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85-471: George A. Fuller (October 21, 1851 – December 14, 1900) was an American architect often credited as being the "inventor" of modern skyscrapers and the modern contracting system . Fuller was born in Templeton, Massachusetts , near Worcester . After graduating from Andover College , he took a course in architecture at the newly founded MIT (known informally at the time as Boston Tech), and then started in

170-418: A client proposes to award a contract is often referred to as a "preferred contractor". A general contractor is responsible for providing all of the material, labor, equipment (such as heavy equipment and tools) and services necessary for the construction of the project. A general contractor often hires specialized subcontractors to perform all or portions of the construction work. When using subcontractors,

255-399: A design professional, such as an architect .The general contractor may also assume the role of construction manager, responsible for overseeing the project while assuming financial and legal risks.There are several types of risks can occur include cost overruns, delays, and liabilities related to safety or contract breaches. Prior to formal appointment, the selected general contractor to whom

340-430: A pavilion of artillery, which apparently had cost one million dollars to stage, including a coastal gun of 42 cm in bore (16.54 inches) and a length of 33 calibres (45.93 feet, 14 meters). A breech-loaded gun, it weighed 120.46 long tons (122.4 metric tons). According to the company's marketing: "It carried a charge projectile weighing from 2,200 to 2,500 pounds which, when driven by 900 pounds of brown powder ,

425-400: A program of their needs and selects a site (often with an architect). The architect assembles a design team of consulting engineers and other experts to design the building and specify the building systems. Today contractors frequently participate on the design team by providing pre-design services such as providing estimations of the budget and scheduling requirements to improve the economy of

510-705: A replica of the Gokstad ship . It was built in Norway and sailed across the Atlantic Ocean by 12 men, led by Captain Magnus Andersen. In 1919, this ship was moved to Lincoln Park . It was relocated in 1996 to Good Templar Park in Geneva, Illinois , where it awaits renovation. Thirty-four U.S. states also had their own pavilions. The work of noted feminist author Kate McPhelim Cleary was featured during

595-744: A rock quarry in Quincy, Massachusetts , so that the Bunker Hill Monument could be erected in Boston. The frog switch is now on public view in East Milton Square, Massachusetts , on the original right-of-way of the Granite Railway. Transportation by rail was the major mode of transportation. A 26-track train station was built at the southwest corner of the fair. While trains from around the country would unload there, there

680-520: A stylized recreation of an American Indian cliff dwelling with pottery, weapons, and other relics on display. There was also an Eskimo display. There were also birch bark wigwams of the Penobscot tribe. Nearby was a working model Indian school, organized by the Office of Indian Affairs, that housed delegations of Native American students and their teachers from schools around the country for weeks at

765-628: A successful exposition and that only Chicago was fit to fill these exposition requirements. The location of the fair was decided through several rounds of voting by the United States House of Representatives. The first ballot showed Chicago with a large lead over New York, St. Louis and Washington, D.C., but short of a majority. Chicago broke the 154-vote majority threshold on the eighth ballot, receiving 157 votes to New York's 107. The exposition corporation and national exposition commission settled on Jackson Park and an area around it as

850-646: A team of plumbers , electricians , bricklayers , carpenters , iron workers , technicians , handymans , architects and roofers . General Contractors build their business by networking with potential clients, buying basic construction tools, and ensuring that their subcontractors complete high-quality work. General Contractors do not usually complete much construction work themselves, but they need to be familiar with construction techniques so they can manage workers effectively. Other reasons include access to specialist skills, flexible hiring and firing, and lower costs. A property owner or real estate developer develops

935-493: A time. The John Bull locomotive was displayed. It was only 62 years old, having been built in 1831. It was the first locomotive acquisition by the Smithsonian Institution . The locomotive ran under its own power from Washington, DC , to Chicago to participate, and returned to Washington under its own power again when the exposition closed. In 1981 it was the oldest surviving operable steam locomotive in

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1020-609: A very popular exhibit. Eadweard Muybridge gave a series of lectures on the Science of Animal Locomotion in the Zoopraxographical Hall, built specially for that purpose on Midway Plaisance. He used his zoopraxiscope to show his moving pictures to a paying public. The hall was the first commercial movie theater. The "Street in Cairo" included the popular dancer known as Little Egypt . She introduced America to

1105-586: A way to bring together societies fragmented along class lines. The first American attempt at a world's fair in Philadelphia in 1876 drew crowds, but was a financial failure. Nonetheless, ideas about distinguishing the 400th anniversary of Columbus' landing started in the late 1880s. Civic leaders in St. Louis, New York City, Washington DC, and Chicago expressed interest in hosting a fair to generate profits, boost real estate values, and promote their cities. Congress

1190-565: A wide and well-grounded distrust of its use in the higher engineer or architectural structures, on account of its mysterious behavior, and frequent erratic and inexplicable failures. Fuller's firm built the Tacoma Building in Chicago designed by Holabird & Roche and completed in 1889, which was the first skyscraper with non load bearing curtain walls . By using Bessemer steel beams, Fuller created steel cages that supported all

1275-774: The Niña (real name Santa Clara ), the Pinta , and the Santa María . These were intended to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Columbus' discovery of the Americas. The ships were constructed in Spain and then sailed to America for the exposition. The celebration of Columbus was an intergovernmental project, coordinated by American special envoy William Eleroy Curtis , the Queen Regent of Spain , and Pope Leo XIII . The ships were

1360-528: The Baháʼí Faith in North America; it was not taken seriously by European scholars until the 1960s. Along the banks of the lake, patrons on the way to the casino were taken on a moving walkway designed by architect Joseph Lyman Silsbee , the first of its kind open to the public, called The Great Wharf, Moving Sidewalk , it allowed people to walk along or ride in seats. Horticultural exhibits at

1445-915: The California Contractors State License Board (CSLB) if the total cost of one or more contracts on the project is $ 500 or more. In every state that requires a license, a surety bond is required as part of the licensing process, with the exception of Louisiana , where bonding requirements may vary in different parishes. Not all states require General Contractor licenses - these include Vermont , New Hampshire and Maine , among others. Some general contractors obtain bachelor's degrees in construction science , building science , surveying , construction safety, or other disciplines. General Contractors often learn about different aspects of construction, including masonry , carpentry , framing , and plumbing . Aspiring general contractors communicate with subcontractors and may learn

1530-825: The Chicago World's Fair , was a world's fair held in Chicago from May 5 to October 31, 1893, to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus 's arrival in the New World in 1492. The centerpiece of the Fair, held in Jackson Park , was a large water pool representing the voyage that Columbus took to the New World. Chicago won the right to host the fair over several competing cities, including New York City , Washington, D.C. , and St. Louis . The exposition

1615-825: The Flatiron Building (1902), Macy's Herald Square on Broadway and 34th Street (1902), the New York Times Building (1905), the Plaza Hotel and the Savoy-Plaza Hotel (across Fifth Avenue from it). In Chicago, Fuller built the Stevens Hotel , designed by Holabird & Roche . The Fuller Company was acquired by the Northrop Corporation in 1971. Notes Bibliography General contractor In

1700-618: The George A. Fuller Company in 1882. Fuller's new firm was different from the many architecture firms of the time, in that it intended to handle all aspects of building construction except for the design of the building, which would come from outside architects. In this way, Fuller created the modern concept of the general contractor . One of the new firm's first jobs was the Chicago Opera House , designed by Henry Ives Cobb and Charles S. Frost . In this building, Fuller, who

1785-503: The Mutual Life Insurance Company . Since Black had put together U.S. Realty, he naturally expected to be named the company's president, but the board passed over him and selected Bradish Johnson, president of New York Realty, one of the firms folded into the new conglomerate. U.S. Realty's stock never performed as expected, although the members of the board did receive substantial salaries and large dividends on

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1870-756: The New York Stock Exchange , and then put together a merger with Alliance and New York Realty to create a new $ 66 million company, the United States Realty and Construction Company ; the Fuller Company – which by then had offices in New York, Chicago, Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia , Washington DC, and Pittsburgh – would remain an independent company under the umbrella of the new entity. Black announced: The new company will undoubtedly enter foreign fields, with

1955-463: The South Side of Chicago, and Post created a Queen Anne style mansion. His daughter, Allon, married Harry St. Francis Black in 1894, and Fuller took him into the company as vice president, despite the fact that Black was neither an architect nor an engineer. In 1892, New York City altered its building regulations to allow skeleton construction and curtain walls , in which the load created by

2040-462: The United Kingdom , Australia and some British Commonwealth countries, the term 'general contractor' was gradually superseded by builders during the early twentieth century. This was the term used by major professional, trade, and consumer organizations when issuing contracts for construction work, and thus the term 'general contractor' fell out of use except in large organizations where

2125-673: The United States and Asia , the terms general contractor (or simply "contractor"), prime contractor and main contractor are often interchangeable when referring to small local companies that perform residential work. These companies are represented by trade organizations such as the NAHB . Prime contractor is a term defined in the US law. Statutory definitions of prime contract, prime contractor, subcontract, and subcontractor are in 41 U.S.C.   § 8701 . The prime contractor term

2210-465: The United States , a contractor may be a sole proprietor managing a project and performing labor or carpentry work, have a small staff, or may be a very large company managing billion dollar projects. Some builders build new homes, some are remodelers, some are developers. A general contractor is a construction manager employed by a client, usually upon the advice of the project's architect or engineer . General Contractors are mainly responsible for

2295-554: The safety elevator . At the age of twenty-five he was made a partner and placed in charge of Peabody & Stearns's New York office. In New York, Fuller's design for a new club house for the Union League Club of New York , a Queen Anne mansion for the site at the corner of Fifth Avenue and 39th Street , won over eight other designs, including those submitted by noted architects Richard Morris Hunt and Charles McKim and William Rutherford Mead . Fuller also designed

2380-607: The Beaux-Arts architecture of the buildings was under the direction of Daniel Burnham, Director of Works for the fair. Renowned local architect Henry Ives Cobb designed several buildings for the exposition. The director of the American Academy in Rome, Francis Davis Millet , directed the painted mural decorations. Indeed, it was a coming-of-age for the arts and architecture of the " American Renaissance ", and it showcased

2465-424: The Fuller Company and aggressively expanded its capitalization and operations, merging it with smaller companies, and bringing on to the company's board of directors such men as Henry Morgenthau, Sr. , former New York City mayor – and Tammany Hall man – Hugh J. Grant , and banker James Stillman and creating what became known as the "skyscraper trust". In 1902, he took the company public, listing it on

2550-677: The George A.Fuller Company of The Orient Ltd. in Tokyo and built several private and government office buildings in the far east Asia . Among the many buildings constructed by the Fuller Company under Black were the Lincoln Memorial (1914–22), Arlington Memorial Amphitheater (1915–20), Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Arlington) (1921), Freer Gallery of Art (1916–23), Pennsylvania Station (1910), Hotel Pennsylvania (1919),

2635-561: The Horticultural Hall included cacti and orchids as well as other plants in a greenhouse . Most of the buildings of the fair were designed in the neoclassical architecture style. The area at the Court of Honor was known as The White City . Façades were made not of stone, but of a mixture of plaster, cement, and jute fiber called staff , which was painted white, giving the buildings their "gleam". Architecture critics derided

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2720-488: The Louisiana Pavilion were each given a seedling of a cypress tree. This resulted in the spread of cypress trees to areas where they were not native. Cypress trees from those seedlings can be found in many areas of West Virginia, where they flourish in the climate. The Illinois was a detailed, full-scale mockup of an Indiana -class battleship , constructed as a naval exhibit. The German firm Krupp had

2805-584: The United Bank Building, a nine-story building at Wall Street and Broadway , although he left Peabody & Stearns shortly after construction began, having spent four years there. Fuller moved to Chicago, the locus of much of the skyscraper construction in the United States at the time, where he formed a partnership with C. Everett Clark, another architect from Massachusetts, which lasted only two years. He then raised $ 50,000 and set up

2890-634: The United States helped finance, coordinate, and manage the Fair, including Chicago shoe company owner Charles H. Schwab, Chicago railroad and manufacturing magnate John Whitfield Bunn , and Connecticut banking, insurance, and iron products magnate Milo Barnum Richardson , among many others. The fair was planned in the early 1890s during the Gilded Age of rapid industrial growth, immigration, and class tension. World's fairs, such as London's 1851 Crystal Palace Exhibition , had been successful in Europe as

2975-575: The United States, there are no federal licensing requirements to become a general contractor, but most US states require general contractors to obtain a local license to operate. It is the states' responsibility to define these requirements: for example, in the state of California , the requirements are stated as follows: With a few exceptions, all businesses or individuals who work on any building, highway, road, parking facility, railroad, excavation, or other structure in California must be licensed by

3060-612: The World's Columbian Exposition, the answer is Slavery." Ten thousand copies of the pamphlet were circulated in the White City from the Haitian Embassy (where Douglass had been selected as its national representative), and the activists received responses from the delegations of England, Germany, France, Russia, and India. The exhibition did include a limited number of exhibits put on by African Americans, including exhibits by

3145-426: The World's Religions , which ran from September 11 to September 27, marked the first formal gathering of representatives of Eastern and Western spiritual traditions from around the world. According to Eric J. Sharpe , Tomoko Masuzawa , and others, the event was considered radical at the time, since it allowed non-Christian faiths to speak on their own behalf. For example, it is recognized as the first public mention of

3230-562: The ashes of the Great Chicago Fire , which had destroyed much of the city in 1871. On October 9, 1893, the day designated as Chicago Day, the fair set a world record for outdoor event attendance, drawing 751,026 people. The debt for the fair was soon paid off with a check for $ 1.5 million (equivalent to $ 50.9 million in 2023). Chicago has commemorated the fair with one of the stars on its municipal flag . Many prominent civic, professional, and commercial leaders from around

3315-469: The building was carried by the internal skeleton and not by the exterior wall, a construction method which had been allowed under the Chicago building code for years. This change prompted Fuller to open an office in New York in 1896, and soon the company had contracts in Boston , Pittsburgh , St. Louis and Baltimore , as well as in Chicago and New York. Future skyscraper builder William A. Starrett joined

3400-735: The building's weight. Fuller's firm also built the Rookery Building (1888, Burnham and Root ), the Rand McNally Building (1890, Burnham & Root), the Pontiac Building (1891, Holabird & Roche) and the Monadnock Building (1891, Burnham & Root; 1893, Holabird & Roche) in Chicago, and the New York Times Building (1889, George B. Post ) in New York City. The Fuller Company

3485-413: The burgeoning neoclassical and Beaux-Arts styles. The fair ended with the city in shock, as popular mayor Carter Harrison Sr. was assassinated by Patrick Eugene Prendergast two days before the fair's closing. Closing ceremonies were canceled in favor of a public memorial service. Jackson Park was returned to its status as a public park, in much better shape than its original swampy form. The lagoon

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3570-463: The city where there was "not a house to buy and not a rock to blast" and that it would be located so that "the artisan and the farmer and the shopkeeper and the man of humble means" would be able to easily access the fair. Bryan continued to say that the fair was of "vital interest" to the West, and that the West wanted the location to be Chicago. The city spokesmen would continue to stress the essentials of

3655-426: The company in 1897 as an office boy. Fuller died on December 14, 1900, from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis , leaving an estate valued at $ 3 million (equivalent to $ 109.9 million in 2023). His tomb at Oak Woods Cemetery in Chicago, designed by New York architect Bruce Price , is one of the largest in the cemetery. Following the death of Fuller, Harry S. Black, Fuller's son-in-law, took over as president of

3740-532: The end of the frontier which Buffalo Bill represented. The electrotachyscope of Ottomar Anschütz was demonstrated, which used a Geissler tube to project the illusion of moving images . Louis Comfort Tiffany made his reputation with a stunning chapel designed and built for the Exposition. After the Exposition the Tiffany Chapel was sold several times, even going back to Tiffany's estate. It

3825-438: The exposition. The exposition covered 690 acres (2.8 km ), featuring nearly 200 new but temporary buildings of predominantly neoclassical architecture, canals and lagoons , and people and cultures from 46 countries. More than 27 million people attended the exposition during its six-month run. Its scale and grandeur far exceeded the other world's fairs , and it became a symbol of emerging American exceptionalism , much in

3910-496: The fair site being referred to as the "White City". The Exposition's offices set up shop in the upper floors of the Rand McNally Building on Adams Street, the world's first all-steel-framed skyscraper. Davis' team organized the exhibits with the help of G. Brown Goode of the Smithsonian . The Midway was inspired by the 1889 Paris Universal Exposition , which included ethnological "villages". Civil rights leaders protested

3995-411: The fair site. Daniel H. Burnham was selected as director of works, and George R. Davis as director-general. Burnham emphasized architecture and sculpture as central to the fair and assembled the period's top talent to design the buildings and grounds including Frederick Law Olmsted for the grounds. The temporary buildings were designed in an ornate neoclassical style and painted white, resulting in

4080-479: The fair's official director of color-design, William Pretyman. Pretyman had resigned following a dispute with Burnham. After experimenting, Millet settled on a mix of oil and white lead whitewash that could be applied using compressed air spray painting to the buildings, taking considerably less time than traditional brush painting. Joseph Binks, maintenance supervisor at Chicago's Marshall Field's Wholesale Store , who had been using this method to apply whitewash to

4165-464: The fair, several products that are well-known today were introduced. These products included Juicy Fruit gum, Cream of Wheat , Cracker Jacks , Shredded Wheat cereal, and Pabst Blue Ribbon beer, among many others. There was an Anthropology Building at the World's Fair. Nearby, "The Cliff Dwellers" featured a rock and timber structure that was painted to recreate Battle Rock Mountain in Colorado,

4250-412: The general contractor is responsible for overseeing the quality of all work performed by any and all of the workers and subcontractors. It is a best practice for general contractors to prioritize safety on the job site, and they are generally responsible for ensuring that work takes place following safe practices. A general contractor's responsibilities may include applying for building permits, advising

4335-507: The general contractor will submit a fixed price proposal or bid, cost-plus price or an estimate. The general contractor considers the cost of home office overhead, general conditions, materials, and equipment, as well as the cost of labor, to provide the owner with a price for the project. Contract documents may include drawings, project manuals (including general, supplementary, or special conditions and specifications), and addendum or modifications issued prior to proposal/bidding and prepared by

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4420-522: The help of Chicago Art Institute instructor Lorado Taft to help complete them. Taft's efforts included employing a group of talented women sculptors from the Institute known as "the White Rabbits " to finish some of the buildings, getting their name from Burnham's comment "Hire anyone, even white rabbits if they'll do the work." The words "Thine alabaster cities gleam" from the song " America

4505-449: The main contractor is the top manager and a general contractor shares responsibilities with professional contractors. General contractors who conduct work for government agencies are often referred to as "builders". This term is also used in contexts where the customer's immediate general contractor is permitted to sub-contract or circumstances are likely to involve sub-contracting to specialist operators e.g. in various public services. In

4590-435: The management skills they need to run their own company. Experience in the construction industry as well as references from customers, business partners, or former employers are demanded. Some jurisdictions require candidates to provide proof of financing to own their own general contracting firm. General Contractors often run their own business. They hire subcontractors to complete specialized construction work and may manage

4675-586: The office of his uncle, J.E. Fuller, an architect in Worcester, Massachusetts. Fuller soon entered the office of Peabody & Stearns – a firm which specialized in building mansions for the rich in Newport, Rhode Island – where he soon developed a strong interest in the details of erecting a building, and was particularly interested in "skyscrapers", the name recently given to the tall buildings that had been made possible by Elisha Otis ' invention of

4760-548: The opening of the Nebraska Day ceremonies at the fair, which included a reading of her poem "Nebraska". Among the state buildings present at the fair were California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Texas; each was meant to be architecturally representative of the corresponding states. Four United States territories also had pavilions located in one building: Arizona , New Mexico , Oklahoma , and Utah . Visitors to

4845-409: The overall coordination of a project and may also act as building designer and construction foreman (a tradesman in charge of a crew). A general contractor must first assess the project-specific documents (referred to as a bid, proposal, or tender documents). In the case of renovations, a site visit is required to get a better understanding of the project. Depending on the project delivery method ,

4930-430: The person they are hired by, securing the property, providing temporary utilities on site, managing personnel on site, providing site surveying and engineering, disposing or recycling of construction waste , monitoring schedules and cash flows, and maintaining accurate records. The general contractor may be responsible for some part of the design, referred to as the "contractor's design portion" ( JCT terminology). In

5015-440: The project. In other cases, the general contractor is hired at the close of the design phase. The owner, architect, and general contractor work closely together to meet deadlines and budget. The general contractor works with subcontractors to ensure quality standards; subcontractors specialise in areas such as electrical wiring, plumbing, masonry, etc. Columbian Exposition The World's Columbian Exposition , also known as

5100-470: The refusal to include an African American exhibit. Frederick Douglass , Ida B. Wells , Irvine Garland Penn , and Ferdinand Lee Barnet co-authored a pamphlet entitled "The Reason Why the Colored American is not in the World's Columbian Exposition – The Afro-American's Contribution to Columbian Literature" addressing the issue. Wells and Douglass argued, "when it is asked why we are excluded from

5185-543: The same way that the Great Exhibition became a symbol of the Victorian era United Kingdom. Dedication ceremonies for the fair were held on October 21, 1892, but the fairgrounds were not opened to the public until May 1, 1893. The fair continued until October 30, 1893. In addition to recognizing the 400th anniversary of the discovery of the New World, the fair served to show the world that Chicago had risen from

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5270-457: The sculptor Edmonia Lewis , a painting exhibit by scientist George Washington Carver , and a statistical exhibit by Joan Imogen Howard . Black individuals were also featured in white exhibits, such as Nancy Green 's portrayal of the character Aunt Jemima for the R. T. Davis Milling Company. The fair opened in May and ran through October 30, 1893. Forty-six nations participated in the fair, which

5355-418: The stock they owned, even as the company was underperforming. When the Fuller Company was implicated in the corruption of the building trades union leader, Samuel Parks, its stock fell. Board members dumped their stock and left the company, but Black was buying up stock at the same time. He took control of the company, naming a new board which made him president. In 1920, together with Mitsubishi , he founded

5440-443: The structures as "decorated sheds.” The buildings were clad in white stucco , which, in comparison to the tenements of Chicago, seemed illuminated. It was also called the White City because of the extensive use of street lights, which made the boulevards and buildings usable at night. In 1892, working under extremely tight deadlines to complete construction, director of works Daniel Burnham appointed Francis Davis Millet to replace

5525-410: The subbasement walls of the store, got the job to paint the Exposition buildings. Claims this was the first use of spray painting may be apocryphal since journals from that time note this form of painting had already been in use in the railroad industry from the early 1880s. Many of the buildings included sculptural details and, to meet the Exposition's opening deadline, chief architect Burnham sought

5610-400: The suggestive version of the belly dance known as the " hootchy-kootchy ," to a tune said to have been improvised by Sol Bloom (and now more commonly associated with snake charmers) which he had composed when his dancers had no music to dance to. Bloom did not copyright the song, putting it immediately in the public domain . Also included was the first moving walkway or travelator, which

5695-719: The view of introducing steel construction in cities like London, Paris and Berlin. Its relations will be very close to the United States Steel Corporation, and naturally, as we will be the largest consumers of structural steel in the world, our terms as to price and delivery will be most favorable. Indeed, Black had constructed the new company's board of directors with an eye for its need for steel and rail transport. It included Charles Schwab of U.S. Steel , Cornelius Vanderbilt , Charles Tweed of Southern Pacific , Charles Francis Adams , former head of Union Pacific , and representatives from J.P. Morgan and

5780-594: The world when it ran under its own power again. A Baldwin 2-4-2 locomotive was showcased at the exposition, and subsequently the 2-4-2 type was known as the Columbia . An original frog switch and portion of the superstructure of the famous 1826 Granite Railway in Massachusetts could be viewed. This was the first commercial railroad in the United States to evolve into a common carrier without an intervening closure. The railway brought granite stones from

5865-830: Was 264 feet (80 m) high and had 36 cars, each of which could accommodate 40 people. The importance of the Columbian Exposition is highlighted by the use of rueda de Chicago ("Chicago wheel") in many Latin American countries such as Costa Rica and Chile in reference to the Ferris wheel . One attendee, George C. Tilyou , later credited the sights he saw on the Chicago midway for inspiring him to create America's first major amusement park, Steeplechase Park in Coney Island , New York. The fair included life-size reproductions of Christopher Columbus' three ships,

5950-648: Was Chicago banker Lyman Gage , who raised several million additional dollars in a 24-hour period, over and above New York's final offer. Chicago representatives not only fought for the world's fair for monetary reasons, but also for reasons of practicality. In a Senate hearing held in January 1890, representative Thomas Barbour Bryan argued that the most important qualities for a world's fair were "abundant supplies of good air and pure water", "ample space, accommodations and transportation for all exhibits and visitors". He argued that New York had too many obstructions, and Chicago would be able to use large amounts of land around

6035-401: Was a local train to shuttle tourists from the Chicago Grand Central Station to the fair. The newly built Chicago and South Side Rapid Transit Railroad also served passengers from Congress Terminal to the fairgrounds at Jackson Park . The line exists today as part of the CTA Green Line . Forty-six countries had pavilions at the exposition. Norway participated by sending the Viking ,

6120-432: Was a proponent of using steel in building construction, utilized it for the floor beams, a decision which subjected him to criticism from the architectural community, which was wary of using steel and unsure of its long-term properties. Very little is really known today of the properties of steel ... and though events point strongly to [it] becoming the metal of the future, there exists among many reasonable conservative men,

6205-593: Was already defined before the 8 March 1946 passage of An Act To eliminate the practice by subcontractors, under cost-plus-a-fixed-fee or cost reimbursable contacts of the United States, of paying fees or kick-backs, or of granting gifts or gratuities to employees of a cost-plus-a-fixed-fee or cost reimbursable prime contractors or of higher tier subcontractors for the purpose of securing the award of subcontracts or orders. (Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 79–319, 60 Stat. 37) Licensing requirements to work legally on construction projects vary from locale to locale. In

6290-589: Was also intensely involved in the building of the Chicago World's Fair of 1893, the Columbian Exposition , in which a temporary "White City on the Lake" was constructed under the supervision of Daniel Burnham . With the success of his firm, Fuller became a multimillionaire, and his wife and daughters entered Chicago society. He commissioned Charles P. Post to design a home on Drexel Boulevard on

6375-498: Was an influential social and cultural event and had a profound effect on American architecture , the arts, American industrial optimism, and Chicago's image. The layout of the Chicago Columbian Exposition was predominantly designed by John Wellborn Root , Daniel Burnham , Frederick Law Olmsted , and Charles B. Atwood . It was the prototype of what Burnham and his colleagues thought a city should be. It

6460-402: Was called on to decide the location. New York financiers J. P. Morgan , Cornelius Vanderbilt , and William Waldorf Astor , among others, pledged $ 15 million to finance the fair if Congress awarded it to New York, while Chicagoans Charles T. Yerkes , Marshall Field , Philip Armour , Gustavus Swift , and Cyrus McCormick, Jr. , offered to finance a Chicago fair. What finally persuaded Congress

6545-409: Was claimed to be able to penetrate at 2,200 yards a wrought-iron plate three feet thick if placed at right angles." Nicknamed "The Thunderer", the gun had an advertised range of 15 miles. On this occasion John Schofield declared Krupps' guns "the greatest peacemakers in the world". This gun was later seen as a precursor of the company's World War I Dicke Berta howitzers. The 1893 Parliament of

6630-494: Was closed on Sunday, it would restrict those who could not take off work during the work-week from seeing it. The exposition was located in Jackson Park and on the Midway Plaisance on 630 acres (2.5 km ) in the neighborhoods of South Shore, Jackson Park Highlands, Hyde Park , and Woodlawn . Charles H. Wacker was the director of the fair. The layout of the fairgrounds was created by Frederick Law Olmsted, and

6715-561: Was closing (the university has since developed south of the Midway). The university's football team, the Maroons, were the original " Monsters of the Midway ." The exposition is mentioned in the university's alma mater : "The City White hath fled the earth, / But where the azure waters lie, / A nobler city hath its birth, / The City Gray that ne'er shall die." The World's Columbian Exposition

6800-486: Was designed by architect Joseph Lyman Silsbee . It had two different divisions: one where passengers were seated, and one where riders could stand or walk. It ran in a loop down the length of a lakefront pier to a casino. Although denied a spot at the fair, Buffalo Bill Cody decided to come to Chicago anyway, setting up his Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show just outside the edge of the exposition. Nearby, historian Frederick Jackson Turner gave academic lectures reflecting on

6885-453: Was designed to follow Beaux-Arts principles of design, namely neoclassical architecture principles based on symmetry, balance, and splendor. The color of the material generally used to cover the buildings' façades, white staff , gave the fairgrounds its nickname, the White City. Many prominent architects designed its 14 "great buildings". Artists and musicians were featured in exhibits and many also made depictions and works of art inspired by

6970-538: Was eventually reconstructed and restored and in 1999 it was installed at the Charles Hosmer Morse Museum of American Art . Architect Kirtland Cutter 's Idaho Building , a rustic log construction, was a popular favorite, visited by an estimated 18 million people. The building's design and interior furnishings were a major precursor of the Arts and Crafts movement . Among the other attractions at

7055-516: Was reshaped to give it a more natural appearance, except for the straight-line northern end where it still laps up against the steps on the south side of the Palace of Fine Arts/Museum of Science & Industry building. The Midway Plaisance , a park-like boulevard which extends west from Jackson Park, once formed the southern boundary of the University of Chicago , which was being built as the fair

7140-461: Was the first world's fair to have national pavilions. They constructed exhibits and pavilions and named national "delegates"; for example, Haiti selected Frederick Douglass to be its delegate. The Exposition drew over 27 million visitors. The fair was originally meant to be closed on Sundays, but the Chicago Woman's Club petitioned that it stay open. The club felt that if the exposition

7225-462: Was the first world's fair with an area for amusements that was strictly separated from the exhibition halls. This area, developed by a young music promoter, Sol Bloom , concentrated on Midway Plaisance and introduced the term "midway" to American English to describe the area of a carnival or fair where sideshows are located. It included carnival rides, among them the original Ferris Wheel , built by George Washington Gale Ferris Jr. This wheel

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