192-469: Frederick " Fritz " Joubert Duquesne ( / dj uː ˈ k eɪ n / dew- KAYN ; sometimes Du Quesne ; 21 September 1877 – 24 May 1956) was a South African Boer and German soldier , big-game hunter , journalist , and spy . Many of the claims Duquesne made about himself are in dispute; over his lifetime he used multiple identities, reinvented his past at will, claimed family ties to aristocratic clans and famous people and even asserted
384-711: A con man . As a Boer spy he was known as the "Black Panther" , in World War II he operated under the code name DUNN , and in FBI files he is frequently referred to as "The Duke" . He was captured, convicted, and escaped several prisons. During the Second Boer War, Duquesne was captured and imprisoned three times by the British and once by the Portuguese, and each time he escaped. On one occasion he infiltrated
576-677: A shortwave radio -transmitting station to establish contact with the German shortwave station abroad. Sebold was also instructed to use the code name TRAMP and to contact a fellow agent code named DUNN, who was Duquesne. Once the FBI discovered through Sebold that Duquesne was again in New York operating as a German spy, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover provided a background briefing to US President Franklin Roosevelt . The dossier from that time gave
768-553: A fort and laid out vegetable gardens at Table Bay and took control over Cape Town, which he governed for a decade. VOC favoured the idea of freemen at the Cape and many workers of VOC requested to be discharged in order to become free burghers. As a result, Jan van Riebeek approved the notion on favourable conditions and earmarked two areas near the Liesbeek River for farming purposes in 1657. The two areas which were allocated to
960-761: A forty-year career as a professional spy and counterfeit hero– a man who would constantly reinvent himself to suit the needs of the moment." At Caldas da Rainha, Duquesne charmed the daughter of one of the camp's guards, who helped him escape to Paris . From there, he went to Aldershot , Hampshire and infiltrated the British Army . In 1901, Duquesne was posted to South Africa in 1901 as an officer. There, he passed through his hometown of Nylstroom, discovering that his parent's farm had been destroyed by British forces as part of scorched earth policies implemented by Lord Kitchener . Duquesne also discovered that his sister had been raped and killed, and his mother interned in
1152-589: A hook." Duquesne appeared before New York audiences dressed in uniform as Stoughton to tell them war stories, promote the sale of Liberty Bonds and to make patriotic speeches for organizations such as the Red Cross . As historian Jon Mooallem explains it, "Captain Stoughton's career took off. His talks made decent money, his heroism earned him respect, and ladies found him alluring", and "the Black Panther
1344-535: A hunting expedition. He published several newspaper articles on Roosevelt's hunting trip to Africa, safari big game hunting in general and the heroic accomplishments of Caucasian people to bring civilization to black Africans. Duquesne became a naturalized American citizen in December 1913. After meeting a German-American industrialist in the Midwest around 1914, Duquesne became a spy for Imperial Germany . He
1536-755: A journalist for the New York Herald and other newspapers by writing adventure stories. The Second Boer War ended in 1902 with the Boers signing the Treaty of Vereeniging , but with his family dead, Duquesne never returned to South Africa. While in New York, he published a novel in the French newspaper Le Petit Bleu , and two other novels published in South Africa. In 1908, he was written up in Men of America as
1728-556: A large file of news clippings related to the bombing of ships, as well as a letter from the Assistant German Vice Consul at Managua in Nicaragua. The letter indicated that Duquesne was "one who has rendered considerable service to the German cause." British authorities were also looking at Duquesne as the agent responsible for "murder on the high seas, arson, faking Admiralty documents and conspiring against
1920-687: A minority of Boer culture, who see their role in society as abiding by the national laws and accepting calamity and hardship as part of their Christian duty. Many Boers have since converted denominations and are now members of Baptist , Charismatic , Pentecostal or Lutheran Churches . During recent times, mainly during the apartheid reform and post-1994 eras, some white Afrikaans -speaking people, mainly with conservative political views, and of Trekboer and Voortrekker descent, have chosen to be called Boere , rather than Afrikaners , to distinguish their identity. They believe that many people of Voortrekker descent were not assimilated into what they see as
2112-687: A minority of Boer culture, who see their role in society as abiding by the national laws and accepting calamity and hardship as part of their Christian duty. Many Boers have since converted denominations and are now members of Baptist , Charismatic , Pentecostal or Lutheran Churches . During recent times, mainly during the apartheid reform and post-1994 eras, some white Afrikaans -speaking people, mainly with conservative political views, and of Trekboer and Voortrekker descent, have chosen to be called Boere , rather than Afrikaners , to distinguish their identity. They believe that many people of Voortrekker descent were not assimilated into what they see as
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#17327734052512304-532: A new identity as Frank de Trafford Craven. He worked for Joseph P. Kennedy 's Film Booking Offices of America (FBO Pictures), and later RKO Pictures , as part of the publicity staff. As part of this job he moved back to Manhattan , where he was well-known under his real name. In 1930, Duquesne moved to the Quigley Publishing Company , a producer of movie magazines, and called himself Major Craven. On 23 May 1932, police arrested Duquesne in
2496-548: A position with General George Washington Goethals , the acting US Army Quartermaster and former chief engineer of the Panama Canal , but he was not successful. Additionally, Duquesne filed patents for an underwater electromagnetic mine which he then attempted to sell to the United States Navy . As a covert spy, it was necessary for Duquesne to manipulate people, assuming new identities and cover stories. It
2688-625: A publicist in the movie business, as a journalist, as a fictional Australian war hero and as head of the New Food Society in New York. During the Second Boer War he had been under orders to kill Frederick Russell Burnham , Chief of Scouts in the British Army, but in 1910 he worked with both Burnham and then Rep. Robert Broussard to lobby the United States Congress to fund the importation of hippopotamuses into
2880-473: A result of the representations of the missionaries, of equal rights with whites to the Khoikhoi and other free coloured people, the imposition (1830) of heavy penalties for harsh treatment of enslaved people, and finally the emancipation of the enslaved people in 1834, were measures which combined to aggravate the farmers' dislike of government. Moreover, what the Boers viewed as the inadequate compensation for
3072-417: A result of the representations of the missionaries, of equal rights with whites to the Khoikhoi and other free coloured people, the imposition (1830) of heavy penalties for harsh treatment of enslaved people, and finally the emancipation of the enslaved people in 1834, were measures which combined to aggravate the farmers' dislike of government. Moreover, what the Boers viewed as the inadequate compensation for
3264-875: A separate people or cultural group under international law by the Sand River Convention (which created the South African Republic in 1852), the Bloemfontein Convention (which created the Orange Free State Republic in 1854), the Pretoria Convention (which re-established the independence of the South African Republic 1881), the London Convention (which granted the full independence to the South African Republic in 1884), and
3456-436: A separate people or cultural group under international law by the Sand River Convention (which created the South African Republic in 1852), the Bloemfontein Convention (which created the Orange Free State Republic in 1854), the Pretoria Convention (which re-established the independence of the South African Republic 1881), the London Convention (which granted the full independence to the South African Republic in 1884), and
3648-612: A sketch and photo of the M1 Garand semi-automatic rifle, a drawing of a new light tank design, a photo of a US Navy Mosquito boat, a photo of a grenade launcher , and reports on US tanks he had observed at bases at West Point and in Tennessee . Duquesne also described sabotage techniques he had used in earlier wars such as small bombs with slow fuses he could drop through a hole in his pants pocket, and he commented on where he might use these devices again. On 28 June 1941, following
3840-404: A spy all of his life and automatically used all of the tricks in the book to avoid anyone following him ... He would take a local train, change to an express, change back to a local, go through a revolving door and keep going on right around, take an elevator up a floor, get off, walk back to the ground, and take off in a different entrance of the building." Duquesne also informed Sebold that he
4032-590: A summary of Duquesne's prior history and stated that, "no information, whatsoever, concerning the whereabouts and activities of Duquesne since June 6, 1932, is possessed by the Federal Bureau of Investigation." FBI Agent Newkirk, using the name Ray McManus, was now assigned to DUNN and rented a room immediately above Duquesne's apartment near Central Park , using a hidden microphone to record his conversations. However, monitoring Duquesne's activities proved to be difficult. As Newkirk described it, "The Duke had been
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#17327734052514224-814: A travelling correspondent sent to locations such as Port Arthur (now the Chinese Lüshunkou District ) to report on the Russo-Japanese War , Morocco to report on the Riff Rebellion and to the Belgian Congo (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) to accompany Sir Arthur Jones on an expedition. In June 1910 he married Alice Wortley, an American, but their marriage ended in divorce eight years later. During
4416-523: A two-year investigation, the FBI arrested Duquesne and thirty-two German spies on charges of relaying secret information on US weaponry and shipping movements to Germany. On 2 January 1942, less than a month after the US entered the war, all members of the Duquesne Spy Ring were sentenced to serve a total of more than 300 years in prison. They were found guilty in what historian Peter Duffy said in 2014
4608-549: A woman and escaped by cutting the bars of his cell and climbing over the barrier walls to freedom. Police Commissioner Richard E. Enright sent out the following bulletin: This man is partly paralysed in the right leg and always carries a cane. May apply for treatment at a hospital or private physician. He also has a skin disease which is a form of eczema. If located, arrest, hold and wire, Detective Division, Police Headquarters, New York City, and an officer will be sent for him with necessary papers. The London Daily Mail published
4800-587: A year and then attended the Académie Militaire Royale in Brussels ; however, his attendance records at these two institutions have never been found. Also, Duquesne himself writes that after he finished school in England he was sent to Europe to study engineering, but on the ship he met an embezzler named Christian de Vries and the two decided to take a trip around the world. He was one of
4992-671: Is "still to this day the largest espionage case in the history of the United States." One German spymaster later commented that the ring's roundup delivered 'the death blow' to their espionage efforts in the US. Hoover called his FBI swoop on Duquesne's ring the greatest spy roundup in US history. In a 1942 memo to his superiors, Admiral Canaris of the Abwehr reported on the importance of several of his captured spies by noting their valued contributions, and he writes that Duquesne "delivered valuable reports and important technical material in
5184-596: Is a West Germanic language spoken widely in South Africa and Namibia , and to a lesser extent in Botswana and Zimbabwe . It evolved from the Dutch vernacular of South Holland ( Hollandic dialect ) spoken by the mainly Dutch colonists of what is now South Africa, where it gradually began to develop distinguishing characteristics in the course of the 18th century. Hence, it is a daughter language of Dutch, and
5376-429: Is a West Germanic language spoken widely in South Africa and Namibia , and to a lesser extent in Botswana and Zimbabwe . It evolved from the Dutch vernacular of South Holland ( Hollandic dialect ) spoken by the mainly Dutch colonists of what is now South Africa, where it gradually began to develop distinguishing characteristics in the course of the 18th century. Hence, it is a daughter language of Dutch, and
5568-673: Is a federation of 47 Calvinist private schools, primarily in the Free State and the Transvaal, committed to educating Boer children from grade 0 through to 12. Some local radio stations promote the ideals of those who identify with the Boer people, like Radio Rosestad 100.6 FM (in Bloemfontein), Overvaal Stereo and Radio Pretoria . An internet-based radio station, Boerevolk Radio , promotes Boer separatism. Territorial areas in
5760-445: Is a federation of 47 Calvinist private schools, primarily in the Free State and the Transvaal, committed to educating Boer children from grade 0 through to 12. Some local radio stations promote the ideals of those who identify with the Boer people, like Radio Rosestad 100.6 FM (in Bloemfontein), Overvaal Stereo and Radio Pretoria . An internet-based radio station, Boerevolk Radio , promotes Boer separatism. Territorial areas in
5952-588: Is generally used in modern-day South Africa for the white Afrikaans-speaking population of South Africa (the largest group of White South Africans ) encompassing the descendants of both the Boers, and the Cape Dutch who did not embark on the Great Trek . The Dutch East India Company ( Dutch : Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie ; VOC) was formed in the Dutch Republic in 1602, and at this time
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6144-463: Is known that he was handsome, charismatic, intelligent, fluent in several languages and as FBI Agent Raymond Newkirk observed, "the Duke was a very interesting talker but he always had to be the center of attention." Duquesne also sometimes took his deceptions further than seems necessary. With the advent of World War I , Duquesne's stories of great white hunters and African safaris no longer fascinated
6336-652: The Boer designation view the term Afrikaner as an artificial political label which usurped their history and culture, turning Boer achievements into Afrikaner achievements. They feel that the Western-Cape based Afrikaners – whose ancestors did not trek eastwards or northwards – took advantage of the republican Boers' destitution following the Anglo-Boer War. At that time, the Afrikaners attempted to assimilate
6528-418: The Boer designation view the term Afrikaner as an artificial political label which usurped their history and culture, turning Boer achievements into Afrikaner achievements. They feel that the Western-Cape based Afrikaners – whose ancestors did not trek eastwards or northwards – took advantage of the republican Boers' destitution following the Anglo-Boer War. At that time, the Afrikaners attempted to assimilate
6720-529: The Boer commandos . Commissioned at the rank of lieutenant , he was attached to the general staff of Commandant-General Piet Joubert in Pretoria . Duquesne was subsequently wounded by a British bullet that went through his right shoulder at the siege of Ladysmith , and was later promoted to the rank of captain in a Boer artillery unit. Duquesne was captured by British troops at the Battle of Colenso , and
6912-403: The British Army , became an officer and led an attempt to sabotage Cape Town and to assassinate the commander-in-chief of the British forces, Lord Kitchener . His team was given up by an informant and all were captured and sentenced to death. He later became known as "the man who killed Kitchener" since he claimed to have guided a German U-boat to sink HMS Hampshire on which Lord Kitchener
7104-577: The Cape -based Afrikaner identity. They suggest that this developed after the Second Anglo-Boer War and the subsequent establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910. Some Boer nationalists have asserted that they do not identify as a right-wing element of the political spectrum. They contend that the Boers of the South African Republic and Orange Free State republics were recognised as
7296-404: The Cape -based Afrikaner identity. They suggest that this developed after the Second Anglo-Boer War and the subsequent establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910. Some Boer nationalists have asserted that they do not identify as a right-wing element of the political spectrum. They contend that the Boers of the South African Republic and Orange Free State republics were recognised as
7488-584: The Crown ", and the American authorities agreed that they would extradite Duquesne to Britain, if the British sent him back afterward to serve his sentence for fraud. After his arrest in New York, and while awaiting extradition to Britain on murder charges, Duquesne pretended to be paralyzed. He was sent to the prison ward at Bellevue Hospital . On 25 May 1919, after nearly two years of feigning paralysis and just days before his extradition, he disguised himself as
7680-829: The Foreign Agents Registration Act . He began his sentence in Leavenworth Federal Penitentiary in Kansas , along with fellow German spy Herman Lang. During his time in prison, he was mistreated and beaten by other inmates. In 1945, Duquesne was transferred to the Medical Center for Federal Prisoners in Springfield , Missouri , due to his failing physical and mental health. In 1954 he was released owing to ill health, having served fourteen years. His last known lecture
7872-569: The Great Fish River the common boundary. In 1795 the heavily taxed burghers of the frontier districts, who were afforded no protection against the Bantus, expelled the VOC officials, and set up independent governments at Swellendam and Graaff Reinet. The trekboers of the 19th century were the lineal descendants of the trekboers of the 18th century. The end of the 19th century saw a revival of
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8064-401: The Great Fish River the common boundary. In 1795 the heavily taxed burghers of the frontier districts, who were afforded no protection against the Bantus, expelled the VOC officials, and set up independent governments at Swellendam and Graaff Reinet. The trekboers of the 19th century were the lineal descendants of the trekboers of the 18th century. The end of the 19th century saw a revival of
8256-513: The Liesbeek River for farming purposes in 1657. The two areas which were allocated to the freemen, for agricultural purposes, were named Groeneveld and Dutch Garden. These areas were separated by the Amstel River (Liesbeek River). Nine of the best applicants were selected to use the land for agricultural purposes. The freemen or free burghers as they were afterwards termed, thus became subjects of VOC and were no longer its servants. In 1671,
8448-658: The Louisiana bayous to solve a severe meat shortage. Frederick Joubert Duquesne was born to a Boer family of French Huguenot origin in East London , Cape Colony , in 1877. He later moved with his parents, Abraham Duquesne and Minna Joubert, to Nylstroom in the South African Republic , where they started a farm. Abraham made his living as a hunter who also frequently traveled to sell skins, tusks and horns, and he hired local indigenous peoples to work
8640-658: The Patagonia region of Argentina and to Brazil . Another group emigrated to the British colony of Kenya , from where most returned to South Africa during the 1930s, while a third group under the leadership of General Ben Viljoen emigrated to Mexico and to New Mexico and Texas in the southwestern United States. The Maritz Rebellion (also known as the Boer Revolt, the Five Shilling Rebellion or
8832-412: The Patagonia region of Argentina and to Brazil . Another group emigrated to the British colony of Kenya , from where most returned to South Africa during the 1930s, while a third group under the leadership of General Ben Viljoen emigrated to Mexico and to New Mexico and Texas in the southwestern United States. The Maritz Rebellion (also known as the Boer Revolt, the Five Shilling Rebellion or
9024-480: The Second Boer War , Duquesne became known as the "Black Panther", and as a spy in the 1930s he stamped "all of his communiques to Germany with the figure of a cat, back arched and fur raised in anger." At age 12, Duquesne killed a Zulu who attacked his mother. He used the man's assegai short sword to stab him in the stomach. Not long after the killing, a war party from a Bantu -speaking tribe attacked
9216-634: The Vereeniging Peace Treaty , which formally ended the Second Anglo-Boer War on 31 May 1902. Others contend, however, that these treaties dealt only with agreements between governmental entities and do not imply the recognition of a Boer cultural identity per se . The supporters of these views feel that the Afrikaner label was used from the 1930s onwards as a means of politically unifying the white Afrikaans speakers of
9408-428: The Vereeniging Peace Treaty , which formally ended the Second Anglo-Boer War on 31 May 1902. Others contend, however, that these treaties dealt only with agreements between governmental entities and do not imply the recognition of a Boer cultural identity per se . The supporters of these views feel that the Afrikaner label was used from the 1930s onwards as a means of politically unifying the white Afrikaans speakers of
9600-518: The War of the Third Coalition broke out in 1803, a British force was once again sent to the Cape. After an engagement (January 1806) on the shores of Table Bay, the Dutch garrison of Castle of Good Hope surrendered to the British under Sir David Baird , and in the 1814 Anglo-Dutch treaty the colony was ceded outright by The Netherlands to the British crown . At that time the colony extended to
9792-405: The War of the Third Coalition broke out in 1803, a British force was once again sent to the Cape. After an engagement (January 1806) on the shores of Table Bay, the Dutch garrison of Castle of Good Hope surrendered to the British under Sir David Baird , and in the 1814 Anglo-Dutch treaty the colony was ceded outright by The Netherlands to the British crown . At that time the colony extended to
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#17327734052519984-712: The 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. From 1652 to 1795, the Dutch East India Company controlled Dutch Cape Colony , but the United Kingdom incorporated it into the British Empire in 1806. The name of the group is derived from Trekboer then later "boer", which means "farmer" in Dutch and Afrikaans. In addition, the term Boeren also applied to those who left the Cape Colony during
10176-452: The 19th century to colonise in the Orange Free State , Transvaal (together known as the Boer Republics ), and to a lesser extent Natal . They emigrated from the Cape to live beyond the reach of the British colonial administration, with their reasons for doing so primarily being the new Anglophone common law system being introduced into the Cape and the British abolition of slavery in 1833. The term Afrikaners or Afrikaans people
10368-455: The African veld , but also later in life when he would publish articles about and give lectures on big-game hunting . It was during one of his early hunting trips that Duquesne became interested in panthers. He observed a black panther patiently waiting motionless for the perfect time to strike while a cautious African buffalo approached and drank from a nearby water hole. The panther became his totem and its hunting style also became his. In
10560-475: The American public, and when he returned to New York he was dropped from the lecture circuit. To get back on stage he needed new material, so with the help of German intelligence he re-invented himself and pretended to be an Allied war hero, Captain Claude Stoughton of the Western Australian Light Horse regiment, a man who claimed to have "seen more war than any man at present" and claimed to have been " bayoneted three times, gassed four times, and stuck once with
10752-413: The Boer forces in time for the Battle of Bergendal , but his unit was forced to fall back to Portuguese Mozambique. Many members of the unit, including Duquesne, were captured by Portuguese forces and sent to an internment camp in Caldas da Rainha , Portugal. For Duquesne, this would become a watershed event, as Ronnie noted "life would never be the same for him... In a few months, he would be launched on
10944-439: The Boers into the new politically based cultural label. In contemporary South Africa, Boer and Afrikaner have often been used interchangeably. Afrikaner directly translated means African , and thus refers to all Afrikaans-speaking people in Africa who have their origins in the Cape Colony founded by Jan Van Riebeeck. Boer is a specific group within the larger Afrikaans-speaking population. During apartheid, Boer
11136-439: The Boers into the new politically based cultural label. In contemporary South Africa, Boer and Afrikaner have often been used interchangeably. Afrikaner directly translated means African , and thus refers to all Afrikaans-speaking people in Africa who have their origins in the Cape Colony founded by Jan Van Riebeeck. Boer is a specific group within the larger Afrikaans-speaking population. During apartheid, Boer
11328-459: The British Colonial Government before leaving the Cape Colony as reasons for their departure. Piet Retief , one of the leaders of the Boers during the time, addressed a letter to the government on 22 January 1837 in Grahamstown stating that the Boers did not see any prospect for peace or happiness for their children in a country with such internal commotions. Retief further complained about the severe financial losses which they felt had resulted from
11520-459: The British Colonial Government before leaving the Cape Colony as reasons for their departure. Piet Retief , one of the leaders of the Boers during the time, addressed a letter to the government on 22 January 1837 in Grahamstown stating that the Boers did not see any prospect for peace or happiness for their children in a country with such internal commotions. Retief further complained about the severe financial losses which they felt had resulted from
11712-454: The British during their eight years' rule. One of the first acts of General Craig had been to abolish torture in the administration of justice. The country still remained essentially Dutch, and few British citizens were attracted to it. Its cost to the British exchequer during this period was £ 16,000,000. The Batavian Republic entertained very liberal views as to the administration of the country, but had little opportunity to enact them. When
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#173277340525111904-454: The British during their eight years' rule. One of the first acts of General Craig had been to abolish torture in the administration of justice. The country still remained essentially Dutch, and few British citizens were attracted to it. Its cost to the British exchequer during this period was £ 16,000,000. The Batavian Republic entertained very liberal views as to the administration of the country, but had little opportunity to enact them. When
12096-418: The British from the Transvaal. The Boers then fought the Second Boer War in the late 19th and early 20th century against the British in order to ensure the republics of the Transvaal (the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek ) and the Orange Free State , remaining independent, ultimately capitulating in 1902. After the Second Boer War, a Boer diaspora occurred. Starting in 1903, the largest group emigrated to
12288-418: The British from the Transvaal. The Boers then fought the Second Boer War in the late 19th and early 20th century against the British in order to ensure the republics of the Transvaal (the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek ) and the Orange Free State , remaining independent, ultimately capitulating in 1902. After the Second Boer War, a Boer diaspora occurred. Starting in 1903, the largest group emigrated to
12480-415: The Cape after serving their contracts. A large number of vrijburgers became independent farmers and applied for grants of land, as well as loans of seed and tools, from VOC administration. VOC authorities had been endeavouring to induce gardeners and small farmers to emigrate from Europe to South Africa, but with little success. They were only able to attract a few families through tales of wealth, but
12672-415: The Cape after serving their contracts. A large number of vrijburgers became independent farmers and applied for grants of land, as well as loans of seed and tools, from VOC administration. VOC authorities had been endeavouring to induce gardeners and small farmers to emigrate from Europe to South Africa, but with little success. They were only able to attract a few families through tales of wealth, but
12864-459: The Cape and the British abolition of slavery in 1833. The term Afrikaners or Afrikaans people is generally used in modern-day South Africa for the white Afrikaans-speaking population of South Africa (the largest group of White South Africans ) encompassing the descendants of both the Boers, and the Cape Dutch who did not embark on the Great Trek . The Dutch East India Company ( Dutch : Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie ; VOC)
13056-430: The Cape had little charm in comparison. In October 1670, however, the Chamber of Amsterdam announced that a few families were willing to leave for the Cape and Mauritius during the following December. Among the new names of burghers at this time are Jacob and Dirk van Niekerk, Johannes van As, Francois Villion, Jacob Brouwer, Jan van Eden, Hermanus Potgieter, Albertus Gildenhuis, and Jacobus van den Berg. During 1688–1689,
13248-430: The Cape had little charm in comparison. In October 1670, however, the Chamber of Amsterdam announced that a few families were willing to leave for the Cape and Mauritius during the following December. Among the new names of burghers at this time are Jacob and Dirk van Niekerk, Johannes van As, Francois Villion, Jacob Brouwer, Jan van Eden, Hermanus Potgieter, Albertus Gildenhuis, and Jacobus van den Berg. During 1688–1689,
13440-455: The Cape. As a result, the VOC sent a Dutch expedition in 1652 led by Jan van Riebeek , who constructed a fort and laid out vegetable gardens at Table Bay and took control over Cape Town, which he governed for a decade. VOC favoured the idea of freemen at the Cape and many workers of VOC requested to be discharged in order to become free burghers. As a result, Jan van Riebeek approved the notion on favourable conditions and earmarked two areas near
13632-458: The Dutch first purchased land from the indigenous Khoikhoi beyond the limits of the fort built by Van Riebeek; this marked the development of the Colony proper . As the result of the investigations of a 1685 commissioner, the government worked to recruit a greater variety of immigrants to develop a stable community. They formed part of the class of vrijlieden , also known as vrijburgers ('free citizens'), former VOC employees who remained at
13824-704: The Dutch had entered the competition for the colonial and imperial trade of commerce in Southeast Asia. The end of the Thirty Years' War in 1648 saw European soldiers and refugees widely dispersed across Europe. Immigrants from Germany, Scandinavia, and Switzerland traveled to the Netherlands in the hope of finding employment with the VOC. During the same year, one of their ships was stranded in Table Bay near what would eventually become Cape Town , and
14016-525: The Huguenots assimilating by the middle of the 18th century, with a loss in the use and knowledge of French . The colony gradually spread eastwards, and in 1754 land as far as Algoa Bay was included in the colony. At this time the European colonists numbered eight to ten thousand. They possessed numerous slaves, grew wheat in sufficient quantity to make it a commodity crop for export, and were famed for
14208-412: The Huguenots assimilating by the middle of the 18th century, with a loss in the use and knowledge of French . The colony gradually spread eastwards, and in 1754 land as far as Algoa Bay was included in the colony. At this time the European colonists numbered eight to ten thousand. They possessed numerous slaves, grew wheat in sufficient quantity to make it a commodity crop for export, and were famed for
14400-589: The Maritz rebels against the British in the Second Boer War. The rebellion was put down by Louis Botha and Jan Smuts , and the ringleaders received heavy fines and terms of imprisonment. One, Jopie Fourie , an officer in the Union Defence Force , was convicted for treason when he refused to take up arms alongside the British, and was executed by the South African government in 1914. Afrikaans
14592-403: The Maritz rebels against the British in the Second Boer War. The rebellion was put down by Louis Botha and Jan Smuts , and the ringleaders received heavy fines and terms of imprisonment. One, Jopie Fourie , an officer in the Union Defence Force , was convicted for treason when he refused to take up arms alongside the British, and was executed by the South African government in 1914. Afrikaans
14784-510: The Nylstroom concentration camp . Ronnie writes: "the fate of his country and of his family would breed in him an all-consuming hatred of England" and "would turn him into what (a biographer of Duquesne) Clement Wood called: a walking living breathing searing killing destroying torch of hate". Duquesne returned to Cape Town with secret plans to sabotage British installations and assassinate Kitchener. He recruited twenty Boers for his plans, but
14976-552: The Quigley Building in New York. He was brutally interrogated by police and charged with murder on the high seas. Duquesne claimed it was a case of mistaken identity and that his name really was Major Craven. Wood had recently published The Man Who Killed Kitchener , so the police asked Wood to identify the man in custody. Wood insisted that the man was not Duquesne but rather Major Craven, whom he had known for five years. Police did not believe Wood and Agent Thomas J. Tunney
15168-589: The Quigley family, and he talked for hours about the methods he used to blow up ships. To verify the stories, Quigley had Duquesne meet with several experts, the most prominent of whom was Fr. Wilfrid Parsons, SJ, editor of the Jesuit magazine, America . The experts verified his command of languages, that he was widely traveled and a skilled impersonator. While the chronology was imprecise, everything Duquesne told Quigley that could be verified proved to be correct. In
15360-869: The Russian Duke Boris Zakrevsky and joined Lord Kitchener on HMS Hampshire in Scotland. Once on board, Duquesne signaled the German U-boat that sank the cruiser, thus killing Lord Kitchener. Duquesne made his own escape using a life raft before the ship was torpedoed and he was rescued by the U-boat. Duquesne was awarded the Iron Cross for this act, and he appears in several pictures in German uniform wearing an Iron Cross in addition to other medals. Captain Louis Botha, son of
15552-483: The Second Boer War, Duquesne was under orders to assassinate Frederick Russell Burnham , the American acting as Chief of Scouts for the British Army. After the war, Burnham remained active in counter-espionage for the British, and much of it involved keeping track of Duquesne. In 1910 he and Representative Robert Broussard founded the New Food Supply Society to import useful African wildlife into
15744-577: The Third Boer War) occurred in 1914 at the start of World War I , in which men who supported the re-creation of the Boer republics rose up against the government of the Union of South Africa because they did not want to side with the British against the German Empire so soon after the war with the British. Many Boers had German ancestry and many members of the government were themselves former Boer military leaders who had fought with
15936-451: The Third Boer War) occurred in 1914 at the start of World War I , in which men who supported the re-creation of the Boer republics rose up against the government of the Union of South Africa because they did not want to side with the British against the German Empire so soon after the war with the British. Many Boers had German ancestry and many members of the government were themselves former Boer military leaders who had fought with
16128-731: The Trekboer group. The Boers possessed a distinct Protestant culture , and the majority of Boers and their descendants were members of a Reformed Church . The Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk ('Dutch Reformed Church') was the national Church of the South African Republic (1852–1902). The Orange Free State (1854–1902) was named after the Protestant House of Orange in the Netherlands . The Calvinist influence, in such fundamental Calvinist doctrines such as unconditional predestination and divine providence , remains present in
16320-549: The Trekboer group. The Boers possessed a distinct Protestant culture , and the majority of Boers and their descendants were members of a Reformed Church . The Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk ('Dutch Reformed Church') was the national Church of the South African Republic (1852–1902). The Orange Free State (1854–1902) was named after the Protestant House of Orange in the Netherlands . The Calvinist influence, in such fundamental Calvinist doctrines such as unconditional predestination and divine providence , remains present in
16512-507: The US as a solution to a serious American meat shortage, and Broussard selected Duquesne as an expert. In support of this plan, Broussard introduced H.R. 23261, also known as the American Hippo Bill , attempting the appropriation of $ 250,000 to import hippopotamus into the Louisiana bayous as a food source and to control the water hyacinth then clogging Southern river systems. Former US President Theodore Roosevelt backed
16704-497: The VOC, though their grounds for complaint were not the same. In 1792, Moravian missions had been established which targeted the Khoikhoi, and in 1799 the London Missionary Society began work among both Khoikhoi and Bantu peoples. The missionaries' championing of Khoikhoi grievances caused much dissatisfaction among the majority of the Dutch colonists, whose views temporarily prevailed, for in 1812 an ordinance
16896-419: The VOC, though their grounds for complaint were not the same. In 1792, Moravian missions had been established which targeted the Khoikhoi, and in 1799 the London Missionary Society began work among both Khoikhoi and Bantu peoples. The missionaries' championing of Khoikhoi grievances caused much dissatisfaction among the majority of the Dutch colonists, whose views temporarily prevailed, for in 1812 an ordinance
17088-705: The Western Cape with those of Trekboer and Voortrekker descent in the north of South Africa, where the Boer Republics were established. Since the Anglo-Boer war, the term Boerevolk ('farmer people') was rarely used in the 20th century by the various regimes because of the effort to assimilate the Boerevolk with the Afrikaners. A portion of those who are the descendants of the Boerevolk have reasserted use of this designation. The supporters of
17280-465: The Western Cape with those of Trekboer and Voortrekker descent in the north of South Africa, where the Boer Republics were established. Since the Anglo-Boer war, the term Boerevolk ('farmer people') was rarely used in the 20th century by the various regimes because of the effort to assimilate the Boerevolk with the Afrikaners. A portion of those who are the descendants of the Boerevolk have reasserted use of this designation. The supporters of
17472-487: The Xhosas on the frontier led to the 5th Frontier War in 1819. The Xhosas, due to dissatisfaction with vacillating government policies regarding where they were permitted to live, undertook large-scale cattle thefts on the frontier. The Cape government responded with several military expeditions. In 1834 a large Xhosa force moved into the Cape territory, which began the 6th Frontier War. Additional fortifications were built by
17664-434: The Xhosas on the frontier led to the 5th Frontier War in 1819. The Xhosas, due to dissatisfaction with vacillating government policies regarding where they were permitted to live, undertook large-scale cattle thefts on the frontier. The Cape government responded with several military expeditions. In 1834 a large Xhosa force moved into the Cape territory, which began the 6th Frontier War. Additional fortifications were built by
17856-568: The area near Nylstroom, and the Duquesne family was forced to retreat to the nearby river. The family, along with six other settler families, fought a long gun battle against the Impi and Duquesne shot and killed several. When the fighting ended, his uncle Koos, his wife and their baby were all dead. When he was aged 13, Duquesne was sent to school in England. After graduation, biographer Clement Wood states that Duquesne went to Oxford University for
18048-659: The area when the British, under the Treaty of Amiens , returned the Cape Colony to the Dutch Batavian Republic in 1803. In January 1806 during a second invasion, the British reoccupied the colony after the Battle of Blaauwberg . Tensions in the Zuurveld led the colonial administration and Boer colonists to expel many of the Xhosa tribes from the area, initiating the 4th Frontier War in 1811. Conflicts between
18240-415: The area when the British, under the Treaty of Amiens , returned the Cape Colony to the Dutch Batavian Republic in 1803. In January 1806 during a second invasion, the British reoccupied the colony after the Battle of Blaauwberg . Tensions in the Zuurveld led the colonial administration and Boer colonists to expel many of the Xhosa tribes from the area, initiating the 4th Frontier War in 1811. Conflicts between
18432-404: The arrival of the British; when the British arrived, Boer republics had already been declared and were in rebellion from the VOC. The Boers of the frontier were known for their independent spirit, resourcefulness, hardiness, and self-sufficiency, whose political notions verged on anarchy but had begun to be influenced by republicanism. The Boers had cut their ties to Europe as they emerged from
18624-404: The arrival of the British; when the British arrived, Boer republics had already been declared and were in rebellion from the VOC. The Boers of the frontier were known for their independent spirit, resourcefulness, hardiness, and self-sufficiency, whose political notions verged on anarchy but had begun to be influenced by republicanism. The Boers had cut their ties to Europe as they emerged from
18816-420: The boundary line without success. The Xhosas were accused of stealing cattle and in 1779 a series of skirmishes erupted along the border which initiated the 1st Frontier War. The frontier remained unstable, resulting in the outbreak of the 2nd Frontier War in 1789. Raids carried out by Boers and Xhosas on both sides of the boundary caused much friction in the area which resulted in several groups being drawn into
19008-420: The boundary line without success. The Xhosas were accused of stealing cattle and in 1779 a series of skirmishes erupted along the border which initiated the 1st Frontier War. The frontier remained unstable, resulting in the outbreak of the 2nd Frontier War in 1789. Raids carried out by Boers and Xhosas on both sides of the boundary caused much friction in the area which resulted in several groups being drawn into
19200-505: The cargo he shipped and he now filed claims for the "films" and "mineral samples" lost with the ships he sank off the coast of Brazil, including Tennyson . The insurance companies were reluctant to pay and began their own investigations, which would go on for another year. In his book The Man Who Killed Kitchener , biographer Clement Wood states that Duquesne left for Europe in June 1916 under orders from German intelligence. Duquesne posed as
19392-491: The castle were extremely thick, yet night after night, Duquesne dug away the cement around the stones with an iron spoon. He nearly escaped one night, but a large stone slipped and pinned him in his tunnel. The next morning, a guard found him unconscious but uninjured. Duquesne was one of many Boer prisoners sent to the British colony of Bermuda , an archipelago known for its frequent storm-wracked conditions, shark infested waters and dangerous reefs. According to Ronnie, Bermuda
19584-570: The colony was greatly strengthened by the arrival of nearly two hundred French Huguenots , who were political refugees from the religious wars in France following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes . They joined colonies at Stellenbosch , Drakenstein , Franschhoek and Paarl . The influence of the Huguenots on the character of the colonists was marked, leading to the VOC directing in 1701 that only Dutch should be taught in schools. This resulted in
19776-466: The colony was greatly strengthened by the arrival of nearly two hundred French Huguenots , who were political refugees from the religious wars in France following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes . They joined colonies at Stellenbosch , Drakenstein , Franschhoek and Paarl . The influence of the Huguenots on the character of the colonists was marked, leading to the VOC directing in 1701 that only Dutch should be taught in schools. This resulted in
19968-404: The colony, expressing "the anxious hope that no more extension should take place, and with heavy penalties forbidding the rambling peasants to wander beyond". In 1789, so strong had feelings amongst the burghers become that delegates were sent from the Cape to interview the authorities at Amsterdam . After this deputation, some nominal reforms were granted. It was largely to escape oppression that
20160-404: The colony, expressing "the anxious hope that no more extension should take place, and with heavy penalties forbidding the rambling peasants to wander beyond". In 1789, so strong had feelings amongst the burghers become that delegates were sent from the Cape to interview the authorities at Amsterdam . After this deputation, some nominal reforms were granted. It was largely to escape oppression that
20352-527: The conflict. In 1795, the British invasion of the Cape Colony resulted in a change of government. After the government takeover the British began to draw up policies with regards to the frontier resulting in a Boer rebellion in Graaff-Reinet . The policies caused the Khoisan tribes to join some Xhosa chiefs in attacks against British forces during the 3rd Frontier War (1799–1803). Peace was restored to
20544-410: The conflict. In 1795, the British invasion of the Cape Colony resulted in a change of government. After the government takeover the British began to draw up policies with regards to the frontier resulting in a Boer rebellion in Graaff-Reinet . The policies caused the Khoisan tribes to join some Xhosa chiefs in attacks against British forces during the 3rd Frontier War (1799–1803). Peace was restored to
20736-506: The craftiest men I ever met. He had something of a genius of the Apache for avoiding a combat except in his terms; yet he would be the last man I should choose to meet in a dark room for a finish fight armed only with knives. Next to Theron , I believe Duquesne the greatest scout the Boers produced. — Frederick Russell Burnham , DSO, Chief of Scouts, British Army When the Second Boer War broke out in 1899, Duquesne returned home to join
20928-513: The descendants of the proto Afrikaans -speaking Free Burghers of the eastern Cape frontier in Southern Africa during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. From 1652 to 1795, the Dutch East India Company controlled Dutch Cape Colony , but the United Kingdom incorporated it into the British Empire in 1806. The name of the group is derived from Trekboer then later "boer", which means "farmer" in Dutch and Afrikaans. In addition,
21120-477: The displeasure of the governor or other high officers was not only exercised with reference to the individuals themselves; it was claimed by the government to be applicable to their children as well. The tyranny caused many to feel desperate and to flee from oppression, even before 1700 trekking began. In 1780, Joachim van Plettenberg , the governor, proclaimed the Sneeuberge to be the northern boundary of
21312-419: The displeasure of the governor or other high officers was not only exercised with reference to the individuals themselves; it was claimed by the government to be applicable to their children as well. The tyranny caused many to feel desperate and to flee from oppression, even before 1700 trekking began. In 1780, Joachim van Plettenberg , the governor, proclaimed the Sneeuberge to be the northern boundary of
21504-433: The eastern and northeastern parts of the colony were not cultivators of the soil, but of purely pastoral and nomadic habits, ever ready to seek new pastures for their flocks and herds, possessing no special affection for any particular locality. These people, thinly scattered over a wide territory, had lived for so long with little restraint from the law that when, in 1815, by the institution of "Commissions of Circuit", justice
21696-433: The eastern and northeastern parts of the colony were not cultivators of the soil, but of purely pastoral and nomadic habits, ever ready to seek new pastures for their flocks and herds, possessing no special affection for any particular locality. These people, thinly scattered over a wide territory, had lived for so long with little restraint from the law that when, in 1815, by the institution of "Commissions of Circuit", justice
21888-466: The fact that the Khoikhoi, escaping from their former enslavers, flocked to the British standard. The burghers of Graaff Reinet did not surrender until a force had been sent against them; in 1799 and again in 1801 they rose in revolt. In February 1803, as a result of the peace of Amiens (February 1803), the colony was handed over to the Batavian Republic which introduced many reforms, as had
22080-399: The fact that the Khoikhoi, escaping from their former enslavers, flocked to the British standard. The burghers of Graaff Reinet did not surrender until a force had been sent against them; in 1799 and again in 1801 they rose in revolt. In February 1803, as a result of the peace of Amiens (February 1803), the colony was handed over to the Batavian Republic which introduced many reforms, as had
22272-585: The farm. He had two younger siblings, his sister Elsbet and his brother Pedro. He was a descendant of the French Huguenot naval commander Abraham Duquesne (1610–1688) and claimed his uncle was Piet Joubert (1831–1900), a hero in the First Boer War and Commandant-General of the South African Republic, although his family relationship is disputed. As a youth, Duquesne became a hunter like his father. His hunting skills proved useful not only in
22464-457: The farmers trekked farther and farther from the seat of government. VOC, to control the emigrants, established a magistracy at Swellendam in 1745 and another at Graaff Reinet in 1786. The Gamtoos River had been declared, c. 1740 , the eastern frontier of the colony but it was soon passed. In 1780, however, the Dutch, to avoid collision with the Bantu peoples , agreed with them to make
22656-406: The farmers trekked farther and farther from the seat of government. VOC, to control the emigrants, established a magistracy at Swellendam in 1745 and another at Graaff Reinet in 1786. The Gamtoos River had been declared, c. 1740 , the eastern frontier of the colony but it was soon passed. In 1780, however, the Dutch, to avoid collision with the Bantu peoples , agreed with them to make
22848-426: The following on 27 May 1919: Col. Fritz du Quesne, a fugitive from justice, is wanted by His Majesty's government for trial on the following charges: Murder on the high seas; the sinking and burning of British ships; the burning of military stores, warehouses, coaling stations, conspiracy, and the falsification of Admiralty documents. Duquesne fled to Mexico and Europe, but in 1926 he moved back to New York and assumed
23040-482: The form of a Boerestaat ('Boer State') are being developed as colonies exclusively for Boers/Afrikaners, notably Orania in the Northern Cape and Kleinfontein near Pretoria . Boer Boers ( / b ʊər z / BOORZ ; Afrikaans : Boere ; [ˈbuːrə] ) are the descendants of the proto Afrikaans -speaking Free Burghers of the eastern Cape frontier in Southern Africa during
23232-669: The former prime minister of South Africa General Louis Botha , further writes that "Duquesne was a great friend of the Botha family" and that Duquesne "rose from the status of a Private in the German Army to the rank of Colonel and received the Iron Cross during the great war." The authenticity of several of these claims has been challenged by modern biographers, and the German records that would confirm or deny at least parts of these accounts are now missing and presumed destroyed during
23424-484: The freeing of the slaves, and the suspicions engendered by the method of payment, caused much resentment; and in 1835 the farmers again removed themselves to unknown country to escape the government. While emigration beyond the colonial border had been continuous for 150 years, it now took on larger proportions. The migration of the trekboers from the Cape Colony into the Eastern Cape parts of South Africa, where
23616-424: The freeing of the slaves, and the suspicions engendered by the method of payment, caused much resentment; and in 1835 the farmers again removed themselves to unknown country to escape the government. While emigration beyond the colonial border had been continuous for 150 years, it now took on larger proportions. The migration of the trekboers from the Cape Colony into the Eastern Cape parts of South Africa, where
23808-399: The freemen, for agricultural purposes, were named Groeneveld and Dutch Garden. These areas were separated by the Amstel River (Liesbeek River). Nine of the best applicants were selected to use the land for agricultural purposes. The freemen or free burghers as they were afterwards termed, thus became subjects of VOC and were no longer its servants. In 1671, the Dutch first purchased land from
24000-562: The full assurance that the English Government has nothing more to require of us, and will allow us to govern ourselves without its interference in future". As the Voortrekkers progressed further inland, they continued to establish Boer colonies on the interior of South Africa. Following the British annexation of the Transvaal in 1877, Paul Kruger was a key figure in organizing a Boer resistance which led to expulsion of
24192-433: The full assurance that the English Government has nothing more to require of us, and will allow us to govern ourselves without its interference in future". As the Voortrekkers progressed further inland, they continued to establish Boer colonies on the interior of South Africa. Following the British annexation of the Transvaal in 1877, Paul Kruger was a key figure in organizing a Boer resistance which led to expulsion of
24384-430: The good quality of their wines . But their chief wealth was in cattle. They enjoyed considerable prosperity. Through the latter half of the 17th and the whole of the 18th century, troubles arose between the colonists and the government as the VOC administration was despotic . Its policies were not directed at development of the colony, but to using it to profit the VOC. VOC closed the colony against free immigration, kept
24576-430: The good quality of their wines . But their chief wealth was in cattle. They enjoyed considerable prosperity. Through the latter half of the 17th and the whole of the 18th century, troubles arose between the colonists and the government as the VOC administration was despotic . Its policies were not directed at development of the colony, but to using it to profit the VOC. VOC closed the colony against free immigration, kept
24768-544: The government and mounted patrols were not well received by the Xhosas, who continued with raids on farms during the 7th Frontier War (1846–1847). The 8th (1850–1853) and 9th Frontier Wars (1877–1878) continued at the same pace as their predecessors. Eventually the Xhosas were defeated and the territories were brought under British control. The Great Trek occurred between 1835 and the early 1840s. During that period some 12,000 to 14,000 Boers (including women and children), impatient with British rule, emigrated from Cape Colony into
24960-544: The government and mounted patrols were not well received by the Xhosas, who continued with raids on farms during the 7th Frontier War (1846–1847). The 8th (1850–1853) and 9th Frontier Wars (1877–1878) continued at the same pace as their predecessors. Eventually the Xhosas were defeated and the territories were brought under British control. The Great Trek occurred between 1835 and the early 1840s. During that period some 12,000 to 14,000 Boers (including women and children), impatient with British rule, emigrated from Cape Colony into
25152-544: The great plains beyond the Orange River , and across them again into Natal and the vastness of the Zoutspansberg , in the northern part of the Transvaal. Those Trekboers who occupied the eastern Cape were semi-nomadic. A significant number in the eastern Cape frontier later became Grensboere ('border farmers') who were the direct ancestors of the Voortrekkers . The Boers addressed several correspondence to
25344-422: The great plains beyond the Orange River , and across them again into Natal and the vastness of the Zoutspansberg , in the northern part of the Transvaal. Those Trekboers who occupied the eastern Cape were semi-nomadic. A significant number in the eastern Cape frontier later became Grensboere ('border farmers') who were the direct ancestors of the Voortrekkers . The Boers addressed several correspondence to
25536-415: The group was betrayed by the wife of one. On 11 October 1901, while attending a dinner with Sir Walter Hely-Hutchinson , the governor of the Cape Colony, Duquesne was arrested for criminal conspiracy and espionage . He was court-martialled and sentenced to be executed along with his co-conspirators. The other members of his team were executed by firing squad , but as a plea bargain , Duquesne's sentence
25728-475: The indigenous Khoikhoi beyond the limits of the fort built by Van Riebeek; this marked the development of the Colony proper . As the result of the investigations of a 1685 commissioner, the government worked to recruit a greater variety of immigrants to develop a stable community. They formed part of the class of vrijlieden , also known as vrijburgers ('free citizens'), former VOC employees who remained at
25920-616: The laws of the British administration. While there was financial compensation for the freeing of the people they had enslaved, the Boers found it to be inadequate. They also felt that the English church system was incompatible with the Dutch Reformed Church . By this time the Boers had already formed a separate code of laws in preparation for the great trek and were aware of the dangerous territory they were about to enter. Retief concluded his letter with "We quit this colony under
26112-489: The laws of the British administration. While there was financial compensation for the freeing of the people they had enslaved, the Boers found it to be inadequate. They also felt that the English church system was incompatible with the Dutch Reformed Church . By this time the Boers had already formed a separate code of laws in preparation for the great trek and were aware of the dangerous territory they were about to enter. Retief concluded his letter with "We quit this colony under
26304-509: The line of mountains guarding the vast central plateau, then called Bushmansland (after a name for the San people ), and had an area of about 120,000 sq. m. and a population of some 60,000, of whom 27,000 were whites, 17,000 free Khoikhoi and the rest enslaved people, mostly non-indigenous blacks and Malays. Although the colony was fairly prosperous, many of the Dutch farmers were as dissatisfied with British rule as they had been with that of
26496-461: The line of mountains guarding the vast central plateau, then called Bushmansland (after a name for the San people ), and had an area of about 120,000 sq. m. and a population of some 60,000, of whom 27,000 were whites, 17,000 free Khoikhoi and the rest enslaved people, mostly non-indigenous blacks and Malays. Although the colony was fairly prosperous, many of the Dutch farmers were as dissatisfied with British rule as they had been with that of
26688-531: The main island. Duquesne then went to the home of Anna Maria Outerbridge, a leader of a Boer Relief Committee. Outerbridge helped him escape to the port of St. George's, Bermuda , where another Boer Relief Committee member, W. E. Meyer, arranged for his transportation off the island. Within the week, Duquesne was a passenger on a ship heading to the United States. After entering the country in Baltimore , Duquesne proceeded to New York City . He found employment as
26880-408: The meetings using a motion picture camera behind a two-way wall mirror. The first time Duquesne arrived at Sebold's office, he surprised the FBI agents by conducting an examination of the office, opening chests, looking in corners and around mirrors, and pointedly asking Sebold, "Where are the mics?" Once he believed he was safe, Duquesne raised his pants leg and removed documents from his sock, such as:
27072-485: The native Xhosa people had established settlements, gave rise to a series of conflicts between the Boers and the Xhosas. In 1775 the Cape government established a boundary between the trekboers and the Xhosas at the Bushmans and Upper Fish Rivers. The Boers and Xhosas ignored the boundary, with both groups establishing homes on either side of the frontier. Governor van Plettenberg attempted to persuade both groups to respect
27264-429: The native Xhosa people had established settlements, gave rise to a series of conflicts between the Boers and the Xhosas. In 1775 the Cape government established a boundary between the trekboers and the Xhosas at the Bushmans and Upper Fish Rivers. The Boers and Xhosas ignored the boundary, with both groups establishing homes on either side of the frontier. Governor van Plettenberg attempted to persuade both groups to respect
27456-451: The original, including US gas masks, radio-controlled apparatus, leak-proof fuel tanks, television instruments, small bombs for airplanes versus airplanes, air separator, and propeller-driving mechanisms. Items delivered were labeled 'valuable', and several 'good' and 'very good'." The 64-year-old Duquesne did not escape this time. He was sentenced to eighteen years in prison, with a two-year concurrent sentence and $ 2,000 fine for violation of
27648-418: The party sent to arrest him, was killed by the return fire. This caused a small rebellion in 1815, known as Slachters Nek , described as "the most insane attempt ever made by a set of men to wage war against their sovereign" by Henry Cloete. Upon its suppression, five ringleaders were publicly hanged at the spot where they had sworn to expel "the English tyrants". The feeling caused by the hanging of these men
27840-418: The party sent to arrest him, was killed by the return fire. This caused a small rebellion in 1815, known as Slachters Nek , described as "the most insane attempt ever made by a set of men to wage war against their sovereign" by Henry Cloete. Upon its suppression, five ringleaders were publicly hanged at the spot where they had sworn to expel "the English tyrants". The feeling caused by the hanging of these men
28032-469: The perpetrator of the crime and the ringleader. Bauer further revealed that Duquesne was operating under his own name and two aliases , George Fordam and Piet Niacud. Niacud is the pronunciation of Duquesne reversed. British intelligence confirmed that Duquesne was "a German intelligence officer ... involved in a series of acts of sabotage against British shipping in South American waters during
28224-852: The plan, as did the US Department of Agriculture , as well as editorial writers in The Washington Post and The New York Times , which praised the taste of hippopotamus as "lake cow bacon". Duquesne's expert testimony on this subject before the House Committee on Agriculture is recorded in the Congressional Record . The bill fell just short of passing, and the New Foods organization was disbanded. During this time, Duquesne became former President Roosevelt's personal shooting instructor and accompanied him on
28416-435: The porters to hide the gold in a nearby cave for safekeeping, along with burning the wagons and killing any wounded they found. He gave the porters all the oxen, except for one which he rode away on. Historian Art Ronnie argued that the buried gold, commonly referred to as "Kruger's Millions" is only a legend; however, in 2001 and 2013 there have been news reports about possible discoveries of the missing gold. Duquesne rejoined
28608-516: The revolutionary government of France and a British force under General Sir James Henry Craig was sent to Cape Town to secure the colony from the French for the Prince of Orange , a refugee in England. The governor of Cape Town at first refused to obey the instructions from the Prince, but when the British proceeded to land troops to take possession anyway, he capitulated. His action was hastened by
28800-411: The revolutionary government of France and a British force under General Sir James Henry Craig was sent to Cape Town to secure the colony from the French for the Prince of Orange , a refugee in England. The governor of Cape Town at first refused to obey the instructions from the Prince, but when the British proceeded to land troops to take possession anyway, he capitulated. His action was hastened by
28992-574: The right to military titles and medals with no third-party verification. Duquesne fought on the side of the Boers in the Second Boer War and as a secret agent for Germany during both World Wars. He gathered human intelligence , led spy rings and carried out sabotage missions as a covert field asset in South Africa, the United Kingdom, Central and South America, and the United States. Duquesne went by many aliases , fictionalized his identity and background on multiple occasions, and operated as
29184-536: The same tyrannical monopolist policy as that in the VOC government in the Transvaal . If the formula, "In all things political, purely despotic; in all things commercial, purely monopolist", was true of the VOC government in the 18th century, it was equally true of Kruger 's government in the latter part of the 19th. The underlying fact which made the trek possible is that the Dutch-descended colonists in
29376-415: The same tyrannical monopolist policy as that in the VOC government in the Transvaal . If the formula, "In all things political, purely despotic; in all things commercial, purely monopolist", was true of the VOC government in the 18th century, it was equally true of Kruger 's government in the latter part of the 19th. The underlying fact which made the trek possible is that the Dutch-descended colonists in
29568-560: The same year, one of their ships was stranded in Table Bay near what would eventually become Cape Town , and the shipwrecked crew had to forage for themselves on shore for several months. They were so impressed with the natural resources of the country that on their return to the Republic, they represented to the VOC directors the great advantages to be had for the Dutch Eastern trade from a properly provided and fortified station at
29760-433: The shipwrecked crew had to forage for themselves on shore for several months. They were so impressed with the natural resources of the country that on their return to the Republic, they represented to the VOC directors the great advantages to be had for the Dutch Eastern trade from a properly provided and fortified station at the Cape. As a result, the VOC sent a Dutch expedition in 1652 led by Jan van Riebeek , who constructed
29952-717: The spring of 1934, Duquesne became an intelligence officer for the Order of 76 , an American pro- Nazi organization, and in January 1935 he began working for the US government's Works Progress Administration . Admiral Wilhelm Canaris , head of the Abwehr (German military intelligence), knew Duquesne from his work in World War I and instructed his new chief of operations in the US, Col. Nikolaus Ritter , to make contact with Duquesne. Ritter had been friends with Duquesne back in 1931, and
30144-552: The term Boeren also applied to those who left the Cape Colony during the 19th century to colonise in the Orange Free State , Transvaal (together known as the Boer Republics ), and to a lesser extent Natal . They emigrated from the Cape to live beyond the reach of the British colonial administration, with their reasons for doing so primarily being the new Anglophone common law system being introduced into
30336-500: The trekboers—notably including many against people they had enslaved—seeing justice. These prosecutions were very unpopular amongst the trekkers and were seen as interfering with their rights over the enslaved people they viewed as their property. The Invasion of the Cape Colony was a British military expedition launched in 1795 against the Dutch Cape Colony at the Cape of Good Hope . The Netherlands had fallen under
30528-433: The trekboers—notably including many against people they had enslaved—seeing justice. These prosecutions were very unpopular amongst the trekkers and were seen as interfering with their rights over the enslaved people they viewed as their property. The Invasion of the Cape Colony was a British military expedition launched in 1795 against the Dutch Cape Colony at the Cape of Good Hope . The Netherlands had fallen under
30720-543: The two spies reconnected in New York on 3 December 1937. Ritter employed several other successful agents across the US, most notably Herman Lang, who delivered to the Germans the blueprints for the Norden bombsight , but he also made the mistake of recruiting a man who would later become a double agent, William Sebold . On 8 February 1940, Ritter sent Sebold to New York under the alias of Harry Sawyer and instructed him to set up
30912-518: The war". His cover now blown, Duquesne moved to Buenos Aires , Argentina, and several weeks later placed an article in a newspaper reporting his own death in Bolivia at the hands of Amazonian natives. Duquesne evaded British intelligence in South America and returned to New York around May 1916. Using the aliases George Fordam and Frederick Fredericks, he had taken out insurance policies for
31104-583: The war. According to the official story, Hampshire was lost in a force 9 gale after striking a mine laid by the U-75 , a German U-boat. The next confirmed appearance of Duquesne is in Washington, D.C. , in July 1917, not long after the US declared war on Germany. He had contacted Broussard, who by now was a United States Senator . Unaware that Duquesne was now a German spy, Broussard attempted to help him obtain
31296-522: The whole of the trade in its own hands, combined the administrative, legislative and judicial powers in one body, prescribed to the farmers the nature of the crops they were to grow, demanded a large part of their produce as a kind of tax, and made other exactions. From time to time, indentured VOC servants were endowed with the right of freeburghers but the VOC retained the power to compel them to return into its service whenever they deemed it necessary. This right to force into servitude those who might incur
31488-522: The whole of the trade in its own hands, combined the administrative, legislative and judicial powers in one body, prescribed to the farmers the nature of the crops they were to grow, demanded a large part of their produce as a kind of tax, and made other exactions. From time to time, indentured VOC servants were endowed with the right of freeburghers but the VOC retained the power to compel them to return into its service whenever they deemed it necessary. This right to force into servitude those who might incur
31680-658: Was a notable characteristic of the Boers. It figured prominently in the late 17th century when the Trekboers began to inhabit the northern and eastern Cape frontiers, again during the Great Trek when the Voortrekkers left the eastern Cape en masse , and after the major republics were established during the Thirstland (' Dorsland ') Trek. One such trekker described the impetus for emigrating as, "a drifting spirit
31872-422: Was a notable characteristic of the Boers. It figured prominently in the late 17th century when the Trekboers began to inhabit the northern and eastern Cape frontiers, again during the Great Trek when the Voortrekkers left the eastern Cape en masse , and after the major republics were established during the Thirstland (' Dorsland ') Trek. One such trekker described the impetus for emigrating as, "a drifting spirit
32064-446: Was an "impossible, hopeless, and impregnable prison of pink beaches and sunlit waters from which no prisoner could escape – or so believed the British." Duquesne escaped from several other prisoner-of-war camps , and on the night of 25 June 1902, he slipped out of his tent, climbed a barbed-wire fence, and swam 1.5 miles (2.4 km) past patrol boats and bright spot lights. He used a distant lighthouse for navigation until he arrived on
32256-416: Was an adrenaline junkie ... his invented persona had such magnetism and such possibility, in fact, that he began deploying his alter-ego in a wide variety of personal appearances ... it is possible that Duquesne simply liked attention, the performance." Duquesne was arrested in New York on 17 November 1917 on charges of fraud for insurance claims. At the time of his arrest, he had in his possession
32448-450: Was brought in to positively identify Craven as Duquesne, the same man he had arrested in 1917. Duquesne was charged with homicide and as an escaped prisoner. He was defended by Arthur Garfield Hays . After Britain declined to pursue his war crimes, noting that the statute of limitations had expired, the judge threw out the only remaining charge of escape from prison and released Duquesne. After his release, Duquesne remained associated with
32640-438: Was brought nearer to their homes, various offences were brought to light, the remedying of which caused much resentment. The Dutch-descended colonists in the eastern and northeastern parts of the colony, as a result of the Great Trek , had removed themselves from governmental rule and become widely spread out. However, the institution of "Commissions of Circuit" in 1815 allowed the prosecution of crimes, with offences committed by
32832-438: Was brought nearer to their homes, various offences were brought to light, the remedying of which caused much resentment. The Dutch-descended colonists in the eastern and northeastern parts of the colony, as a result of the Great Trek , had removed themselves from governmental rule and become widely spread out. However, the institution of "Commissions of Circuit" in 1815 allowed the prosecution of crimes, with offences committed by
33024-457: Was caught by federal agents in New York in 1917, Duquesne feigned paralysis for two years and cut the bars of his cell to make his escape, thereby avoiding deportation to Britain where he faced murder charges for the deaths of British sailors. In 1932, Duquesne was again captured in New York by federal agents and charged with both homicide and for being an escaped prisoner, only this time he
33216-564: Was certain he was under surveillance, and he even confronted one FBI agent and demanded that he stop tracking him, a story confirmed by Newkirk. The FBI leased three adjacent rooms in Times Square . One room would serve as Sebold's office from which he would receive intelligence reports from German spies that would later be censored by the FBI and partially transmitted by Sebold to Germany. The other two rooms were used by German-speaking FBI agents who would listen in with headphones and record
33408-741: Was credited with sinking twenty-two of them; among them were the Salvador and the Pembrokeshire . Additionally, one of his bombs killed three British sailors and nearly sank the SS ; Tennyson in February 1916, and another started a fire on the Vauban . After bombing Tennyson , MI5 (British intelligence) operating in Brazil arrested an accomplice named Bauer who identified Duquesne as both
33600-456: Was deepened by the circumstances of the execution, as the scaffold on which the rebels were simultaneously hanged broke down from their united weight and the men were afterwards hanged one by one. An ordinance was passed in 1827, abolishing the old Dutch courts of landdrost and heemraden (resident magistrates being substituted) and establishing that henceforth all legal proceedings should be conducted in English. The granting in 1828, as
33792-456: Was deepened by the circumstances of the execution, as the scaffold on which the rebels were simultaneously hanged broke down from their united weight and the men were afterwards hanged one by one. An ordinance was passed in 1827, abolishing the old Dutch courts of landdrost and heemraden (resident magistrates being substituted) and establishing that henceforth all legal proceedings should be conducted in English. The granting in 1828, as
33984-415: Was en route to Russia in 1916, although forensics of the ship do not support this claim. After a failed attempt to escape prison in Cape Town, Duquesne was sent to prison in Bermuda, but he escaped to the US and became an American citizen. In World War I , he became a spy and ring leader for Imperial Germany , sabotaging and destroying British merchant ships in South America with concealed bombs. After he
34176-412: Was formed in the Dutch Republic in 1602, and at this time the Dutch had entered the competition for the colonial and imperial trade of commerce in Southeast Asia. The end of the Thirty Years' War in 1648 saw European soldiers and refugees widely dispersed across Europe. Immigrants from Germany, Scandinavia, and Switzerland traveled to the Netherlands in the hope of finding employment with the VOC. During
34368-404: Was in 1954 at the Adventurers' Club of New York , titled "My Life – in and out of Prison". Duquesne died at City Hospital on Welfare Island (now Roosevelt Island ), in New York City on 24 May 1956, at the age of 78. Duquesne authored the following works: Footnotes Source notes Boer Boers ( / b ʊər z / BOORZ ; Afrikaans : Boere ; [ˈbuːrə] ) are
34560-409: Was in our hearts, and we ourselves could not understand it. We just sold our farms and set out northwestwards to find a new home". A rustic characteristic and tradition was developed quite early on as Boer society was born on the frontiers of white colonisation and on the outskirts of Western civilisation. The Boer quest for independence manifested in a tradition of declaring republics, which predates
34752-409: Was in our hearts, and we ourselves could not understand it. We just sold our farms and set out northwestwards to find a new home". A rustic characteristic and tradition was developed quite early on as Boer society was born on the frontiers of white colonisation and on the outskirts of Western civilisation. The Boer quest for independence manifested in a tradition of declaring republics, which predates
34944-421: Was issued which empowered magistrates to bind Khoikhoi children as apprentices under conditions which differed little from slavery . Simultaneously, the movement for the abolition of slavery was gaining strength in England, and the missionaries appealed from the colonists to the mother country. A farmer named Frederick Bezuidenhout refused to obey a summons issued on the complaint of a Khoikhoi, and, firing on
35136-421: Was issued which empowered magistrates to bind Khoikhoi children as apprentices under conditions which differed little from slavery . Simultaneously, the movement for the abolition of slavery was gaining strength in England, and the missionaries appealed from the colonists to the mother country. A farmer named Frederick Bezuidenhout refused to obey a summons issued on the complaint of a Khoikhoi, and, firing on
35328-428: Was previously referred to as Cape Dutch (also used to refer collectively to the early Cape colonists ) or kitchen Dutch (a derogatory term used in its earlier days). However, it is also variously (although incorrectly) described as a creole or as a partially creolised language. The term is ultimately derived from Dutch Afrikaans-Hollands meaning African Dutch . The desire to wander, known as trekgees ,
35520-428: Was previously referred to as Cape Dutch (also used to refer collectively to the early Cape colonists ) or kitchen Dutch (a derogatory term used in its earlier days). However, it is also variously (although incorrectly) described as a creole or as a partially creolised language. The term is ultimately derived from Dutch Afrikaans-Hollands meaning African Dutch . The desire to wander, known as trekgees ,
35712-434: Was reduced to life in prison. In exchange, Duquesne agreed to divulge secret Boer codes and to translate several of their dispatches. According to Ronnie, "for the rest of his life he swore he never betrayed the Boer cause but actually created new codes that would mislead the British." Duquesne was imprisoned in the Castle of Good Hope in Cape Town , a fortification built by the Dutch East India Company in 1666. The walls of
35904-497: Was removed from the central bank and national mint between 29 May and 4 June 1900. Duquesne was in command of a shipment of gold bullion being sent by wagon to Portuguese Mozambique; however, it never made it to Lourenço Marques. While in the bushveld of Portuguese Mozambique, a violent disagreement broke out among the shipment's escort. This resulted in a violent confrontation that left only three wounded Boers (including Duquesne) and several indigenous porters alive. Duquesne ordered
36096-506: Was sent to Brazil as "Frederick Fredericks" under the disguise of "doing scientific research on rubber plants". As an agent for German naval intelligence in South America, he was assigned to disrupt commercial traffic to countries at war with Germany. Duquesne received and delivered communiques through German embassies, and he was responsible for numerous bombings of British merchant ships. From his base in Bahia , he planted time bombs disguised as cases of mineral samples on British ships and he
36288-546: Was set free after the British authorities declined to pursue his wartime crimes. The last time Duquesne was captured and imprisoned was in 1941, when he and thirty-two other members of the Duquesne Spy Ring working for Nazi Germany were caught by William G. Sebold , a double agent with the FBI who half-pretended to be spying for the Germans. Duquesne was later convicted in the largest espionage conviction in American history. Between wars, Duquesne served as an adviser on big-game hunting to US President Theodore Roosevelt , as
36480-538: Was taken to Durban where he managed to escape. After British forces began an offensive aimed at capturing Pretoria, a portion of the gold reserve in the city's central bank and national mint was sent by train to the small town of Machadodorp , then by road to the neutral harbor of Lourenço Marques in Portuguese Mozambique to be shipped to the Netherlands for the use of President Paul Kruger and other Boer exiles who had fled from Africa. A final tally showed about 1.5 million pounds (680,000 kilos) of gold bullion
36672-412: Was used by opponents of apartheid in various contexts, referring to institutional structures such as the National Party , or to specific groups of people, such as members of the Police Force (colloquially known as Boere ) and Army , Afrikaners, or white South Africans generally. This usage is often viewed as pejorative in contemporary South Africa. The Movement for Christian-National Education
36864-412: Was used by opponents of apartheid in various contexts, referring to institutional structures such as the National Party , or to specific groups of people, such as members of the Police Force (colloquially known as Boere ) and Army , Afrikaners, or white South Africans generally. This usage is often viewed as pejorative in contemporary South Africa. The Movement for Christian-National Education
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