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113-628: London was born in Breslau , Germany (now Wrocław, Poland) as the son of Franz London (1863-1917). Being a Jew, London lost his position at the University of Berlin after Hitler's Nazi Party passed the 1933 racial laws . He took visiting positions in England and France, and emigrated to the United States in 1939, of which he became a naturalized citizen in 1945. Later in his life, London

226-525: A UNESCO City of Literature . The origin of the city's name is disputed. The city was believed to be named after Duke Vratislav I of Bohemia from the Czech Přemyslid dynasty , who supposedly ruled the region between 915 and 921. However, modern scholars and historians dispute this theory; recent archeological studies prove that even if Vratislav once ruled over the area, the city was not founded until at least 20 years after his death. They suggest that

339-564: A West Slavic tribe, settled on the Oder river and erected a fortified gord on Ostrów Tumski . Wrocław originated at the intersection of two trade routes , the Via Regia and the Amber Road . Archeological research conducted in the city indicates that it was founded around 940. In 985, Duke Mieszko I of Poland conquered Silesia, and constructed new fortifcations on Ostrów. The town

452-460: A point-contact transistor that achieved amplification. By the next month, Bell Labs ' patent attorneys started to work on the patent applications. Bell Labs' attorneys soon discovered that Shockley's field effect principle had been anticipated and patented in 1930 by Julius Lilienfeld , who filed his MESFET -like patent in Canada on October 22, 1925. Shockley publicly took the lion's share of

565-623: A Ph.D. in physics from Princeton University . After serving in World War II , he was a researcher at Bell Labs and a professor at the University of Illinois . In 1990, Bardeen appeared on Life magazine's list of "100 Most Influential Americans of the Century." Bardeen is the first of only three people to have won multiple Nobel Prizes in the same category (the others being Frederick Sanger and Karl Barry Sharpless in chemistry), and one of five persons with two Nobel Prizes . Bardeen

678-633: A ceremony at the University of Illinois. His citation reads: "Theoretical physicist John Bardeen (1908–1991) shared the Nobel Prize in Physics twice—in 1956, as co-inventor of the transistor and in 1972, for the explanation of superconductivity. The transistor paved the way for all modern electronics, from computers to microchips. Diverse applications of superconductivity include infrared sensors and medical imaging systems." The other scientists on

791-975: A code of moral values and behavior. John Bardeen's children were taken to church by his wife, who taught Sunday school and was a church elder. Despite this, he and his wife made it clear that they did not have faith in an afterlife and other religious ideas. He was the father of James M. Bardeen , William A. Bardeen , and daughter Elizabeth. Bardeen died of heart disease at age 82 at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston , Massachusetts , on January 30, 1991. Although he lived in Champaign-Urbana , he had come to Boston for medical consultation. Bardeen and his wife Jane (1907–1997) are buried in Forest Hill Cemetery , Madison, Wisconsin. They were survived by three children, James , William and Elizabeth Bardeen Greytak, and six grandchildren. Near

904-475: A common understanding, and at points Josephson repeatedly asked Bardeen, "Did you calculate it? No? I did." In 1963, experimental evidence and further theoretical clarifications were discovered supporting the Josephson effect, notably in a paper by Philip W. Anderson and John Rowell from Bell Labs . After this, Bardeen came to accept Josephson's theory and publicly withdrew his previous opposition to it at

1017-634: A conference held in August 1963. Bardeen also invited Josephson as a postdoc in Illinois for the academic year of 1965–1966, and later nominated Josephson and Giaever for the Nobel Prize in Physics, which they received in 1973. In 1972, Bardeen shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Leon N Cooper of Brown University and John Robert Schrieffer of the University of Pennsylvania "for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called

1130-593: A fortress ( Festung ), to be held at all costs. An attempted evacuation of the city took place in January 1945, with 18,000 people freezing to death in icy snowstorms of −20 °C (−4 °F) weather. In February 1945, the Soviet Army approached the city and the German Luftwaffe began an airlift to the besieged garrison. A large area of the city centre was demolished and turned into an airfield by

1243-673: A major centre of science; Johannes Brahms later wrote his Academic Festival Overture to thank the university for an honorary doctorate awarded in 1879. In 1821, the (Arch)Diocese of Breslau withdrew from dependence on the Polish archbishopric of Gniezno, and Breslau became an exempt see. In 1822, the Prussian police discovered the Polonia Polish youth resistance organization and carried out arrests of its members and searches of their homes. In 1848, many local Polish students joined

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1356-504: A massive field. I.e. that whilst magnetic flux is expelled from a superconductor, this happens exponentially over a finite length with an exponent which is now called the London penetration depth . London also developed a theory of a rotational response of a superconductor, pointing out that rotation of a superconductor generates magnetic field London moment . This effect is used in models of rotational dynamics of neutron stars. Since 1956,

1469-653: A mob. The number of Poles as a percentage of the total population fell to just 0.5% after the re-emergence of Poland as a state in 1918, when many moved to Poland. Antisemitic riots occurred in 1923. The city boundaries were expanded between 1925 and 1930 to include an area of 175 km (68 sq mi) with a population of 600,000. In 1929, the Werkbund opened WuWa ( German : Wohnungs- und Werkraumausstellung ) in Breslau-Scheitnig, an international showcase of modern architecture by architects of

1582-604: A problem in solid-state physics . Before completing his thesis, he was offered a position as junior fellow of the Society of Fellows at Harvard University in 1935. He spent the next three years there, from 1935 to 1938, working with to-be Nobel laureates in physics John Hasbrouck van Vleck and Percy Williams Bridgman on problems in cohesion and electrical conduction in metals,and also did some work on level density of nuclei. He received his Ph.D. in mathematical physics from Princeton in 1936. From 1941 to 1944, Bardeen headed

1695-472: A professor for almost 40 years at the University of Illinois, he was best remembered by neighbors for hosting cookouts where he would prepare food for his friends, many of whom were unaware of his accomplishments at the university. He would always ask his guests if they liked the hamburger bun toasted (since he liked his that way). He enjoyed playing golf and going on picnics with his family. Lillian Hoddeson said that because he "differed radically from

1808-476: A settlement belonging to Governor Piotr Włostowic (also known as Piotr Włast Dunin ) was built, and another on the left bank of the River Oder, near the present site of the university. While the city was largely Polish, it also had communities of Bohemians (Czechs), Germans , Walloons and Jews . In the 13th century, Wrocław was the political centre of the divided Polish kingdom. In April 1241, during

1921-485: A super-current flow across a barrier, effect which later became known as the Josephson effect . Bardeen challenged Josephson's theory on a note in his own paper received ten days later by Physical Review Letters : In a recent note, Josephson uses a somewhat similar formulation to discuss the possibility of superfluid flow across the tunneling region, in which no quasi-particles are created. However, as pointed out by

2034-866: A traditional, realistic picture of a pigeon, without an olive branch, was created on a napkin at the Monopol Hotel in Wrocław during the World Congress of Intellectuals in Defense of Peace . In 1963, Wrocław was declared a closed city because of a smallpox epidemic . In 1982, during martial law in Poland , the anti-communist underground organizations Fighting Solidarity and Orange Alternative were founded in Wrocław. Wrocław's dwarves , made of bronze, famously grew out of and commemorate Orange Alternative. In 1983 and 1997, Pope John Paul II visited

2147-511: Is a consequence of enforcing the electronic wavefunction to be antisymmetric under electron permutations. This antisymmetry is required by the Pauli principle and the fact that electrons are fermions . For atoms and nonpolar molecules, the London dispersion force is the only intermolecular force, and is responsible for their existence in liquid and solid states. For polar molecules , this force

2260-551: Is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The city is also home to the Wrocław Zoo , the oldest zoological garden in Poland. Wrocław is classified as a Sufficiency global city by GaWC . It is often featured in lists of the most livable places in the world, and was ranked 1st among all medium and small cities by fDi Intelligence in 2021. In 1989, 1995 and 2019 Wrocław hosted the European Youth Meetings of

2373-547: Is one part of the van der Waals force, along with forces between the permanent molecular dipole moments . London was the first theoretical physicist to make the fundamental, and at the time controversial, suggestion that superfluidity is intrinsically related to the Einstein condensation of bosons , a phenomenon now known as Bose–Einstein condensation . Bose recognized that the statistics of massless photons could also be applied to massive particles; he did not contribute to

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2486-448: Is the only person to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics twice: first in 1956 with William Shockley and Walter Brattain for the invention of the transistor ; and again in 1972 with Leon N. Cooper and John Robert Schrieffer for a fundamental theory of conventional superconductivity known as the BCS theory . The transistor revolutionized the electronics industry, making possible

2599-762: The Battle of Hundsfeld , stopping the German advance into Poland. The medieval chronicle, Gesta principum Polonorum (1112–1116) by Gallus Anonymus , named Wrocław, along with Kraków and Sandomierz , as one of three capitals of the Polish Kingdom. Also, the Tabula Rogeriana , a book written by the Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi in 1154, describes Wrocław as one of the Polish cities, alongside Kraków, Gniezno , Sieradz , Łęczyca and Santok . By 1139,

2712-747: The Duchy of Silesia . One of the most important events during this period was the foundation of the Diocese of Wrocław in 1000. Along with the Bishoprics of Kraków and Kołobrzeg , Wrocław was placed under the Archbishopric of Gniezno in Greater Poland , founded by Pope Sylvester II through the intercession of Polish duke (and later king) Bolesław I the Brave and Emperor Otto III , during

2825-559: The Greater Poland uprising against Prussia. On 5 May 1848, a convention of Polish activists from the Prussian and Austrian partitions of Poland was held in the city. On 10 October 1854, the Jewish Theological Seminary opened. The institution was the first modern rabbinical seminary in Central Europe. In 1863 the brothers Karl and Louis Stangen founded the travel agency Stangen, the second travel agency in

2938-514: The Kingdom of Poland , the Kingdom of Bohemia , the Kingdom of Hungary , the Habsburg monarchy of Austria, the Kingdom of Prussia and Germany , until it became again part of Poland in 1945 as the result of territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II . Wrocław is a university city with a student population of over 130,000, making it one of the most youth-oriented cities in

3051-482: The Nobel Prize in Physics with William Shockley of Semiconductor Laboratory of Beckman Instruments and Walter Brattain of Bell Telephone Laboratories " for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect ". At the Nobel Prize ceremony in Stockholm , Brattain and Shockley received their awards that night from King Gustaf VI Adolf . Bardeen brought only one of his three children to

3164-670: The Polish Legion , but three Legions' envoys were arrested by the Germans in November 1914 and deported to Austria, and the organization soon ended its activities in the city. During the war, the Germans operated seven forced labour camps for Allied prisoners of war in the city. Following the war, Breslau became the capital of the newly created Prussian Province of Lower Silesia of the Weimar Republic in 1919. After

3277-651: The Polish language , the city's name Wrocław derives from the given name Wrocisław , which is the Polish equivalent of the Czech Vratislav. Also, the earliest variations of this name in the Old Polish language would have used the letter l instead of the modern Polish ł . The Old Czech language version of the name was used in Latin documents, as Vratislavia or Wratislavia . The city's first municipal seal

3390-703: The Seven Years' War at the Battle of Breslau , but they were unsuccessful. The Venetian Italian adventurer, Giacomo Casanova , stayed in Breslau in 1766. During the Napoleonic Wars , it was occupied by the Confederation of the Rhine army. The fortifications of the city were levelled, and monasteries and cloisters were seized. The Protestant Viadrina European University at Frankfurt an der Oder

3503-631: The Sudeten Mountains to the south. As of 2023 , the official population of Wrocław is 674,132 making it the third largest city in Poland. The population of the Wrocław metropolitan area is around 1.25 million. Wrocław is the historical capital of Silesia and Lower Silesia . Today, it is the capital of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship . The history of the city dates back over 1,000 years; at various times, it has been part of

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3616-878: The Taizé Community , the Eucharistic Congress in 1997, and the 2012 European Football Championship . In 2016, the city was a European Capital of Culture and the World Book Capital . Also in that year, Wrocław hosted the Theatre Olympics , World Bridge Games and the European Film Awards . In 2017, the city was host to the IFLA Annual Conference and the World Games . In 2019, it was named

3729-517: The University of Wisconsin in 1923. While in college, he joined the Zeta Psi fraternity. He raised a part of the needed membership fees by playing billiards. Bardeen was initiated as a member of Tau Beta Pi engineering honor society. Not wanting to be an academic like his father, Bardeen chose engineering. He also felt that engineering had good job prospects. Bardeen received his Bachelor of Science degree in electrical engineering in 1928 from

3842-745: The Western Allies to place the southern Polish-German boundary on the Eastern Neisse , which meant post-war Germany would have been allowed to retain approximately half of Silesia, including those parts of Breslau that lay on the west bank of the Oder. However, the Soviet government insisted the border be drawn at the Lusatian Neisse farther west. The city's German inhabitants who had not fled, or who had returned to their home city after

3955-524: The first Mongol invasion of Poland , the city was abandoned by its inhabitants and burnt down for strategic reasons. During the battles with the Mongols Wrocław Castle was successfully defended by Henry II the Pious . In 1245, in Wrocław, Franciscan friar Benedict of Poland , considered one of the first Polish explorers, joined Italian diplomat Giovanni da Pian del Carpine , on his journey to

4068-580: The 125th anniversary of the German Wars of Liberation against Napoleon's invasion. During the invasion of Poland , which started World War II , in September 1939, the Germans carried out mass arrests of local Polish activists and banned Polish organizations, and the city was made the headquarters of the southern district of the Selbstschutz , whose task was to persecute Poles . For most of

4181-600: The BCS-theory". This was Bardeen's second Nobel Prize in Physics. He became the first person to win two Nobel Prizes in the same field. Bardeen brought his three children to the Nobel Prize ceremony in Stockholm. Bardeen gave much of his Nobel Prize money to fund the Fritz London Memorial Lectures at Duke University . In the late 1960s, Bardeen felt that Cooper and Schrieffer deserved

4294-532: The Fritz London Memorial Lectures have brought to the scientific community at Duke University a distinguished group of lecturers including twenty Nobel laureates. The scientific interests of each lecturer impinge at one or more points upon the various fields of physics and chemistry to which Fritz London contributed. In December 1972, John Bardeen , two-time winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics, established an endowment fund "to perpetuate

4407-663: The German Empire, Breslau eventually became one of the strongest support bases of the Nazi Party , which in the 1932 elections received 44% of the city's vote, their third-highest total in all Germany. After Hitler 's appointment as German Chancellor in 1933, political enemies of the Nazis were persecuted, and their institutions closed or destroyed. KZ Dürrgoy , one of the first concentration camps in Nazi Germany ,

4520-401: The Gniezno Congress. In the years 1034–1038 the city was affected by the pagan reaction in Poland . The city became a commercial centre and expanded to Wyspa Piasek (Sand Island), and then onto the left bank of the River Oder . Around 1000, the town had about 1,000 inhabitants. In 1109 during the Polish-German war , Prince Bolesław III Wrymouth defeated the King of Germany Henry V at

4633-403: The John Bardeen Professor is Yurii Vlasov . At the time of Bardeen's death, then-University of Illinois chancellor Morton Weir said, "It is a rare person whose work changes the life of every American; John's did." Bardeen was honored on a March 6, 2008, United States postage stamp as part of the "American Scientists" series designed by artist Victor Stabin . The $ 0.41 stamp was unveiled in

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4746-451: The London Memorial Lectures at Duke University. Breslau Wrocław ( Polish: [ˈvrɔt͡swaf] ; German : Breslau [ˈbʁɛslaʊ] ; also known by other names ) is a city in southwestern Poland and the largest city and historical capital of the region of Silesia . It lies on the banks of the Oder River in the Silesian Lowlands of Central Europe , roughly 40 kilometres (25 mi) from

4859-465: The Nobel Prize ceremony. King Gustav chided Bardeen because of this, and Bardeen assured the King that the next time he would bring all his children to the ceremony. He kept his promise. In 1957, Bardeen, in collaboration with Leon Cooper and his doctoral student John Robert Schrieffer , proposed the standard theory of superconductivity known as the BCS theory (named for their initials). Bardeen became interested in superconducting tunnelling in

4972-414: The Nobel prize for BCS. He was concerned that they might not be awarded because of the Nobel Committee 's reticence to award the same person twice, which would be his case as a co-author of the theory. Bardeen nominated scientists who worked on superconducting tunneling effects such as the Josephson effect for the prize in 1967: Leo Esaki , Ivar Giaever and Brian Josephson . He recognized that because

5085-443: The Silesian branch of the Werkbund. In June 1930, Breslau hosted the Deutsche Kampfspiele , a sporting event for German athletes after Germany was excluded from the Olympic Games after World War I. The number of Jews remaining in Breslau fell from 23,240 in 1925 to 10,659 in 1933. Up to the beginning of World War II, Breslau was the largest city in Germany east of Berlin . Known as a stronghold of left wing liberalism during

5198-545: The University of Wisconsin. Despite taking a year off to work in Chicago, he graduated in 1928. Taking all the graduate courses in physics and mathematics that had interested him, Bardeen graduated in five years instead of the usual four. This allowed him time to complete his master's thesis, supervised by Leo J. Peters. He received his Master of Science degree in electrical engineering in 1929 from Wisconsin. Bardeen furthered his studies by staying on at Wisconsin, but he eventually went to work for Gulf Research Laboratories ,

5311-416: The Wrocław bishops. In the 16th century, the Breslauer Schöps beer style was created in Breslau. The Protestant Reformation reached the city in 1518 and it converted to the new rite. However, starting in 1526 Silesia was ruled by the Catholic House of Habsburg . In 1618, it supported the Bohemian Revolt out of fear of losing the right to religious freedom . During the ensuing Thirty Years' War ,

5424-415: The attraction between two rare gas atoms at large (say about 1 nanometer ) distance from each other. Nowadays this attraction is often referred to as "London force". In 1930 he gave (together with R. Eisenschitz) a unified treatment of the interaction between two noble gas atoms that attract each other at large distance, but repel each other at short distances. Eisenschitz and London showed that this repulsion

5537-419: The author (reference 3), pairing does not extend into the barrier, so that there can be no such superfluid flow. The matter was further discussed on the 8th International Conference on Low Temperature Physics held September 16 to 22, 1962 at Queen Mary University of London . While Josephson was presenting his theory, Bardeen rose to describe his objections. After an intense debate both men were unable to reach

5650-399: The campaign which ended at the Battle of Leipzig . The Confederation of the Rhine had increased prosperity in Silesia and in the city. The removal of fortifications opened room for the city to expand beyond its former limits. Breslau became an important railway hub and industrial centre, notably for linen and cotton manufacture and the metal industry. The reconstructed university served as

5763-438: The centre of German Baroque literature and was home to the First and Second Silesian school of poets. In 1742, the Schlesische Zeitung was founded in Breslau. In the 1740s the Kingdom of Prussia annexed the city and most of Silesia during the War of the Austrian Succession . Habsburg Empress Maria Theresa ceded most of the territory in the Treaty of Breslau in 1742 to Prussia. Austria attempted to recover Silesia during

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5876-408: The city are known as " Wrocławians " or "Vratislavians" ( Polish : wrocławianie ). The now little-used German equivalent is " Breslauer ." In ancient times, there was a place called Budorigum at or near the site of Wrocław. It was already mapped on Claudius Ptolemy 's map of AD 142–147. Settlements in the area existed from the 6th century onward during the migration period . The Ślężans ,

5989-462: The city at the time at 20,000 to 30,000. The population was 58% Protestant, 37% Catholic (including at least 2% Polish) and 5% Jewish (totaling 20,536 in the 1905 census). The Jewish community of Breslau was among the most important in Germany, producing several distinguished artists and scientists. From 1912, the head of the university's Department of Psychiatry and director of the Clinic of Psychiatry ( Königlich Psychiatrischen und Nervenklinik )

6102-416: The city was occupied by Saxon and Swedish troops and lost thousands of inhabitants to the plague . The Emperor brought in the Counter-Reformation by encouraging Catholic orders to settle in the city, starting in 1610 with the Franciscans , followed by the Jesuits , then Capuchins , and finally Ursuline nuns in 1687. These orders erected buildings that shaped the city's appearance until 1945. At

6215-527: The city – Polish and German – stating "Breslau (polnisch Wraclaw)”. In other languages, the city's name is: German : Breslau [ˈbʁɛslaʊ] ; Silesian German : Brassel ; Yiddish : ברעסלוי , romanized :  Bresloi ; Silesian : Wrocław ; modern Czech : Vratislav [ˈvracɪslaf] ; Hungarian : Boroszló [ˈborosloː] ; Hebrew : ורוצלב , romanized :  Vrotsláv ; and Latin : Wratislavia or Vratislavia . People born or resident in

6328-407: The city's defenses. Important landmarks were inaugurated in 1910, the Kaiser bridge (today Grunwald Bridge ) and the Technical University , which now houses the Wrocław University of Technology . The 1900 census listed 98% of the population as German-speakers, with 5,363 Polish-speakers (1.3%), and 3,103 (0.7%) as bilingual in German and Polish, although some estimates put the number of Poles in

6441-449: The city, as well as Polish slave labourers, organised a resistance group called Olimp . The organisation gathered intelligence, carrying out sabotage and organising aid for Polish slave workers. In September 1941 the city's 10,000 Jews were expelled from their homes and soon deported to concentration camps. Few survived the Holocaust . As the war continued, refugees from bombed-out German cities, and later refugees from farther east, swelled

6554-399: The city, so that today the proportion of the Polish population compared to that of the Germans is the reverse of what it was a hundred years ago. Traces of the German past, such as inscriptions and signs, were removed. In 1948, Wrocław organized the Recovered Territories Exhibition and the World Congress of Intellectuals in Defense of Peace . Picasso 's lithograph, La Colombe (The Dove),

6667-403: The city. PTV Echo, the first non-state television station in Poland and in the post-communist countries, began to broadcast in Wrocław on 6 February 1990. In May 1997, Wrocław hosted the 46th International Eucharistic Congress . John Bardeen John Bardeen ( / b ɑːr ˈ d iː n / ; May 23, 1908 – January 30, 1991) was an American physicist and electrical engineer . He

6780-420: The city. After the outbreak of the uprising in 1863, the Prussian police carried out mass searches of Polish homes, especially those of Poles who had recently come to the city. The city's inhabitants, both Poles and Germans, excluding the German aristocracy, largely sympathized with the uprising, and some Germans even joined local Poles in their secret activities. In June 1863 the city was officially confirmed as

6893-510: The conducting wires with electrolytes . Moore built a circuit that allowed them to vary the frequency of the input signal easily and suggested that they use glycol borate (gu), a viscous chemical that did not evaporate. Finally, they began to get some evidence of power amplification when Pearson, acting on a suggestion by Shockley, put a voltage on a droplet of gu placed across a p–n junction . On December 23, 1947, Bardeen and Brattain were working without Shockley when they succeeded in creating

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7006-401: The country. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the University of Wrocław , previously the German Breslau University, has produced nine Nobel Prize laureates and is renowned for its high quality of teaching. Wrocław also possesses numerous historical landmarks, including the Main Market Square , Cathedral Island , Wrocław Opera , the National Museum and the Centennial Hall , which

7119-467: The credit for the invention of the transistor; this led to a deterioration of Bardeen's relationship with him. Bell Labs management, however, consistently presented all three inventors as a team. Shockley eventually infuriated and alienated Bardeen and Brattain, essentially blocking the two from working on the junction transistor. Bardeen began pursuing a theory for superconductivity and left Bell Labs in 1951. Brattain refused to work with Shockley further and

7232-445: The death of Henry VI the Good , to John of Luxembourg . His son Emperor Charles IV in 1348 formally incorporated the city into the Holy Roman Empire . Between 1342 and 1344, two fires destroyed large parts of the city. In 1387 the city joined the Hanseatic League . On 5 June 1443, the city was rocked by an earthquake, estimated at magnitude 6, which destroyed or seriously damaged many of its buildings. Between 1469 and 1490, Wrocław

7345-412: The defenders. By the end of the three-month siege in May 1945, half the city had been destroyed. Breslau was the last major city in Germany to surrender, capitulating only two days before the end of the war in Europe. Civilian deaths amounted to as many as 80,000. In August the Soviets placed the city under the control of German communists . Following the Yalta Conference held in February 1945, where

7458-416: The development of almost every modern electronic device, from telephones to computers , and ushering in the Information Age . Bardeen's developments in superconductivity—for which he was awarded his second Nobel Prize—are used in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), medical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and superconducting quantum circuits. Born and raised in Wisconsin , Bardeen received

7571-582: The electrical engineering department and one in the physics department. The research program in the electrical engineering department dealt with both experimental and theoretical aspects of semiconductors, and the research program in the physics department dealt with theoretical aspects of macroscopic quantum systems, particularly superconductivity and quantum liquids. He was an active professor at Illinois from 1951 to 1975 and then became professor emeritus . In his later life, Bardeen remained active in academic research, during which time he focused on understanding

7684-484: The end of the Thirty Years' War, however, it was one of only a few Silesian cities to stay Protestant. The Polish Municipal school opened in 1666 and lasted until 1766. Precise record-keeping of births and deaths by the city fathers led to the use of their data for analysis of mortality, first by John Graunt and then, based on data provided to him by Breslau professor Caspar Neumann , by Edmond Halley . Halley's tables and analysis, published in 1693, are considered to be

7797-414: The end of this decade, when they begin enumerating the names of the people who had the greatest impact on the 20th century, the name of John Bardeen, who died last week, has to be near, or perhaps even arguably at, the top of the list ... Mr. Bardeen shared two Nobel Prizes and has been awarded numerous other honors. But what greater honor can there be when each of us can look all around us and everywhere see

7910-479: The first true actuarial tables, and thus the foundation of modern actuarial science . During the Counter-Reformation, the intellectual life of the city flourished, as the Protestant bourgeoisie lost some of its dominance to the Catholic orders as patrons of the arts. One of two main routes connecting Warsaw and Dresden ran through the city in the 18th century and Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland often traveled that route. The city became

8023-517: The flow of electrons in charge density waves (CDWs) through metallic linear chain compounds. His proposals that CDW electron transport is a collective quantum phenomenon (see Macroscopic quantum phenomena ) were initially greeted with skepticism. However, experiments reported in 2012 show oscillations in CDW current versus magnetic flux through tantalum trisulfide rings, similar to the behavior of superconducting quantum interference devices (see SQUID and Aharonov–Bohm effect ), lending credence to

8136-583: The forced deportations from Polish lands annexed by the Soviet Union in the east region, some of whom came from Lviv ( Lwów ), Volhynia , and the Vilnius Region . However, despite the prime role given to re-settlers from the Kresy , in 1949, only 20% of the new Polish population actually were refugees themselves. A small German minority (about 1,000 people, or 2% of the population) remains in

8249-514: The founder of the city might have simply been a local prince who only shared the popular West Slavic name with the Bohemian Duke. Further evidence against Czech origin is that the oldest surviving documents containing the recorded name, such as the chronicle of Thietmar of Merseburg from the early 11th century, records the city's name as Wrotizlava and Wrotizlaensem , characteristic of Old Polish -ro-, unlike Old Czech -ra- . In

8362-523: The fourth camp. Many prisoners died, and the remaining were evacuated to the main camp of Gross-Rosen in January 1945. There were also three subcamps of the Stalag VIII-B/344 prisoner-of-war camp , and two Nazi prisons in the city, including a youth prison, with multiple forced labour subcamps. In 1945, the city became part of the front lines and was the site of the brutal Siege of Breslau . Adolf Hitler had in 1944 declared Breslau to be

8475-546: The group were Walter Brattain , physicist Gerald Pearson , chemist Robert Gibney, electronics expert Hilbert Moore and several technicians. He moved his family to Summit, New Jersey . The assignment of the group was to seek a solid-state alternative to fragile glass vacuum tube amplifiers. Their first attempts were based on Shockley's ideas about using an external electrical field on a semiconductor to affect its conductivity. These experiments mysteriously failed every time in all sorts of configurations and materials. The group

8588-497: The group working on magnetic mines and torpedoes and mine and torpedo countermeasures at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory . During this period, his wife Jane gave birth to a son (Bill, born in 1941) and a daughter (Betsy, born in 1944). In October 1945, Bardeen began work at Bell Labs as a member of a solid-state physics group led by William Shockley and chemist Stanley Morgan. Other personnel working in

8701-475: The idea that collective CDW electron transport is fundamentally quantum in nature. (See quantum mechanics .) Bardeen continued his research throughout the 1980s, and published articles in Physical Review Letters and Physics Today less than a year before he died. A collection of Bardeen's personal papers are held by the University of Illinois Archives. In 1956, John Bardeen shared

8814-454: The introduction of quantum mechanics by Heisenberg and Schrödinger , because quantum mechanics was crucial in their explanation of the covalent bond . Another necessary ingredient was the realization that electrons are indistinguishable, as expressed in the Pauli principle . Other early work of London was in the area of intermolecular forces . He coined the expression "dispersion effect" for

8927-537: The junction of the Via Regia and the Amber Road. With the influx of settlers, the town expanded and in 1242 came under German town law . The city council used both Latin and German , and the early forms of the name Breslau , the German name of the city, appeared for the first time in its written records. Polish gradually ceased to be used in the town books, while it survived in the courts until 1337, when it

9040-618: The memory of Fritz London, distinguished scientist and member of the Duke faculty from 1939 to the time of his death in 1954, and to promote research and understanding of Physics at Duke University and in the wider scientific community". The fund is to be used to underwrite the Fritz London Memorial Prize, given in recognition of outstanding contributions in Low Temperature Physics, and provide support for

9153-564: The nearby village of Muchobór Wielki (present-day a district of Wrocław), and in December 1474 a ceasefire was signed according to which the city remained under Hungarian rule. The following year was marked by the publication in Wrocław of the Statuta Synodalia Episcoporum Wratislaviensium (1475) by Kasper Elyan, the first ever incunable in Polish, containing the proceedings and prayers of

9266-553: The new geopolitics of Central Europe were decided, the terms of the Potsdam Conference decreed that along with almost all of Lower Silesia, the city would again become part of Poland in exchange for Poland's loss of the city of Lwów along with the massive territory of Kresy in the east, which was annexed by the Soviet Union . The Polish name of Wrocław was declared official. There had been discussion among

9379-453: The popular stereotype of 'genius' and was uninterested in appearing other than ordinary, the public and the media often overlooked him." When Bardeen was asked about his beliefs during a 1988 interview, he responded: "I am not a religious person, and so do not think about it very much". However, he has also said: "I feel that science cannot provide an answer to the ultimate questions about the meaning and purpose of life." Bardeen did believe in

9492-706: The population to nearly one million, including 51,000 forced labourers in 1944, and 9,876 Allied PoWs. At the end of 1944 an additional 30,000–60,000 Poles were moved into the city after the Germans crushed the Warsaw Uprising . During the war the Germans operated four subcamps of the Gross-Rosen concentration camp in the city. Approximately 3,400–3,800 men were imprisoned in three subcamps, among them Poles, Russians , Italians , Frenchmen , Ukrainians , Czechs , Belgians , Yugoslavs , Dutchmen , Chinese , and about 1,500 Jewish women were imprisoned in

9605-532: The region, the city council's ability to govern independently had increased. In 1274 prince Henry IV Probus gave the city its staple right . In the 13th century, two Polish monarchs were buried in Wrocław churches founded by them, Henry II the Pious in the St. Vincent church and Henryk IV Probus in the Holy Cross church . Wrocław, which for 350 years had been mostly under Polish hegemony , fell in 1335, after

9718-672: The reminders of a man whose genius has made our lives longer, healthier and better. — Chicago Tribune editorial, February 3, 1991 In honor of Bardeen, the engineering quadrangle at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign is named the Bardeen Quad . Also in honor of Bardeen, Sony Corporation endowed a $ 3 million John Bardeen professorial chair at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, beginning in 1990. Sony Corporation owed much of its success to commercializing Bardeen's transistors in portable TVs and radios, and had worked with Illinois researchers. As of 2022 ,

9831-633: The research arm of the Gulf Oil Corporation that was based in Pittsburgh . From 1930 to 1933, Bardeen worked there on the development of methods for the interpretation of magnetic and gravitational surveys. He worked as a geophysicist. After the work failed to keep his interest, he applied and was accepted to the graduate program in mathematics at Princeton University . As a graduate student, Bardeen studied mathematics and physics. Under physicist Eugene Wigner , he wrote his thesis on

9944-493: The seat of secret Polish insurgent authorities. In January 1864, the Prussian police arrested a number of members of the Polish insurgent movement. The Unification of Germany in 1871 turned Breslau into the sixth-largest city in the German Empire . Its population more than tripled to over half a million between 1860 and 1910. The 1900 census listed 422,709 residents. In 1890, construction began of Breslau Fortress as

10057-577: The seat of the Mongol Khan near Karakorum , the capital of the Mongol Empire , in what is considered the first such journey by Europeans. After the Mongol invasion the town was partly populated by German settlers who, in the ensuing centuries, gradually became its dominant population. The city, however, retained its multi-ethnic character, a reflection of its importance as a trading post on

10170-639: The summer of 1960 after consulting for the General Electric Research Laboratory in Schenectady, New York where he learned about experiments done by Ivar Giaever at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute which suggested that electrons from a normal material could tunnel into a superconducting one. In June 8, 1962, Brian Josephson , then 23, submitted to Physics Letters his prediction of

10283-412: The surface states through observations made while shining a bright light on the semiconductor's surface. This led to several more papers (one of them co-authored with Shockley), which estimated the density of the surface states to be more than enough to account for their failed experiments. The pace of the work picked up significantly when they started to surround point contacts between the semiconductor and

10396-409: The theory of the condensation of bosons. London was also one of the early authors (including Schrödinger ) to have properly understood the principle of local gauge invariance ( Weyl ) in the context of the then new quantum mechanics . London predicted the effect of flux quantization in superconductors and with his brother Heinz postulated that the electrodynamics of superconductors is described by

10509-472: The tunneling developments depended on superconductivity, it would increase the chances that BCS itself would be awarded first. He also reasoned that the Nobel Committee had a predilection for multinational teams, which was the case for his tunneling nominees, each being from a different country. Bardeen renewed the nominations in 1971, 1972, when BCS received the prize, and finally 1973, when tunneling

10622-416: The uncharacteristic step of urging Xerox executives to keep their California research center, Xerox PARC , afloat when the parent company was suspicious that its research center would amount to little. Bardeen married Jane Maxwell on July 18, 1938. While at Princeton, he met Jane during a visit to his old friends in Pittsburgh . Bardeen was a scientist with a very unassuming personality. While he served as

10735-596: The war had ended, were expelled between 1945 and 1949 in accordance to the Potsdam Agreement and were settled in the Soviet occupation zone or in the Allied Occupation Zones in the remainder of Germany. The city's last pre-war German school was closed in 1963. The Polish population was dramatically increased by the resettlement of Poles, partly due to postwar population transfers during

10848-786: The war the Polish community began holding masses in Polish at the Church of Saint Anne, and, as of 1921, at St. Martin's and a Polish School was founded by Helena Adamczewska. In 1920 a Polish consulate was opened on the Main Square. In August 1920, during the Polish Silesian Uprising in Upper Silesia , the Polish Consulate and School were destroyed, while the Polish Library was burned down by

10961-412: The war, the fighting did not affect the city. During the war, the Germans opened the graves of medieval Polish monarchs and local dukes to carry out anthropological research for propaganda purposes, wanting to demonstrate German " racial purity ." The remains were transported to other places by the Germans, and they have not been found to this day. In 1941 the remnants of the pre-war Polish minority in

11074-807: The world. The city was an important centre of the Polish secret resistance movement and the seat of a Polish uprising committee before and during the January Uprising of 1863–1864 in the Russian Partition of Poland. Local Poles took part in Polish national mourning after the Russian massacre of Polish protesters in Warsaw in February 1861, and also organized several patriotic Polish church services throughout 1861. Secret Polish correspondence, weapons, and insurgents were transported through

11187-525: Was Alois Alzheimer and, that same year, professor William Stern introduced the concept of IQ . In 1913, the newly built Centennial Hall housed an exhibition commemorating the 100th anniversary of the historical German Wars of Liberation against Napoleon and the first award of the Iron Cross . The Centennial Hall was built by Max Berg (1870–1947), since 2006 it is part of the world heritage of UNESCO. The central station (by Wilhelm Grapow, 1857)

11300-609: Was a professor at Duke University . He was awarded the Lorentz Medal in 1953. He died from a heart ailment in Durham, North Carolina , in 1954. London's early work with Walter Heitler on chemical bonding is now treated in any textbook on physical chemistry. This paper was the first to properly explain the bonding in a homonuclear molecule such as H 2 . It is no coincidence that the Heitler–London work appeared shortly after

11413-433: Was assigned to another group. Neither Bardeen nor Brattain had much to do with the development of the transistor beyond the first year after its invention. The "transistor" (a portmanteau of "transconductance" and "resistor") was 1/50 the size of the vacuum tubes it replaced in televisions and radios, used far less power, was far more reliable, and it allowed electrical devices to become more compact. By 1951, Bardeen

11526-477: Was at a standstill until Bardeen suggested a theory that invoked surface states that prevented the field from penetrating the semiconductor. The group changed its focus to study these surface states, meeting almost daily to discuss the work. The rapport of the group was excellent and ideas were freely exchanged. By the winter of 1946, they had enough results that Bardeen submitted a paper on the surface states to Physical Review . Brattain started experiments to study

11639-579: Was awarded. He is the only double laureate in physics , and one of three double laureates of the same prize; the others are Frederick Sanger who won the 1958 and 1980 Prizes in Chemistry and Karl Barry Sharpless who won the 2001 and 2022 Prizes in chemistry . In addition to being awarded the Nobel prize twice, Bardeen has numerous other awards including: Bardeen was also an important adviser to Xerox Corporation . Though quiet by nature, he took

11752-540: Was banned by the new rulers, the German-speaking House of Luxembourg . The enlarged town covered around 60 hectares (150 acres), and the new main market square , surrounded by timber-frame houses, became the trade centre of the town. The original foundation, Ostrów Tumski , became its religious centre. The city gained Magdeburg rights in 1261. While the Polish Piast dynasty remained in control of

11865-669: Was born in Madison, Wisconsin , on May 23, 1908. He was the son of Charles Bardeen , the first dean of the University of Wisconsin Medical School. Bardeen attended University of Wisconsin High School in Madison. He graduated from the school in 1923 at age 15. He could have graduated several years earlier, but this was postponed because he took courses at another high school and because of his mother's death. Bardeen entered

11978-549: Was established around Breslau to serve industrial concerns, including FAMO , Junkers , and Krupp . Tens of thousands of forced laborers were imprisoned there. The last big event organized by the National Socialist League of the Reich for Physical Exercise , called Deutsches Turn-und-Sportfest (Gym and Sports Festivities), took place in Breslau from 26 to 31 July 1938. The Sportsfest was held to commemorate

12091-650: Was inscribed with Sigillum civitatis Wratislavie . By the 15th century, the Early New High German variations of the name, Breslau , first began to be used. Despite the noticeable differences in spelling, the numerous German forms were still based on the original West Slavic name of the city, with the -Vr- sound being replaced over time by -Br- , and the suffix -slav- replaced with -slau- . These variations included Wrotizla , Vratizlau , Wratislau , Wrezlau , Breßlau or Bresslau among others. A Prussian description from 1819 mentions two names of

12204-409: Was looking for a new job. Fred Seitz, a friend of Bardeen, convinced the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign to make Bardeen an offer of $ 10,000 a year. Bardeen accepted the offer and left Bell Labs, joining the engineering and physics faculties at Illinois in 1951, where he was professor of electrical engineering and of physics. At Illinois, he established two major research programs, one in

12317-575: Was mentioned by Thietmar explicitly in the year 1000 AD in connection with its promotion to an episcopal see during the Congress of Gniezno . During Wrocław's early history, control over it changed hands between the Duchy of Bohemia (1038–1054), the Duchy of Poland and the Kingdom of Poland (985–1038 and 1054–1320). Following the fragmentation of the Kingdom of Poland , the Piast dynasty ruled

12430-565: Was one of the biggest in Germany and one of the first stations with electrified railway services. Since 1900 modern department stores like Barasch (today "Feniks") or Petersdorff (built by architect Erich Mendelsohn) were erected. During World War I , in 1914, a branch of the Organizacja Pomocy Legionom ("Legion Assistance Organization") operated in the city with the goal of gaining support and recruiting volunteers for

12543-470: Was part of the Kingdom of Hungary , and king Matthias Corvinus was said to have had a Vratislavian mistress who bore him a son. In 1474, after almost a century, the city left the Hanseatic League. Also in 1474, the city was besieged by combined Polish-Czech forces. However, in November 1474, Kings Casimir IV of Poland , his son Vladislaus II of Bohemia , and Matthias Corvinus of Hungary met in

12656-483: Was relocated to Breslau in 1811, and united with the local Jesuit University to create the new Silesian Frederick-William University ( German : Schlesische Friedrich-Wilhelm-Universität , now the University of Wrocław ). The city became a centre of the German Liberation movement against Napoleon, and a gathering place for volunteers from all over Germany. The city was the centre of Prussian mobilisation for

12769-618: Was set up in the city in 1933. The Gestapo began actions against Polish and Jewish students (see: Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau ), Communists , Social Democrats , and trade unionists . Arrests were made for speaking Polish in public, and in 1938 the Nazi-controlled police destroyed the Polish cultural centre. In June 1939, Polish students were expelled from the university. Also many other people seen as "undesirable" by Nazi Germany were sent to concentration camps . A network of concentration camps and forced labour camps

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