools and universities, although well behind Spanish. In some areas of
19710-402: The world's French-speaking population lives in Africa. According to a 2023 estimate from the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie , an estimated 167 million African people spread across 35 countries and territories can speak French as either a first or a second language . This number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as
19856-605: The wounded Poniatowski . Next came the Westphalians . Napoleon left on the 14th, at five in the morning, preceded by Mortier with the Legion of the Vistula and Claparède who departed with the captures treasures and baggage wagons; Beauharnais left on the next day, Davout on the 16th, and Ney at 2 a.m. on the 17th. This resulted in a fragmented column of disconnected corps, spanning 50 km (31 mi), ill-prepared for
20002-819: Was during the period of the Crusades in which French became so dominant in the Mediterranean Sea that became a lingua franca ("Frankish language"), and because of increased contact with the Arabs during the Crusades who referred to them as Franj , numerous Arabic loanwords entered French, such as amiral (admiral), alcool (alcohol), coton (cotton) and sirop (syrop), as well as scientific terms such as algébre (algebra), alchimie (alchemy) and zéro (zero). Within Old French many dialects emerged but
20148-400: Was gradually adopted by the inhabitants of Gaul. As the language was learned by the common people, it developed a distinct local character, with grammatical differences from Latin as spoken elsewhere, some of which is attested in graffiti. This local variety evolved into the Gallo-Romance tongues, which include French and its closest relatives, such as Arpitan . The evolution of Latin in Gaul
20294-652: Was known in the Occitan-speaking region as Vergonha . Spoken by 19.71% of the European Union's population, French is the third most widely spoken language in the EU, after English and German and the second-most-widely taught language after English. Under the Constitution of France , French has been the official language of the Republic since 1992, although the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts made it mandatory for legal documents in 1539. France mandates
20440-459: Was left alive. This was a stratagem the Russians often employed, but this time it was not successful. We went through the Russian camp and reached the village. We forced the enemy to throw a part of their artillery into a lake there and then found that a great number of foot soldiers had filled the houses, which were partly in flames. We now fought desperately hand-to-hand. The slaughter was terrible, and each man fought by himself for himself. As
20586-430: Was necessary to sacrifice part of the equipment. The intensity of the noise, aided by beautiful freezing weather, remained the same for a long time, indicating a great tenacity of resistance; but at the same time, skirmishes could be heard on our left, announcing that we were being outflanked on that side. We were all in the greatest anxiety, which was further increased by the disorderly movement of troops and wagons covering
20732-412: Was not enough room the Young Guard camped east, outside the town without any shelter against the cold. To keep his men busy Napoleon decided in the late evening to force the withdrawal of Ozharovsky's Cossacks from the Losvinka. Recognizing that Ozharovsky's position was dangerously isolated from Kutuzov's main army, Napoleon dispatched the Young Guard under General Claparède on a surprise attack against
20878-400: Was of a lesser quality and the main distinguishing changes had the new models with closed beaks and they were set in a more crouched posture. The first capture of an eagle was most likely during the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805 when the Russian cavalry of the guard under Grand Duke Konstantin overran the French 4th Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne , taking their flag. Although Napoleon won
21024-506: Was sent back to Kaluga on the 15th. Due to outdated intelligence reports, Kutuzov somehow believed that only one-third of the French army had passed from Smolensk to Krasny with the remainder of Napoleon's forces marching much farther to the north or still at Smolensk. On this basis, Kutuzov accepted a plan proposed by his staff officer, Colonel Toll , to march on Krasny to destroy what was believed to be an isolated Napoleon. The Russian position at Krasny began forming on 15 November, when
21170-594: Was shaped by its coexistence for over half a millennium beside the native Celtic Gaulish language , which did not go extinct until the late sixth century, long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire . The population remained 90% indigenous in origin; the Romanizing class were the local native elite (not Roman settlers), whose children learned Latin in Roman schools. At the time of the collapse of
21316-570: Was the language they use the most at home rose from 67% at the 2007 census to 74% at the 2017 census. In Wallis and Futuna, the percentage of the population who reported that French was the language they use the most at home rose from 10% at the 2008 census to 13% at the 2018 census. According to a demographic projection led by the Université Laval and the Réseau Démographie de l'Agence universitaire de la Francophonie ,
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