The Frisian waterline started being built around 1580. The defence line goes from the Zuidersea , along the River Linde, to the De Blesse Bridge. Then, the defence line goes northward to Kuinre by way of Heerenveen , Terband , Gorredijk , Donkerbroek , Bakkeveen and Frieschepalen .
135-818: The area along the forts had dams flooded during the Eighty Years' War against the Spanish and in 1672 Rampjaar ( Disaster Year ) against Bernard von Galen and the French troops who were the bishop of Munster . In the east, the defence line is connected to the Groninger waterlinie , which continues to Delfzijl . Part of the defence line is also called the Tjonger-Lindelinie . The ten schansen were in Schoterland nearby Oudehorne , just north of
270-545: A theological quarrel resulted in riots between Remonstrants ( Arminians ) and Counter-Remonstrants (Gomarists). In general, regents would support the former and civilians the latter. Even the government got involved, with Oldenbarnevelt taking the side of the Remonstrants and stadtholder Maurice of Nassau their opponents. In the end, the Synod of Dort condemned the Remonstrants for heresy and excommunicated them from
405-729: A bolder policy in the Bohemian question than they otherwise might have done. The Bohemian war therefore soon degenerated into a proxy war between Spain and the Republic. Even after the Battle of White Mountain of November 1620, which ended disastrously for the Protestant army (one-eighth of which was in the Dutch pay), the Dutch continued to support Frederick militarily, both in Bohemia and in
540-413: A continuation of the truce had been intended to remedy these disadvantages of the truce (the demand for freedom of worship for Catholics being made as a matter of principle, but also to mobilise the still sizeable Catholic minority in the Republic and so destabilise it politically). Despite the unfortunate impression the opening speech of chancellor Peckius had made at the negotiations about the renewal of
675-647: A defensive stance militarily in the Netherlands. Maurice died in April 1625, aged 58. Ignoring orders, the Spanish commander Ambrogio Spinola succeeded in conquering the city of Breda on 5 June 1625. The war was now more focused on trade, much of it in between the Dutch and the Dunkirkers , but also on Dutch attacks on Spanish convoys, and above all the seizure of the undermanned Portuguese trading forts and ill-defended territories. The administrative situation of
810-478: A drain of Spanish silver to the Republic. The truce had also given further impetus to the Dutch penetration of the East Indies, and in 1615 a naval expedition under Joris van Spilbergen had raided the west coast of Spanish South America. Spain felt threatened by these incursions and sought to stop them. Finally, the economic advantages had given the Republic the financial wherewithal to build a large navy during
945-503: A few trusted courtiers also opened the way for foreign diplomats to influence policy-making with bribes. Some members of the inner circle performed prodigies of corruption. For instance, Cornelis Musch , the griffier (clerk) of the States General received 20,000 livres for his services in pushing the French treaty through from Cardinal Richelieu , while the pliable Grand Pensionary Jacob Cats (who had succeeded Adriaan Pauw ,
1080-587: A final eradication of "Remonstrant" tendencies in the Republic (thus establishing internal "unity") before a truce could even be considered. The radical Calvinist preachers urged a "liberation" of more of the Spanish Netherlands. Shareholders in the WIC dreaded the prospect of a truce in the Americas, which would thwart the plans of that company to stage an invasion of Portuguese Brazil. The peace party and
1215-428: A great fire broke out that destroyed most of the city (including a desecration of Catholic churches and cloisters ), as well as costly food supplies and munitions that the French and Dutch needed for the rest of their campaign. Although cities such as Diest , Herentals and Aarschot immediately surrendered to the invaders in the aftermath, it was out to fear of suffering the same fate as Tienen, rather than support for
1350-515: A large subsidy and promising Dutch armed assistance. The Dutch therefore played a large role in precipitating the Thirty Years' War . Maurice's motivation was the desire to manoeuvre the Republic into a better position should the war with Spain resume after the expiration of the truce in 1621. Renewal of the truce was a distinct possibility, but it had become less likely, as both in Spain and in
1485-545: A lightning campaign to retake all towns occupied by Orangist and Geuzen troops in October 1572. Several towns (including Mechelen , Zutphen and Naarden ) which refused to surrender were brutally sacked by Fadrique's forces in an attempt to intimidate others into resubmitting themselves to the royal government, culminating in the seven-month-long Siege of Haarlem before it was conquered and sacked in July 1573. By this point,
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#17327662761571620-547: A main objective of bringing the war to the Spanish Americas. Opposition against the peace feelers therefore mounted, and nothing came of them. The truce officially expired on 9 April 1621; Philip III had died shortly before, on 31 March. He was succeeded by his 16-year-old son Philip IV , and the new government under Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares had to get settled. Shortly after Albert of Austria also died on 13 July, so that Austrian Habsburg rule over
1755-644: A sensation in Europe. It demonstrated that the Dutch, for the moment, enjoyed strategic superiority. 's-Hertogenbosch was the linchpin of the ring of Spanish fortifications in Brabant; its loss left a gaping hole in the Spanish front. Thoroughly shaken, Philip IV now overruled Olivares and offered an unconditional truce. The States General refused to consider this offer until the Imperial forces had left Dutch territory. Only after this had been accomplished did they remit
1890-603: A source of disputes amongst historians for centuries . The Habsburg Netherlands emerged as a result of the territorial expansion of the Burgundian State in the 14th and 15th centuries. Upon extinction of the Burgundian State in 1477/1482, these lands were inherited by the House of Habsburg , whose Charles V became both King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor . By conquering the rest of what would become
2025-695: A stalemate , the two sides agreed to a Twelve Years' Truce in 1609; when it expired in 1621, fighting resumed as part of the broader Thirty Years' War . An end was reached in 1648 with the Peace of Münster (a treaty that was part of the Peace of Westphalia ), when Spain retained the Southern Netherlands and recognised the Dutch Republic as an independent country. The origins of the Eighty Years' War are complicated, and have been
2160-660: The 1576–1579 period , in which a temporary alliance of 16 out of the Seventeen Provinces ' States–General established the Pacification of Ghent (8 November 1576) as a joint Catholic–Protestant rebellion against the Spanish government, but internal conflicts as well as military and diplomatic successes of the Spanish Governors-General Don Juan of Austria and Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma split them apart, finally leading
2295-491: The Almirantazgo de los países septentrionales (Admiralty of the northern countries) in 1624 to make it more effective. Part of the new system was a network of inspectors in neutral ports who inspected neutral shipping for goods with a Dutch connection and supplied certificates that protected neutral shippers against confiscation in Spanish ports. The English and Hanseatics were only too happy to comply, and so contributed to
2430-584: The Catholic League , although the two conflicts never fully merged. With several back and forths – notably, the Spanish conquered Breda in 1625 , but the Dutch took it back in 1637 – the Dutch Republic was able to conquer the eastern border forts of Oldenzaal (1626) and Groenlo (1627) , the major Brabantian city of 's-Hertogenbosch (1629) , the fortified cities of Venlo, Roermond and Maastricht along
2565-575: The Malcontent County of Artois , County of Hainaut and city of Douai to sign the Union of Arras on 6 January 1579, reverting to Catholicism and loyalty to the Spanish crown. In response, most of the remaining rebel provinces and cities would forge or later accede to the Union of Utrecht, a closer military alliance treaty that would go on to become the most important fundamental law of
2700-728: The Pacification of Ghent (8 November 1576) was an early stage of the Eighty Years' War ( c. 1568 –1648) between the Spanish Empire and groups of rebels in the Habsburg Netherlands . After Watergeuzen (in English known as "Sea Beggars") seized several poorly defended towns and cities in Holland and Zeeland in April 1572, the exiled stadtholder William "the Silent" of Orange launched his second invasion of
2835-462: The Pacification of Ghent (8 November 1576), and the Unions of Arras (6 January 1579) and Utrecht (23 January 1579) constituted a crucial phase of the Eighty Years' War ( c. 1568 –1648) between the Spanish Empire and the rebelling United Provinces, which would become the independent Dutch Republic . Sometimes known as the "general revolt", the period marked the only time of the war where
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#17327662761572970-602: The Peace of Münster in 1648. Although the Dutch and Spanish were both involved in opposite sides of the War of the Jülich Succession (June 1609 – October 1610; May–October 1614) in Jülich-Cleves-Berg , they carefully avoided each other, and thus the hostilities never spread back into the Habsburg Netherlands , and the truce held firm. Nevertheless, attempts to negotiate a definitive peace also failed, and
3105-600: The Southern Netherlands . Second, there was a growing disagreement over the trade routes to the different colonies (in the Far East and the Americas). The Dutch used their navy to enlarge their colonial trade routes to the detriment of Spain (primarily concentrating on capturing Philip's Portuguese possessions , since Portugal had not signed the truce). On behalf of the Austrian archdukes, Brabantian diplomat Petrus Peckius
3240-631: The Spanish conquered Breda in 1625 , but the Dutch took it back in 1637 – the Dutch Republic was able to conquer the eastern border forts of Oldenzaal (1626) and Groenlo (1627) , the major Brabantian city of 's-Hertogenbosch (1629) , the fortified cities of Venlo, Roermond and Maastricht along the Meuse (1632) , and Sas van Gent (1644) and Hulst (1645) in Zeelandic Flanders . Nevertheless, peace talks in 1629–1630 came to nothing. More ambitious plans to conquer Brussels in 1632–1633 with
3375-642: The States–General of all Seventeen Provinces of the Habsburg Netherlands, except Luxemburg , were in joint active political and military rebellion against the Spanish Imperial government through the Pacification of Ghent . The Pacification formulated several agreements amongst the rebellious provinces themselves, and laid down their demands – including the immediate withdrawal of foreign (mostly Spanish, Italian and German) troops from
3510-516: The Strait of Gibraltar to Italy and the Levant , thereby forcing the Dutch to sail in convoys with naval escorts. The cost of this was borne by the merchants in the form of a special tax, used to finance the Dutch navy, but this increased the shipping rates the Dutch had to charge, and their maritime insurance premiums also were higher, thus making Dutch shipping less competitive. Spain also increased
3645-912: The peace of the Pyrenees of 1659. The peace was celebrated in the Republic with sumptuous festivities. It was solemnly promulgated on the 80th anniversary of the execution of the Counts of Egmont and Horne on 5 June 1648. The Eighty Years' War has given rise to more historical controversies than any other topic from the history of the Nederlanden [Low Countries] whatsoever. – Encarta Encyclopedie Winkler Prins (2002) Eighty Years%27 War, 1621%E2%80%931648 Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe East Indies Western Europe European waters Americas East Indies The years 1621–1648 constituted
3780-777: The " Seventeen Provinces " during the Guelders Wars (1502–1543), and seeking to combine these disparate regions into a single political entity, Charles aspired to counter the Protestant Reformation and keep all his subjects obedient to the Catholic Church . The period between the start of the Beeldenstorm in August 1566 until early 1572 (before the Capture of Brielle on 1 April 1572) contained
3915-401: The (Southern) Netherlands reverted to the Spanish branch. Isabella Clara Eugenia lost her sovereignty over the Netherlands upon her husband's death, and became governor-general for Philip IV instead. The view in the Spanish government was that the truce had been economically ruinous. The Spanish considered that the truce had enabled the Dutch to gain very unequal advantages in the trade with
4050-536: The 1648 Peace of Münster, which confirmed most agreements already reached with the Truce of 1609. Van Oldenbarnevelt had no ambition to have the Republic become the leading power of Protestant Europe, and he had shown restraint when, in 1609–1610 and 1614, the Republic had felt constrained to intervene militarily in the Jülich-Cleves crisis opposite Spain. Though there had been a danger of armed conflict between
4185-563: The Baltic area, and the carrying trade between Spain and Italy now shifted to English shipping. The embargo was a double-edged sword, however, as some Spanish and Portuguese export activities likewise collapsed as a consequence (such as the Valencian and Portuguese salt exports). Spain was also able to physically close off inland waterways for Dutch river traffic after 1625. The Dutch were thus also deprived of their important transit trade with
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4320-567: The Bruges-Ghent canal that the Brussels government had dug to circumvent the Dutch blockade of the coastal waters. However, at this time a sizeable Spanish force appeared to his rear, which caused a row with panicky deputies-in-the-field that sought to manage the campaign for the States General. The civilians prevailed, and a very angry Frederick Henry had to order an ignominious retreat of the Dutch invading force. On 12 and 13 September 1631,
4455-471: The Catholic churches and clergy were left unmolested. Then, on 8 June, he laid siege to Maastricht . A desperate effort of Spanish and Imperialist forces to relieve the city failed and on 20 August 1632, Frederick Henry sprang his mines , breaching the walls of the city. It capitulated three days later. Here also, the Catholic religion was allowed to remain. The infanta Isabella was now forced to convene
4590-548: The Catholic religion in their provinces. By signing the Edict of 1577 on 12 February 1577 at Marche-en-Famenne , Don Juan nominally accepted all demands of the Pacification. Most foreign troops withdrew to the territory of Luxemburg, which had not joined the Pacification. Although a few sieges of cities with Spanish garrisons that refused to withdraw took place, these were mostly resolved quickly by paying them off; in general,
4725-726: The Duke of Parma 's steady military and diplomatic successes , the Union of Utrecht continued their resistance, proclaiming their independence through the 1581 Act of Abjuration and establishing the Calvinist -dominated Dutch Republic in 1588. In the Ten Years thereafter, the Republic (whose heartland was no longer threatened) made conquests in the north and east and received diplomatic recognition from France and England in 1596. The Dutch colonial empire emerged, which began with Dutch attacks on Portugal's overseas territories . Facing
4860-458: The Duke of Parma continued his successful military and diplomatic offensive, bringing ever more provinces and cities in the southern, eastern and northeastern parts of the Netherlands back into royalist hands. The military upkeep and decreased trade had put both Spain and the Dutch Republic under financial strain. To alleviate conditions, a ceasefire was signed in Antwerp on 9 April 1609, marking
4995-541: The Dutch Republic signed the Treaty of Compiègne (1624) with Louis XIII of France , in which the latter agreed to support the Dutch military effort with an annual subsidy of a million guilders (7% of the Dutch war budget). Although Spain took a defensive stance, economic warfare was intensified in a way that amounted to a veritable siege of the Republic as a whole. In the first place, the naval war intensified. The Spanish navy harassed Dutch shipping, which had to sail through
5130-553: The Dutch demands. However, he lost the support of the "peace party" in Holland, led by Amsterdam. These regents wanted to offer further concessions to gain peace. The peace party gained the upper hand in Holland, for the first time since 1618 standing up to the stadtholder and the Counter-Remonstrants. Frederick Henry, however, managed to gain the support of the majority of the other provinces and those voted on 9 December 1633 (overruling Holland and Overijssel) to break off
5265-403: The Dutch forces. Once the force of the double invasion by France and the Republic had been broken, these troops emerged from their fortresses and attacked the areas recently conquered by the Dutch in a pincer movement . Despite desperate efforts, the Dutch and their allies were not able to prevent Spanish forces from taking the towns of Limbourg, Gennep, Diest, and Goch around the south and east of
5400-468: The Dutch government deteriorated in Maurice's last years. He had been too successful in gathering all the reins of government in his own hands after his coup in 1618. He completely dominated Dutch politics and diplomacy in his first years afterwards, even monopolising the abortive peace talks before the expiration of the truce. Likewise the political Counter-Remonstrants were temporarily in total control, but
5535-409: The Dutch heartland, getting as far as the city of Amersfoort , which promptly surrendered. The States General, however, mobilised civic militias and scrounged garrison troops from fortresses all around the country, assembling an army that at the height of the emergency numbered no less than 128,000 troops. This enabled Frederick Henry to maintain his siege of 's-Hertogenbosch. When Dutch troops surprised
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5670-435: The Dutch repulsed a Spanish Siege of Philippine [ nl ] (8–20 May 1635), the French scored a victory at the Battle of Les Avins (20 May 1635), and the joint forces then accomplished the Capture of Tienen [ nl ] (8–10 June 1635). However, the capture of Tienen was followed by a savage sack of the city, with mass killings and rapes of the population. Finally, either deliberately or accidentally,
5805-739: The Dutch when French and Dutch troops sacked the city of Tienen , which cost them the sympathies of the southern Netherlands population. However, French intervention and internal discontent at the costs of the war in the Low Countries led to a change in Spain's 'Netherlands First' policy. Instead Spain focused on suppressing the French-backed Reapers' War in Catalonia. The resulting stalemate and financial troubles, plus Spanish military exhaustion and Dutch desire for formal political recognition, eventually convinced both sides in
5940-523: The Dutch won the naval Battle of the Slaak which prevented the Spanish from dividing the Dutch Republic. Finally, in 1632, Frederick Henry was allowed to deliver a significant strike by launching a Meuse campaign, in a pincer move to prepare for the conquest of the major cities of the Southern Netherlands. The initial move in his offensive was to have a reluctant States General publish (over
6075-567: The Flemish coast. The Dutch herring trade, an important pillar of the economy, was much hurt by other forms of economic warfare, the embargo on salt for preserving herring, and the blockade of the inland waterways to the Dutch hinterland, which were an important transportation route for Dutch transit trade. The Dutch were used to procuring their salt from Portugal and the Caribbean islands. Alternative salt supplies were available from France, but
6210-466: The Franco-Dutch alliance bring significant changes to the situation on the ground. It began with a disastrous Franco-Dutch invasion of the southern Netherlands in 1635. This in fact made matters worse for the Dutch when French and Dutch troops sacked the city of Tienen , which cost them the sympathies of the southern Netherlands population. However, French intervention and internal discontent at
6345-482: The French salt had a high magnesium content, which made it less suitable for herring preservation. When the supplies in the Spanish sphere of influence were cut off, the Dutch economy was therefore dealt a heavy blow. The salt embargo was just a part of the more general embargo on Dutch shipping and trade that Spain instituted after 1621. The bite of this embargo grew only gradually, because the Dutch at first tried to evade it by putting their trade in neutral bottoms, like
6480-545: The Holy Roman Empire of 14 and 24 October 1648, which comprise the Peace of Westphalia , but which were not signed by the Republic, the Republic now also gained formal "independence" from the Holy Roman Empire, just like the Swiss Cantons. In both cases this was just a formalisation of a situation that had already existed for a long time. France and Spain did not conclude a treaty and so remained at war until
6615-399: The Iberian Peninsula and the Mediterranean , owing to their mercantile prowess. Meanwhile, the continued blockade of Antwerp had contributed to that city's steep decline in importance (hence the demand for the lifting of the closing of the Scheldt). The shift in the terms of trade between Spain and the Republic had resulted in a permanent trade deficit for Spain, which naturally translated into
6750-408: The Indies and Americas, and lifting of the Spanish embargoes) were generally met. However, the general negotiations between the main parties dragged on, because France kept formulating new demands. Eventually it was decided therefore to split off the peace between the Republic and Spain from the general peace negotiations. This enabled the two parties to conclude what technically was a separate peace (to
6885-427: The Meuse (1632) , and Sas van Gent (1644) and Hulst (1645) in Zeelandic Flanders . Nevertheless, peace talks in 1629–1630 came to nothing. More ambitious plans to conquer Brussels in 1632–1633 with the help of anti-Spanish nobility in the Southern Netherlands never came to fruition. Several attempted Northern republican surprises and sieges of Antwerp were parried by the Spanish royal Army of Flanders . Nor did
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#17327662761577020-579: The Netherlands from the east in another attempt to generate a general uprising against the repressive regime of Spanish General-Governor Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba . Acting on orders of Philip II of Spain , Alba sought to exterminate all manifestations of Protestantism and disobedience through inquisition and public executions, as well as abolishing several privileges of the Netherlandish nobility and autonomy of cities, and introducing more stringent taxes. William's second invasion in 1572 had mixed results, and Alba's son Don Fadrique went on
7155-560: The Netherlands) as Holy Roman Emperor. They cast about for support in this struggle, and on the Protestant side only the Republic was able and willing to provide it. This took the form of support for Frederick V, Elector Palatine , a nephew of Prince Maurice and a son-in-law of James I, when Frederick accepted the crown of Bohemia the insurgents offered him (he was crowned on 4 November 1619). His father-in-law had sought to restrain him from doing this, warning that he could not count on English aid, but Maurice encouraged him in every way, providing
7290-417: The Netherlands, restitution of old rights and privileges, and self-rule – to king Philip II of Spain . From 8 November 1576 until 23 July 1577, the new Spanish Governor-General of the Netherlands John of Austria (known to history as "Don Juan") engaged in peace negotiations with the States-General. The First Union of Brussels (9 January 1577) confirmed the Pacification, adding that the States would uphold
7425-462: The Palatinate. Maurice also provided diplomatic support, pressing both the Protestant German princes and James I to come to Frederick's aid. When James sent 4,000 English troops in September 1620, these were armed and transported by the Dutch, and their advance covered by a Dutch cavalry column. In the end the Dutch intervention was in vain. After just a few months, Frederick and his wife Elizabeth fled into exile at The Hague, where they became known as
7560-405: The Republic more hard-line factions had come to power. Though civil war had been avoided in the Republic, national unity had been bought with much bitterness on the losing Remonstrant side, and Maurice for the moment had to garrison several former Remonstrant-dominated cities to guard against insurrection. This encouraged the Spanish government, perceiving internal weakness in the Republic, to choose
7695-419: The Republic, and the Scheldt reopened for trade in that city, something Amsterdam was very much opposed to. The treaty also provided that the Catholic religion would be preserved in its entirety in the provinces to be apportioned to the Republic. This provision was understandable from the French point of view, as the French government had recently suppressed the Huguenots in their strongpoint of La Rochelle (with
7830-453: The Republic. A party of German mercenaries, roaming on the Cardinal-Infrante's left flank, captured the unprepared Dutch fortress of Schenkenschans on the night of 27/28 July. This strategically important fort was situated on an island in the Rhine near Cleves and dominated the "back door" into the Dutch heartland along the north bank of the river Rhine. Cleves itself was soon captured by a combined Spanish-Imperial force and Spanish forces overran
7965-469: The Republic. The peace party around Amsterdam objected to the clause in the proposed treaty with France that bound the Republic's hands by prohibiting the conclusion of a separate peace with Spain. This would shackle the Republic to French policies and so constrain its independence. The resistance to the French alliance by the moderate regents caused a rupture in the relations with the stadtholder. Henceforth Frederick Henry would be much more closely aligned with
8100-787: The River Tjonger, near Oudeschoot , along the road to Wolvega and nearby Terbant . The defence line is currently under restoration. The defence line contains thezse forts: Dutch waterlines Other Eighty Years%27 War Peace of Münster [REDACTED] Spanish Empire European ally: [REDACTED] Portuguese Empire ( c.1580–1640 ) European co-belligerent: [REDACTED] Holy Roman Empire (1629, 1632, 1635) Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe East Indies Western Europe European waters Americas East Indies The Eighty Years' War or Dutch Revolt (Dutch: Nederlandse Opstand ) (c. 1566/1568–1648)
8235-402: The South. Furthermore, as they realised that Spain would never concede Brazil, they proposed to limit the peace to Europe, continuing the war overseas. By June 1633 the talks were on the verge of collapse. A shift in Dutch politics ensued that would prove fateful for the Republic. Frederick Henry, sensing that the talks were going nowhere, proposed to put an ultimatum to the other side to accept
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#17327662761578370-515: The Southern provinces' States General for the first time since her inauguration in 1598. They met in September (as it turned out for the last time under Spanish rule). Most Southern provinces advocated immediate peace talks with the Republic so as to preserve the integrity of the South and the free exercise of the Catholic religion. A Southern States General delegation met the States General of the Republic, represented by its deputies-in-the-field in Maastricht. The southern delegates offered to negotiate on
8505-417: The Spanish and Dutch forces involved in the crisis, both sides took care to avoid each other, respecting each other's spheres of influence. Negotiations for a permanent peace went on throughout the truce. Two major issues could not be resolved. First, the Spanish demand for religious freedom of Catholics in the Dutch Republic was countered by a Dutch demand for a similar religious freedom for Protestants in
8640-453: The Spanish fortress of Wesel , which acted as the principal Spanish supply base, this forced the invaders to retreat to the IJssel. 's-Hertogenbosch surrendered in September 1629 to Frederick Henry. This town, largest in the northern part of Brabant, had been considered impregnable to attack. Its loss was a serious blow to the Spanish. According to Israel (1998), the fall of 's-Hertogenbosch represented "a shattering blow to Spanish prestige" and
8775-408: The Spanish from eastern Gelderland in 1627 after recapturing Grol . The Dutch victory in the Battle in the Bay of Matanzas in 1628, in which a Spanish treasure fleet was captured by Piet Pieterszoon Hein , contributed even more to the improving fiscal situation, at the same time depriving Spain of much-needed money. However, the greatest contribution to the improvement of the Dutch position in 1628
8910-442: The Spanish offer to the States of the provinces for consideration. The popular debate that followed split the provinces. Friesland , Groningen and Zeeland, predictably, rejected the proposal. Frederick Henry appears to have favoured it personally, but he was hampered by the political divisions in the province of Holland where radical Counter-Remonstrants and moderates were unable to agree. The Counter-Remonstrants urged in guarded terms
9045-410: The Spanish royal government under certain conditions. In response, the States-General's Second Union of Brussels (10 December 1577) showed a more fierce and determined opposition to the Spanish government, now demanding (and themselves guaranteeing) equal protection for Catholics and Protestants in all provinces of the Netherlands. William "the Silent" of Orange became the de facto political leader of
9180-420: The States-General. This situation deteriorated even more when he had to spend long periods in the field as commander-in-chief, during which he was unable to personally direct affairs in The Hague. His health soon deteriorated, also detracting from his efficacy as a political and military leader. The regime, depending on Maurice's personal qualities as a virtual dictator, therefore came under unbearable strain. In
9315-404: The Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire under Gustavus Adolphus in 1630, supported by French and Dutch subsidies. The Swedes improved upon the new Dutch infantry tactics (enhanced with improved cavalry tactics) with much more success against the Imperial forces than the German Protestants had done and so turned the tide of the war. However, once its war in northern Italy ended in 1631, Spain
9450-435: The United Provinces, who on 26 July 1581 proclaimed the Act of Abjuration , a de facto declaration of independence from Spain. While the nascent polity was struggling to find a new sovereign head of state, including Matthias of Austria , Francis of Anjou , William "the Silent" of Orange and Robert of Leicester , before giving up and deciding to become a republic by passing the Deduction of Vrancken on 12 April 1588,
9585-427: The United Provinces, while Matthias of Austria was brought in to replace Don Juan as Governor-General. The years 1579–1588 constituted a phase of the Eighty Years' War (c. 1568–1648) between the Spanish Empire and the United Provinces in revolt after most of them concluded the Union of Utrecht on 23 January 1579, and proceeded to carve the independent Dutch Republic out of the Habsburg Netherlands . It followed
9720-506: The West and East Indies; lifting of the restrictions on Antwerp's trade by way of the Scheldt; and toleration of the public practice of the Catholic religion in the Republic. These demands were unacceptable to Maurice and the truce expired in April 1621. The war did not immediately resume, however. Maurice continued sending secret offers to Isabella after Albert had died in July 1621, through
9855-594: The Winter King and Queen for their brief reign. Maurice pressed Frederick, in vain, to at least defend the Palatinate against the Spanish troops under Spinola and Tilly . This stage of the war witnessed the triumph of Spain and the Imperial forces in Germany. James held this against Maurice for his incitement of the losing side with promises that he could not keep. There was continual contact between Maurice and
9990-652: The Younger made one last attempt at negotiating a renewal of the truce in March 1621 in The Hague. He addressed the States-General on 23 March 1621, proposing that the Dutch Republic would be left to run its own affairs in return for a nominal recognition of the sovereignty of the king of Spain. This suggestion was not well received by his hosts and he was sent back with an indignant rejection of his proposal. The war
10125-499: The Younger of Brunswick . However, his Dutch-financed army was crushed at Stadtlohn , near the Dutch border by the forces of the Catholic League under Tilly in August 1623. This setback necessitated a reinforcement of the Dutch IJssel line. Spinola failed to take advantage of the new situation, lulled into complacency by Maurice's unceasing peace-feelers, but would start besieging Breda in August 1624. Meanwhile, on 10 June 1624,
10260-402: The affront to its prestige was immense. The closure of the river Scheldt to traffic in and out of Antwerp, and the acceptance of Dutch commercial operations in the Spanish and Portuguese colonial maritime lanes were just a few points that the Spanish found objectionable. Although there was peace on an international level, political unrest took hold of Dutch domestic affairs. What had started as
10395-621: The annoyance of France, which maintained that this contravened the alliance treaty of 1635 with the Republic). The text of the Treaty (in 79 articles) was fixed on 30 January 1648. It was then sent to the principals (King Philip IV of Spain and the States General) for ratification. Five provinces voted to ratify (against the advice of stadtholder William) on 4 April (Zeeland and Utrecht being opposed). Utrecht finally yielded to pressure by
10530-476: The atrocities committed against 'the town of Tienen, God, the Sacraments and churches, priests, religious men and women, elderly, women and children'. The Siege of Leuven (24 June – 4 July 1635) was a disaster for the combined Franco-Ductch forces. The Cardinal-Infante brought his full offensive forces to bear on the Dutch. The Army of Flanders now again numbered 70,000 men, which was at least at parity with
10665-466: The basis of a token recognition by the Republic of the sovereignty of the king of Spain. When Albert sent the chancellor of Brabant, Petrus Peckius , to The Hague to negotiate with the States General on this basis, he fell into this trap and mentioned this recognition, instantly alienating his hosts. Nothing was as certain to unite the northern provinces as the suggestion that they should abandon their hard-fought sovereignty. If this incident had not come up,
10800-402: The costs of the war in the Low Countries led to a change in Spain's 'Netherlands First' policy. Instead Spain focused on suppressing the French-backed Reapers' War in Catalonia. The resulting stalemate and financial troubles, plus Spanish military exhaustion and Dutch desire for formal political recognition, eventually convinced both sides in the mid-1640s to hold peace talks. The outcome was
10935-445: The downside was that his government was overextended, with too few people doing the heavy lifting at the local level, which was essential to make the government machine run smoothly in the highly decentralised Dutch polity. Holland's conventional role as leader of the political process was temporarily vacated, as Holland as a power center was eliminated. Maurice had to do everything by himself with his small band of aristocratic managers in
11070-476: The effectiveness of the embargo. The embargo grew to be an effective direct and indirect impediment for Dutch trade, as not only the direct trade between the Amsterdam Entrepôt and the lands of the Spanish empire was affected, but also the parts of Dutch trade that indirectly depended on it: Baltic grain and naval stores destined for Spain were now provided by others, depressing the Dutch trade with
11205-531: The end of the Dutch Revolt and the beginning of the Twelve Years' Truce . The conclusion of this Truce was a major diplomatic coup for Holland's advocate Johan van Oldenbarnevelt , as Spain by concluding the Treaty, formally recognised the independence of the Republic. In Spain the truce was seen as a major humiliation – she had suffered a political, military and ideological defeat, and
11340-468: The expiration of the truce in April 1621, all Dutch ships were ordered out of Spanish ports and the stringent trade embargoes from before 1609 were renewed. After an interval to rebuild the strength of the Army of Flanders, Spinola opened a number of land offensives, during which he captured the fortress of Jülich (garrisoned by the Dutch since 1614) in 1622, and Steenbergen in Brabant, before laying siege to
11475-455: The final phase of the Eighty Years' War (c. 1568–1648) between the Spanish Empire and the emerging Dutch Republic . It began when the Twelve Years' Truce (1609–1621) expired, and concluded with the Peace of Münster in 1648. Although the Dutch and Spanish were both involved in opposite sides of the War of the Jülich Succession (June 1609 – October 1610; May–October 1614) in Jülich-Cleves-Berg , they carefully avoided each other, and thus
11610-530: The first events of a series that would later be known as the Eighty Years' War between the Spanish Empire and disparate groups of rebels in the Habsburg Netherlands . Some of the first pitched battles and sieges between radical Calvinists and Habsburg governmental forces took place in the years 1566–1567, followed by the arrival and government takeover by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba (simply known as "Alba" or "Alva") with an army of 10,000 Spanish and Italian soldiers. Next, an ill-fated invasion by
11745-408: The government in Brussels during 1620 and 1621 regarding a possible renewal of the truce. Archduke Albert of Austria , who had first become Governor General of the Habsburg Netherlands , then its sovereign (following his marriage to Isabella Clara Eugenia , the daughter of Philip II), was in favour of a renewal, especially after Maurice falsely gave him the impression that a peace would be possible on
11880-428: The help of anti-Spanish nobility in the Southern Netherlands never came to fruition. Several attempted Northern republican surprises and sieges of Antwerp were parried by the Spanish royal Army of Flanders . Nor did the Franco-Dutch alliance bring significant changes to the situation on the ground. It began with a disastrous Franco-Dutch invasion of the southern Netherlands in 1635. This in fact made matters worse for
12015-520: The hostilities never spread back into the Habsburg Netherlands , and the truce held firm. Nevertheless, attempts to negotiate a definitive peace also failed, and the war resumed as anticipated in 1621. Essentially, it became a side theatre of the wider Thirty Years' War that had already broken out with the Bohemian Revolt in 1618 in eastern parts of the Holy Roman Empire (Bohemia and Austria), pitting Central Europe's Protestant Union against
12150-543: The important fortress city of Bergen-op-Zoom . This proved a costly fiasco as Spinola's besieging army of 18,000 melted away through disease and desertion. He therefore had to lift the siege after a few months. The strategic import of this humiliating experience was that the Spanish government now concluded that besieging the strong Dutch fortresses was a waste of time and money and decided to henceforth concentrate on economic warfare. The subsequent success of Spinola's siege of Breda did not change this decision, and Spain adopted
12285-500: The intermediary of the Flemish painter and diplomat Peter Paul Rubens . Though the contents of these offers (which amounted to a version of the concessions demanded by Spain) were not known in the Republic, the fact of the secret negotiations became known. Proponents of restarting the war were disquieted, like the investors in the Dutch West India Company, which after a long delay was finally about to be founded, with
12420-578: The intervention of Christian IV of Denmark in the war in 1625. Both the Danes and Mansfelt were defeated in 1626, and the Catholic League occupied the northern German lands that had hitherto acted as a buffer zone for the Republic. For a while in 1628 an invasion of the eastern part of the Republic seemed imminent. However, the relative might of Spain, the main player up to now in the German civil war,
12555-626: The invasion. Any sympathies the civilian population of the Southern Netherlands may have had towards the Franco-Dutch alliance's promises of liberation from the Spanish suffered a serious blow due to the atrocities. The new generation raised in Flanders and Brabant, which had been thoroughly reconverted to Roman Catholicism , now distrusted the Calvinist Dutch even more than it loathed the Spanish occupants. The French and Dutch leaders were greatly embarrassed and started to blame each other for
12690-492: The leader of the opposition against the alliance) received 6,000 livres. The Treaty of Alliance that was signed in Paris on 8 February 1635 committed the Republic to invade the Spanish Netherlands simultaneously with France later that year. The treaty previewed a partitioning of the Spanish Netherlands between the two invaders. If the inhabitants would rise against Spain, the Southern Netherlands would be afforded independence on
12825-445: The lull in the military pressure by Spain after the fall of Breda in 1625, the Republic was able to steadily increase its standing army, owing to its improved financial situation. This enabled the new stadtholder of Friesland and Groningen, Ernst Casimir , to recapture Oldenzaal, forcing the Spanish troops to evacuate Overijssel. Diplomatically, the situation improved once England entered the war in 1625 as an ally. Frederick Henry cleared
12960-734: The mid-1640s to hold peace talks. The negotiations between Spain and the Republic formally started in January 1646 as part of the more general peace negotiations between the warring parties in the Thirty Years' War. The States General sent eight delegates from several of the provinces as none trusted the others to represent them adequately. They were Willem van Ripperda (Overijssel), Frans van Donia (Friesland), Adriaen Clant tot Stedum (Groningen), Adriaan Pauw and Jan van Mathenesse (Holland), Barthold van Gent (Gelderland), Johan de Knuyt (Zeeland) and Godert van Reede (Utrecht). The Spanish delegation
13095-501: The model of the cantons of Switzerland , though with the Flemish seacoast, Namur and Thionville annexed by France, and Breda, Geldern and Hulst going to the Republic. If the inhabitants resisted, the country would be partitioned outright, with the Romance-speaking provinces and western Flanders going to France, and the remainder to the Republic. The latter partitioning opened the prospect that Antwerp would be re-united with
13230-431: The most powerful nobleman of the Low Countries, the exiled but still-Catholic William "the Silent" of Orange , failed to inspire a general anti-government revolt. Although the war seemed over before it got underway, in the years 1569–1571, Alba's repression grew severe, and opposition against his regime mounted to new heights and became susceptible to rebellion. The period between the Capture of Brielle (1 April 1572) and
13365-456: The national Public Church. Van Oldenbarnevelt was sentenced to death, together with his ally Gilles van Ledenberg , while two other Remonstrant allies, Rombout Hogerbeets and Hugo Grotius received life imprisonment. The years 1621–1648 constituted the final phase of the Eighty Years' War (c. 1568–1648) between the Spanish Empire and the emerging Dutch Republic . It began when the Twelve Years' Truce (1609–1621) expired, and concluded with
13500-437: The negotiations might well have been successful as a number of the provinces were amenable to simply renewing the truce on its existing terms. Now formal negotiations were broken off, however, and Maurice was authorised to conduct further negotiations in secret. His attempts to get a better deal met with counter-demands from the new Spanish government for more substantive Dutch concessions. The Spaniards demanded Dutch evacuation of
13635-553: The neutral Prince-Bishopric of Liège (then not a part of the Southern Netherlands) and the German hinterland . Dutch butter and cheese prices collapsed as a result of this blockade (and rose steeply in the affected import areas), as did wine and herring prices (the Dutch monopolised the French wine trade at the time). The steep price rises in the Spanish Netherlands were sometimes accompanied by food shortages, however, leading to an eventual relaxation of this embargo. It
13770-541: The objections of the radical Calvinists) a proclamation promising that the free exercise of the Catholic religion would be guaranteed in places that the Dutch army would conquer that year. The inhabitants of the Southern Netherlands were invited to "throw off the yoke of the Spaniards". This piece of propaganda would prove to be very effective. Frederick Henry now invaded the Meuse valley with 30,000 troops. He took Venlo , Roermond , and Sittard in short order. As promised,
13905-458: The old Infanta Isabella who had died in December 1633. Spain's strength in the Southern Netherlands was now appreciably enhanced. The Dutch, now with no prospect of peace with Spain, and faced with a resurgent Spanish force, decided to take the French overtures for an offensive alliance against Spain more seriously. This change in strategic policy was accompanied by a political sea-change within
14040-434: The other provinces, but Zeeland held out and refused to sign. It was eventually decided to ratify the peace without Zeeland's consent. The delegates to the peace conference affirmed the peace on oath on 15 May 1648 (though the delegate of Zeeland refused to attend, and the delegate of Utrecht suffered a possibly diplomatic illness). In the broader context of the treaties between France and the Holy Roman Empire, and Sweden and
14175-427: The period up to Maurice's death in April 1625, the strategic and military position of the Republic therefore deteriorated as well. It had to increase the standing army to 48,000 men in 1622, just to hold the defensive ring of fortresses, while Spain increased the Army of Flanders to 60,000 men at the same time. This put a great strain on the Republic's finances at a time when tax rates were already dangerously high. Yet at
14310-416: The presence of its navy in Dutch home waters, in the form of the armada of Flanders, and the great number of privateers , the Dunkirkers , both based in the Southern Netherlands. Though these Spanish naval forces were not strong enough to contest Dutch naval supremacy, Spain waged a very successful Guerre de Course , especially against the Dutch herring fisheries, despite attempts by the Dutch to blockade
14445-440: The radical Counter-Remonstrants who supported the alliance. This political shift promoted the concentration of power and influence in the Republic in the hands of a small group of the stadtholder's favourites. These were the members of the several secrete besognes (secret committees) to which the States General more and more entrusted the conduct of diplomatic and military affairs. Unfortunately, this shift to secret policy-making by
14580-669: The rebel territory had been reduced to most towns in Holland (notably excluding royalist Amsterdam ) and Zeeland, and two towns in Guelders; knowing that violent repression would result from resistance, these cities resolved to fight to the bitter end, while the others capitulated. The Spanish offensive stalled after Haarlem, with the Dutch rebels capturing Geertruidenberg , winning the Siege of Alkmaar and Battle of Delft , and achieving naval superiority. Citing ill health, Alba resigned and returned to Spain in December 1573. The period between
14715-442: The rebel-held territories . However, widespread mutinies in the Spanish army caused a general uprising. Under the leadership of the exiled William the Silent , the Catholic and Protestant-dominated provinces sought to establish religious peace while jointly opposing the king's regime with the Pacification of Ghent , but the general rebellion failed to sustain itself. Despite Governor of Spanish Netherlands and General for Spain,
14850-459: The sack, with Frederick Henry taking some disciplinary measures in an attempt to deflect some of the blame. The Spanish government in Brussels exploited the Sack of Tienen successfully for anti-rebellion and anti-Protestant propaganda to further discourage any Southern uprising in support of the Franco-Dutch invasion. The Cardinal-Infante's official declaration of war on France made explicit mention of
14985-505: The same time the Republic had no other option than to sustain the imploding German Protestant forces financially. For that reason the Dutch paid for the army of Count Ernst von Mansfeld that was cowering on the Dutch border in East Friesland after its defeats by the Spanish and Imperial forces; it was hoped that in this way a complete encirclement of the Republic could be avoided. For a while the Republic pinned its hope on Christian
15120-598: The ships of the Hanseatic League and England. Spanish merchants tried to evade it, as the embargo also did great harm to Spanish economic interests, even to the extent that for a time a famine threatened in Spanish Naples when the Dutch-carried grain trade was cut off. Realizing that the local authorities often sabotaged the embargo, the Spanish crown built up an elaborate enforcement apparatus,
15255-572: The situation had potential for putting an end to the war if agreements could be reached and respected between the parties. From 24 July 1577 until 6 January 1579, starting with the capture of the Citadel of Namur , Don Juan and his second-in-command and successor Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma launched a military offensive against the United Provinces, while seeking to reconcile provinces that were willing to subject themselves back under
15390-635: The slump in other forms of trade and their trade brought great revenues. Supplying the armies, both in the Netherlands and in Germany, proved a boon for the agricultural areas in the Dutch inland provinces. The fiscal situation of the Dutch government improved after the death of Maurice in April 1625. He was succeeded as Prince of Orange and commander of the Dutch States armed forces by his half-brother Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange . It took several months, however, to obtain his appointment as stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland, as it took time to agree on
15525-481: The southern demands were reduced to the evacuation of Portuguese Brazil (which had been invaded by the WIC in 1630) by the Dutch. In return, they offered Breda and an indemnity for the WIC for giving up Brazil. The Dutch (over the opposition of the war party that considered the demands too lenient) reduced its demands to Breda, Geldern and the Meierij area around 's-Hertogenbosch, in addition to tariff concessions in
15660-434: The strength of the authorisation given in 1629 by Philip IV. However, Philip and Olivares secretly cancelled this authorisation, as they considered the initiative of the southern States General an "usurpation" of royal power, and did not intend to honour any agreement that might ensue. On the Dutch side, there was the usual disunity. Frederick Henry hoped to achieve a quick result, but Friesland, Groningen, and Zeeland opposed
15795-624: The support of the Dutch), and was generally reducing Protestant privileges. It enraged the radical Calvinists in the Republic, however. The treaty was not popular in the Republic for those reasons. Dividing up the Spanish Netherlands proved more difficult than foreseen. Olivares had drawn up a strategy for this two-front war that proved very effective. Spain went on the defensive against the French forces that invaded in May 1635 and successfully held them at bay. The Franco-Dutch forces had some initial success:
15930-560: The talks outright, while divided Holland dithered. Eventually, those four provinces authorised talks with only the southern provinces, leaving Spain out. Evidently, such an approach would make the resulting agreement worthless, as it was Spain, not the southern provinces, that possessed troops. The peace party in the Republic finally brought about meaningful negotiations in December 1632, when valuable time had already been lost, enabling Spain to send reinforcements. Both sides presented demands that were irreconcilable at first, but after much palaver
16065-573: The talks. Despite gaining the fortresses along the Meuse, Dutch attempts in the next years to attack Antwerp and Brussels would fail. The Dutch were disappointed by the lack of support they received from the Southern population. With the peace negotiations dragging on, events elsewhere in Europe of course had not stood still. While Spain was busy fighting the Mantuan war, the Swedes had intervened in
16200-434: The terms of his commission. This deprived the regime of leadership in a crucial time. During this time the moderate Calvinist regents staged a return in Holland at the expense of the radical Counter-Remonstrants. This was an important development, as Frederick Henry could not lean exclusively on the latter faction, but instead took a position "above the parties", playing the two factions against one another. A side effect of this
16335-546: The truce and to enlarge its standing army to a size where it could rival the Spanish military might. This increased military power appeared to be directed principally to thwart Spain's policy objectives, as witnessed by the Dutch interventions in Germany in 1614 and 1619, as well as the Dutch alliances with the enemies of Spain in the Mediterranean, like Venice and the Sultan of Morocco. The three conditions Spain had set for
16470-488: The truce, the objective of Spain and the regime in Brussels was not a war of reconquest of the Republic. Instead the options considered in Madrid were either a limited exercise of the force of weapons, to capture a few of the strategic points the Republic had recently acquired (like Cleves ), combined with measures of economic warfare, or reliance on economic warfare alone. Spain opted for the first alternative. Immediately after
16605-570: The war party in the States of Holland therefore perfectly balanced each other and deadlock ensued. Nothing was decided during 1629 and 1630. To break the deadlock in the States of Holland, Frederick Henry planned a sensational offensive in 1631. He intended to invade Flanders and make a deep thrust toward Dunkirk, as his brother had done in 1600. His expedition was even larger. He embarked 30,000 men and 80 field guns on 3,000 rivercraft for his amphibious descent on IJzendijke . From there he penetrated to
16740-402: The war resumed as anticipated in 1621. Essentially, it became a side theatre of the wider Thirty Years' War that had already broken out with the Bohemian Revolt in 1618 in eastern parts of the Holy Roman Empire (Bohemia and Austria), pitting Central Europe's Protestant Union against the Catholic League , although the two conflicts never fully merged. With several back and forths – notably,
16875-406: The war, after which they reverted in favour of the Dutch. Neutral nations benefited, but both Dutch and Spanish areas suffered economically, though not uniformly, as some industrial regions benefited from the artificial restriction of trade, which had a protectionist effect. The "new draperies" textile industry in Holland permanently lost ground to its competitors in Flanders and England, though this
17010-437: Was 'epoch-making' for the fact that, for the first time in the war, the Dutch appeared to enjoy overall strategic superiority. The event caused Philip IV to overrule his ministers and offer an unconditional truce, which was rejected. The capture of Wesel and 's-Hertogenbosch (a city that had been fortified according to the most modern standards, often incorporating Dutch innovations in fortification), in short succession, caused
17145-545: Was able to bring its forces in the northern theatre of war up to strength again. The Cardinal-Infante brought a well trained, experienced Spanish army up the Spanish Road , and at the Battle of Nördlingen (1634) , in combination with Holy Roman Imperial forces, used traditional tercio tactics to route the Swedish-Protestant forces. The Spanish prince then marched immediately to Brussels, where he succeeded
17280-475: Was an armed conflict in the Habsburg Netherlands between disparate groups of rebels and the Spanish government . The causes of the war included the Reformation , centralisation , excessive taxation, and the rights and privileges of the Dutch nobility and cities. After the initial stages , Philip II of Spain , the sovereign of the Netherlands, deployed his armies and regained control over most of
17415-573: Was compensated for by a shift to more expensive high-quality woollens. Nevertheless, the economic pressure, and the slump of trade and industry it caused, was not sufficient to bring the Republic to its knees. There were a number of reasons for this. The chartered companies, the United East India Company (VOC) and the Dutch West India Company (WIC), provided employment on a large enough scale to compensate for
17550-539: Was ebbing fast. By April 1629 the States Army counted 77,000 soldiers, half as much again as the Army of Flanders at that point in time. This allowed Frederick Henry to raise a mobile army of 28,000 (the other troops were used in the fixed garrisons of the Republic) and invest 's-Hertogenbosch . During the siege of this strategic fortress city, the Imperial and Spanish allies launched a diversionary attack from Germany's IJssel line. After crossing this river, they invaded
17685-399: Was eventually abandoned, because it deprived the Brussels authorities of important revenues from custom duties. The economic warfare measures of Spain were effective in the sense that they depressed economic activity in the Netherlands, thereby also depressing Dutch fiscal resources to finance the war effort but also by structurally altering European trade relations, at least until the end of
17820-639: Was led by Gaspar de Bracamonte, 3rd Count of Peñaranda . The negotiations were held in what is now the Haus der Niederlande in Münster. The Dutch and Spanish delegations soon reached an agreement, based on the text of the Twelve Years' Truce. It therefore confirmed Spain's recognition of Dutch independence. The Dutch demands (closure of the Scheldt, cession of the Meierij, formal cession of Dutch conquests in
17955-567: Was on once more – and crucially, at risk of fully merging with the wider Thirty Years' War that had already broken out in 1618. While the Twelve Years' Truce was still underway, civil war had begun in the Kingdom of Bohemia following the Second defenestration of Prague on 23 May 1618. The Bohemian insurgents were now pitted against their king, Ferdinand , who would soon succeed his uncle Matthias (the former States General governor-general of
18090-533: Was that Spain had overextended itself again when it participated in the War of the Mantuan Succession . This caused such a depletion of Spanish troops and financial resources in the theatre of war in the Netherlands that the Republic for the time being achieved a strategic superiority: the Army of Flanders declined to 55,000 men while the States Army reached 58,000 in 1627. Meanwhile, the Imperial forces had surged in Germany after an initial setback from
18225-485: Was that more normal political relations returned to the Republic, with Holland returning to its central political position. Also, the persecution of the Remonstrants now abated with the Prince's connivance, and with this renewed climate of tolerance, political stability in the Republic also improved. This improvement in internal affairs helped the Republic overcome the difficult years of the sharpest economic warfare. During
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