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44-639: Darfur is composed mostly of semi-arid plains and small seasonal rivers that cannot support a dense population. The one exception is the area in and around the Jebal Marra mountains. It was from bases in these mountains that a series of groups expanded to control the region. According to written records the Daju and the 14th century migrants the Tunjur were the earliest powers in Darfur. The transition of power from

88-480: A circumference of about 4.8 kilometres (3.0 mi). Its water, with a high salinity, appeared murky green and emitted an unpleasant odour. Although time constraints prevented soundings, it was inferred that the lake was shallow except in its northern part. The smaller lake, dubbed as "male", situated around 800 metres (2,600 ft) south, had fresher water. Its dimensions were approximately 1,420 metres (4,660 ft) in length, 820 metres (2,690 ft) in width, with

132-504: A circumference of about 910 metres (2,990 ft). Rising nearly vertically from the water's edge, the crater walls reached heights of around 120–210 metres (390–690 ft), except for the northern rim, which sloped gently. Like its counterpart, this lake exhibited a greenish hue and a faint sulphuric aroma. Since the first exploration by Hobbs and Gillan in 1918 (Gillan 1918, Hobbs 1918. ), Jebel Marra has been visited by many geologists, botanists and zoologists. In 1964 an expedition made

176-496: A conical funnel. Further investigation, including depth checks using a variety of methods, revealed evidence of significant water level rises in both lakes in relatively recent times. Clear evidence of former beach levels suggested abrupt rises, probably caused by large landslides on the unstable inner walls of the crater. Evidence from dead trees and comparison with historical maps and photographs revealed changes in lake dimensions and levels over time. The study concluded by suggesting

220-544: A peak elevation of 3,042 metres (9,980 ft), extends north-south for about 89 kilometres (55 mi), widens to 64 kilometres (40 mi), and continues north for another 97 kilometres (60 mi). The Tagabo Hills and the Meidob Plateau, to the north-east of the range, are thought to be of volcanic origin. The plateau rests on Archean rocks on an uplift between the Chad and Middle Nile basins and extends westwards to

264-540: A significant number of people in southern Kordofan and are unique to the region, as are the Kadu languages , but Arabic is the main and most widely spoken language in the greater Kordofan region. About the beginning of the 16th century, Funj from Sennar settled in the country; toward the end of that century, Kordofan was conquered by Sulayman Solong , Sultan of Darfur . In 1779, Sultan Adlan II of Sennar sent Sheikh Nacib, with two thousand cavalry, to take possession of

308-571: A steady rise in the level of the great lake due to the influx of sediment, which could lead to its eventual disappearance. During the War in Darfur , the Marrah Mountains came under the control of the rebel Sudan Liberation Movement/Army faction loyal to Abdul Wahid al Nur . The mountains remained one of the group's most important strongholds, housing several of its bases, as of 2021. Jebel Marra, an extinct late Tertiary volcanic massif with

352-448: A vast amphitheatre, approximately 4.8 to 6.4 km (3 to 4 miles) in diameter, formed by a continuous circular (or slightly oval) range of steeply sloping heights, varying from about 244 to 610 m (800 to 2,000 feet) above the surrounding area. The larger lake, known as the " female ", lay in the northeast corner of the amphitheatre. It measured approximately 1,780 metres (5,840 ft) in length, 1,230 metres (4,040 ft) in width, and had

396-490: Is characterised by widespread surficial deposits of fluviatile and aeolian origin, with the Wadi 'Azum and its tributaries showing broad channels and terraces. The eastward and southeastward flowing rivers have sandy beds that change to silts within 48–80 kilometres (30–50 mi) of their sources. A large silt or clay plain north-east of Kutum is thought to be a playa, while a former erg, the qoz, retains dune relief, immobilised by

440-720: Is still preserved, and differs in some respects from Sharia law . His grandson Suleiman (or "Sulayman", usually distinguished by the Fur epithet Solon, meaning "the Arab" or "the Red") reigned from 1603 to 1637, and was a great warrior and a devoted Muslim . Suleiman Solon is considered the founder of the Keira dynasty and the Sultanate of Darfur. During the 17th century, the Keira sultans introduced

484-482: The Dongola Reach and were purchased with slaves. Like the riders they were armoured with gambesons and mail armour as well as additional armour for the head. All this equipment had to be organized and maintained by the chiefs responsible for the fursan . By the 1850s and 1860s, Darfur entered the third stage, when it attempted to build an army based on muskets. While firearms were already used in Darfur before it

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528-612: The Ottoman Empire during the First World War . Dinar was killed and his kingdom was incorporated into the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium . The armies of Darfur underwent a three-staged evolution. Before the 18th century they consisted entirely of levy warbands, youths armed with spears, hide shields and occasionally throwing knives . They were commanded by an older man titled ornang or ' aqid . By

572-515: The korkwa , armed pages wielding spears and hide shields. Jebal Marra The Marrah Mountains or Marra Mountains ( Fur , Fugo Marra ; Arabic : جبل مرة , Jebel Marra ) are a range of volcanic peaks in a massif that rises up to 3,042 metres (9,980 ft). They are the highest mountains in Sudan . The mountains are located in the center of the Darfur region of Sudan on the border of

616-822: The 14th century Arabs from Egypt began expanding southwards into Kordofan, amalgamating with some of the indigenous population and driving remnants of the indigenous population to the hills. Most of the inhabitants of Kordofan are Arabs . The main tribal groups of Arab tribes, include the Dar Hamid, Kawahla, Hamar, Bedairiah, Gawamaah and Rekabeiah. In Northern Kordofan there are large grazing areas used and inhabited for hundreds of years by Arabic -speaking, semi-nomadic Baggara and camel-raising Kababish tribes. Other ethnic groups that inhabit Kordofan are Nubians , Daju , Beja , Zaghawa , and Funj people. Nilotic tribes, Nuba , Shilluk and Dinka , also inhabit parts of Kordofan. The Kordofanian languages are spoken by

660-467: The 18th century, a new type of warrior developed, the heavily armoured fursan . They would form the small core of the armies of Darfur. These fursan were armed with long swords imported from Solingen in Germany , lances, maces and sometimes firearms. Body armour consisted of locally made gambesons , German-made mail armour, silk coats, greaves and helmets. The horses were a Nubian breed imported from

704-591: The Archaean rocks are covered by Nubian sandstones, with evidence of a westward extension near El Geneina. Recent geological surveys suggest the extensive presence of Nubian sandstones southwest of El Fasher under wind-borne sands, challenging previous beliefs. Limestone near Zalingei, derived from calcareous waters from springs, is the only recorded sedimentary deposit within the Archaean outcrop. Andrew (1948) suggests that volcanic activity in Jebel Marra began in

748-506: The Daju to the Tunjur was facilitated through marriage. Eventually the Tunjur began marrying amongst the Fur people producing Sultan Dali, a celebrated figure in Darfur histories, who was on his mother's side a Fur, and thus brought the dynasty closer to the people it ruled. Dali divided the country into provinces and established a penal code which, under the title of Kitab Dali or Dali's Book,

792-687: The Defturdar, with about 4,500 soldiers and eight pieces of artillery, to subject Kordofan to his power. The monopoly enjoyed by the Egyptian governors in Kordofan impeded trade and stifled entrepreneurial activities. From 1837 to 1839, the country was explored by Ignaz Pallme . The Mahdi captured El-Obeid in 1883. The Egyptian government dispatched a force from Cairo under the British General William Hicks , which

836-468: The Marrah Mountains are the only major mountain range in the otherwise flat Sahel, rising up to 2,600 metres (8,500 ft) above the plain, but are relatively unknown owing to lack of development and political conflict in the region. The last eruption occurred around 1500 BC. The centre of activity was Deriba Caldera, and involved caldera collapse following the eruption of pumice and pyroclastic flows which travelled over 30 kilometres (19 mi) from

880-702: The Sudanese border, forming an undulating peneplain called the Basement Complex, with elevations ranging from 1,100 metres (3,600 ft) in the east to 600 metres (2,000 ft) in the west. Isolated hills and ridges, such as the 1,413 metres (4,636 ft) Tebella Massif, possibly remnants of an older erosional surface, dot the peneplain. To the southeast and south of Jebel Marra, the plateau maintains an elevation of 600–700 metres (2,000–2,300 ft), revealing Archaean rocks beneath sand and clay deposits at distances of 24–113 kilometres (15–70 mi) from

924-806: The Tebella massif, the Wadi Debarei basin appears to be a clinal trough intruded and occupied by foliated unfoliated granite. Geologists from the Sudan Geological Survey have recently carried out work near El Fasher and Nyala, but their results are not yet published. Jebel Nyala, the Dagu Jebels and the Wana Hills show granitic and gneissic compositions, while the areas between El Fasher and Nyala show predominantly quartzose rocks. About 160 kilometres (100 mi) east of Jebel Marra,

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968-600: The Upper Tertiary (Miocene). The Deriba crater, thought to be a recent culmination, has a diameter of over 4.8 kilometres (3 mi) and contains two lakes with distinct saline characteristics. Lava peaks surround the crater, one of which may be the highest point in the range. The volcanic history shows periods of continuous lava eruption, erosion and explosive events that shaped the existing large crater. Outlying volcanic areas and an intrusive phase represented by dykes near Kutum remain topics for further study. The region

1012-498: The army began to grow disaffected. According to some stories Terab was poisoned by his wife at the instigation of disaffected chiefs, and the army returned to Darfur. While he tried to have his son succeed him, the throne instead went to his brother Abd al-Rahman . Sultan Abd-er-Rahman established a new capital at al-Fashir , meaning "the capital", in 1790. The capital had formerly been moved from place to place then at another location called Kobb . During his reign, Napoleon Bonaparte

1056-518: The base of the mountain. Similar features are observed in the west, including small plateaus and inselbergs such as the Dagu Hills and the Gennung at 1,200 metres (3,900 ft). The eastern and northern regions of Zalingei are dominated by acid crystalline schists and gneisses, while the western counterpart consists mainly of paraschists, calc-silicate gneisses and other rock formations. South of

1100-642: The chief articles of merchandise sold by the Darfurians to the Egyptian traders along the road to Asyut . Al-Zubayr redirected this flow of goods to Khartoum and the Nile. Sultan al-Husayn died in 1873 and the succession passed to his youngest son Ibrahim , who soon found himself engaged in a conflict with al-Zubayr. After earlier conflicts with the Egyptians , Al-Zubayr had become their ally and in cooperation with them agreed to conquer Darfur. The war resulted in

1144-407: The country, which remained for about five years under the government of Sennar. There followed a considerable immigration of Arab tribes and native people from Sennar and Dongola (see old Dongola ) into the country. The Sennari however suffered a decisive defeat in 1784 and thereafter under Darfur viceroys the country enjoyed prosperity. The inhabitants lived in peace and were not troubled with taxes;

1188-590: The destruction of the kingdom. Ibrahim was slain in battle in the autumn of 1874, and his uncle Hassab Alla , who sought to maintain the independence of his country, was captured in 1875 by the troops of the khedive , and brought to Cairo with his family. In 1898, with the decline of the Mahdists , sultan Ali Dinar managed to re-establish Darfur's independence. Darfur was conquered by the British Empire in 1916, officially because Dinar gave his support to

1232-663: The feudal hakura system into Darfur. Soleiman's grandson, Ahmed Bukr (c.1682 – c.1722), made Islam the religion of the state, and increased the prosperity of the country by encouraging immigration from Bornu and Bagirmi . The death of Bukr initiated a long-running conflict over the succession. On his deathbed, Bukr stated that each of his many sons should rule in turn. Once on the throne, each of his sons instead hoped to make their own son heir, leading to an intermittent civil war that lasted until 1785/1786 ( AH 1200). Due to these internal divisions, Darfur declined in importance and engaged in wars with Sennar and Wadai . One of

1276-476: The first biological survey of the streams and two Deriba lakes. The hydrobiological importance of Jebel Marra stems from the isolation of these waters near the geographical centre of the African continent, coupled with the known chemical differences between the various streams and lakes (Hunting Technical Services, 1958 ). During the five-week expedition, numerous samples were collected from various sites, including

1320-735: The implementation of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement between the Government of Sudan and the Sudan People's Liberation Movement . West Kordofan was reestablished in July 2013. Kordofan covers an area of some 376,145 km (146,932 miles²), with an estimated population in 2000 of 3.6 million (3 million in 1983). It is largely an undulating plain, with the Nuba Mountains in the southeast quarter. During

1364-614: The merchants were exempt from duties, and the tribute paid was a voluntary present to the Sultan of Darfur. Bara, the second commercial town of importance in the country, was built by the Dongolavi. Commerce extended in all directions. Caravans brought products from Abyssinia and Egypt into Lobeid and Bara, from which the greater part was again transported on to other parts of Africa. This prosperity ended in 1821 when Muhammad Ali Pasha , Ottoman Viceroy of Egypt sent his son-in-law, Mahommed Bey

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1408-460: The most capable of the monarchs during this period was Sultan Mohammed Terab , one of Ahmad Bukr's sons. He led a number of successful campaigns. In 1785/1786 (AH 1200), he led an army against the Funj , but got no further than Omdurman . Here he was stopped by the Nile, and found no means of getting his army across the river. Unwilling to give up his project, Terab remained at Omdurman for months and

1452-429: The need for further investigation underline the complex nature of this region. Kordofan Kordofan ( Arabic : كردفان Kurdufān ) is a former province of central Sudan . In 1994 it was divided into three new federal states : North Kordofan , South Kordofan and West Kordofan . In August 2005, West Kordofan State was abolished and its territory divided between North and South Kordofan States, as part of

1496-458: The prevailing savannah. The W. Ibra conveys river runoff south of Jebel Marra, and the Qoz Dango continues the extension of the erg, with no western counterpart on the volcanic highlands. In summary, the geological and topographical features of Jebel Marra include its volcanic origin, diverse rock compositions, sedimentary deposits and history of volcanic activity. Ongoing geological surveys and

1540-535: The province of Kordofan to the Egyptians under Mehemet Ali , who planned to conquer the Sudan. The Keira dispatched an army but it was routed by the Egyptians near Bara on 19 August 1821. The Egyptians had intended to conquer all of Darfur, but their difficulties consolidating their hold on the Nile region forced them to abandon these plans. Al-Fadl died in 1838 and of his forty sons, the third, Muhammad al-Husayn ,

1584-489: The rainy season from June to September, the area is fertile, but in the dry season, it is virtually desert. The region's chief town is El-Obeid . Traditionally the area is known for production of gum arabic . Other crops include groundnuts , cotton and millet . Originally Kordofan was inhabited by brown-skinned- Nubian -speaking peoples, and the region's name may be derived from the Nubian word Kurta meaning 'man', but by

1628-635: The states of South Darfur and Central Darfur , with a smaller part of the range in the state of North Darfur . The highest point is Deriba Caldera . The upper reaches of the massif is a small area of temperate climate with high rainfall and permanent springs of water amidst the dry savanna and scrub of the Sahel below. Apart from the Aïr Mountains in Niger which are on the border of the Sahara proper,

1672-493: The subjection of the semi-independent Arab tribes who lived in the country, notably the Rizeigat , thousands of whom he slew. An account of life and the geography in Darfur was written in the early 19th century by Muḥammad al-Tūnisī (d. 1857), who spent ten years as a merchant from Cairo in the sultanate and described the kingdom in detail and with his own drawings in the book translated as In Darfur . In 1821, el-Fahl lost

1716-513: The sultanate. In 1856, a Khartoum businessman, al-Zubayr Rahma , began operations in the land south of Darfur. He set up a network of trading posts defended by well-armed forces and soon had a sprawling state under his rule. This area, known as the Bahr el Ghazal , had long been the source of the goods that Darfur would trade to Egypt and North Africa, especially slaves and ivory . The natives of Bahr el Ghazal paid tribute to Darfur, and these were

1760-462: The two saline crater lakes. Chemical analyses were conducted both in the field and at the University of Khartoum. The team also conducted the first bathymetric survey of the lakes, using a calibrated echo sounder and an inflatable rubber dinghy. The larger lake was found to be shallow, with a maximum depth of 11.6 metres (38 ft), while the smaller lake featured unique characteristics, including

1804-421: The volcano. The vegetation was described by Gerald Wickens . The two lakes at Deriba, as described by Hobbs' 1918 notes, were presumably the only two in Jebel Marra. Hobbs situated them at an altitude of approximately 518 m (1700 feet, as indicated in his note) above the plain and 1,463 m (4,804 feet) above sea level (modern measurements, however, indicate 2100 m). They were described as being located within

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1848-407: Was appointed his successor. Al-Husayn is described as a religious but avaricious man. In 1856 he went blind and for the rest of his reign Zamzam Umm al-Nasr , the sultan's eldest sister or ayabasi , was the de facto ruler of the sultanate. Zamzam and other members of the sultan's inner circle exploited his weakness to repossess and pillage large tracts of land, terrorizing the citizens and weakening

1892-671: Was campaigning in Egypt . In 1799 Abd-er-Rahman wrote to congratulate the French general on his defeat of the Mamluks . Bonaparte replied by asking the sultan to send him 2,000 strong and vigorous black slaves who were upwards of sixteen years old in the next caravan. Muhammad al-Fadl , his son, was for some time under the control of an energetic eunuch, Mohammed Kurra , but he ultimately made himself independent, and his reign lasted till 1838, when he died of leprosy. He devoted himself largely to

1936-452: Was only then when they were used tactically and in large numbers. These experiments were, however, ended with the invasion of al-Zubayr in 1874. Sultan Ibrahim died in a cavalry charge. The regular army of the revived state of Ali Dinar reportedly numbered 7,700 men in 1903 and 5,000 in 1916 and wielded a wide array of weapons, ranging from spears and shields to muzzle loaders, shotguns and Remington rifles . Sultans and nobles were guarded by

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