The Færeyinga saga ( listen ), the saga of the Faroe Islands , is the story of how the Faroe Islanders were converted to Christianity and became a part of Norway .
99-543: The saga was written in Iceland shortly after 1200. The author is unknown and the original manuscript is lost to history, but passages of the original manuscript have been copied in other sagas, especially in three manuscripts: Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta , Flateyjarbók , and a manuscript registered as AM 62 fol. The different sagas differ somewhat on the first settlement of the Faroes. Historians have understood from
198-569: A longhouse in Stöðvarfjörður that may date to as early as 800. Swedish Viking explorer Garðar Svavarsson was the first to circumnavigate Iceland in 870 and establish that it was an island. He stayed during the winter and built a house in Húsavík . Garðar departed the following summer, but one of his men, Náttfari , decided to stay behind with two slaves. Náttfari settled in what is now known as Náttfaravík, and he and his slaves became
297-469: A shield volcano with a magma chamber underneath). Several classifications of the systems exist, for example there is one of 30 systems, and one of 34 systems, with the later currently being used in Iceland itself. The climate of Iceland's coast is subarctic . The warm North Atlantic Current ensures generally higher annual temperatures than in most places of similar latitude in the world. Regions in
396-537: A summit in Reykjavík in 1986 between United States President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev , during which they took significant steps towards nuclear disarmament . A few years later, Iceland became the first country to recognise the independence of Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania as they broke away from the USSR. Throughout the 1990s, the country expanded its international role and developed
495-544: A "group who were plotting to invoke the demon Berich from inside a circle made from strips of cat skin" were obviously participating in what the Church would define as "necromancy". Herbert Stanley Redgrove claims necromancy as one of three chief branches of medieval ceremonial magic , alongside black magic and white magic . This does not correspond to contemporary classifications, which often conflate "nigromancy" ("black-knowledge") with "necromancy" ("death-knowledge"). In
594-444: A 32 percent increase in Iceland's gross national income between 2002 and 2007. In 2003–2007, following the privatisation of the banking sector under the government of Davíð Oddsson , Iceland moved towards having an economy based on international investment banking and financial services. It was quickly becoming one of the most prosperous countries in the world, but was hit hard by a major financial crisis . The crisis resulted in
693-399: A branch of theurgic magic . As to the practice of necromancy having endured in one form or another throughout the millennia, An Encyclopædia of Occultism states: The art is of almost universal usage. Considerable difference of opinion exists among modern adepts as to the exact methods to be properly pursued in the necromantic art, and it must be borne in mind that necromancy, which in
792-697: A certain Hafgrímr. Þrándr manipulates the Sigmundssons and Hafgrímr into fighting a battle on Stóra Dímun , which results in the deaths of all three men. He then sells the Sigmundssons’ young sons, Sigmundr Brestisson and Þórir Beinisson, into slavery in Norway and takes over the northern islands for himself; the southern islands are inherited by Hafgrímr’s son Ǫzurr. Sigmundr and Þórir are eventually freed by their owner, and they subsequently enter
891-664: A convicted child sex offender. Snap elections in October 2017 brought to power a new coalition consisting of the Independence Party, the Progressive Party, and the Left-Green Movement , headed by Katrín Jakobsdóttir . After the 2021 parliamentary election , the new government was, just like the previous government, a tri-party coalition of the Independence Party, the Progressive Party, and
990-665: A defence agreement was signed with the United States. American troops returned to Iceland as the Iceland Defence Force and remained throughout the Cold War . The US withdrew the last of its forces on 30 September 2006. Iceland prospered during the Second World War. The immediate post-war period was followed by substantial economic growth , driven by the industrialisation of the fishing industry and
1089-465: A famine that killed nearly a quarter of the island's population. In addition, the eruption caused dust clouds and haze to appear over most of Europe and parts of Asia and Africa for several months afterwards, and affected climates in other areas. Iceland has many geysers , including Geysir , from which the English word is derived, and the famous Strokkur , which erupts every 8–10 minutes. After
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#17327719708551188-603: A foreign policy orientated towards humanitarian and peacekeeping causes. To that end, Iceland provided aid and expertise to various NATO-led interventions in Bosnia , Kosovo , and Iraq . Iceland joined the European Economic Area in 1994, after which the economy was greatly diversified and liberalised. International economic relations increased further after 2001 when Iceland's newly deregulated banks began to raise great amounts of external debt , contributing to
1287-725: A fully sovereign and independent state in a personal union with Denmark. The Government of Iceland established an embassy in Copenhagen and requested that Denmark carry out on its behalf certain defence and foreign affairs matters, subject to consultation with the Althing. Danish embassies around the world displayed two coats of arms and two flags: those of the Kingdom of Denmark and those of the Kingdom of Iceland . Iceland's legal position became comparable to those of countries belonging to
1386-730: A latitude just south of the Arctic Circle . Its latitude and marine influence keep summers chilly, and most of its islands have a polar climate . According to the ancient manuscript Landnámabók , the settlement of Iceland began in 874 AD, when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the island's first permanent settler. In the following centuries, Norwegians , and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians , immigrated to Iceland, bringing with them thralls (i.e., slaves or serfs) of Gaelic origin. The island
1485-470: A low- silica lava associated with effusive volcanism as has occurred also in Hawaii . Iceland, however, has a variety of volcanic types (composite and fissure), many producing more evolved lavas such as rhyolite and andesite . Iceland has hundreds of volcanoes with about 30 active volcanic systems. Surtsey , one of the youngest islands in the world, is part of Iceland. Named after Surtr , it rose above
1584-568: A marketplace in the underworld where the dead convene to exchange news and gossip. There are also several references to necromancers – called "bone-conjurers" among Jews of the later Hellenistic period – in the Bible . The Book of Deuteronomy ( 18:9–12 ) explicitly warns the Israelites against engaging in the Canaanite practice of divination from the dead: When thou art come into
1683-423: A new Christian context, albeit demonic and forbidden. As the material for these manuals was apparently derived from scholarly magical and religious texts from a variety of sources in many languages, the scholars who studied these texts likely manufactured their own aggregate sourcebook and manual with which to work spells or magic. In the notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci , it is stated that "Of all human opinions that
1782-406: A phase of inactivity, Geysir started erupting again after a series of earthquakes in 2000 . Geysir has since grown quieter and does not erupt often. With the widespread availability of geothermal power and the harnessing of many rivers and waterfalls for hydroelectricity , most residents have access to inexpensive hot water, heating, and electricity. The island is composed primarily of basalt ,
1881-641: A popular holiday destination. In 2016, Prime Minister Sigmundur Davíð Gunnlaugsson resigned after being implicated in the Panama Papers scandal. Early elections in 2016 resulted in a right-wing coalition government of the Independence Party , the Reform Party and Bright Future . This government fell when Bright Future quit the coalition due to a scandal involving then-Prime Minister Bjarni Benediktsson 's father's letter of support for
1980-429: A republic in 1944, ending the remaining formal ties to Denmark. Although the Althing was suspended from 1799 to 1845, Iceland nevertheless has a claim to sustaining one of the world's longest-running parliaments. Until the 20th century, Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture. Industrialization of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid after World War II brought prosperity, and Iceland became one of
2079-489: A society where subsistence depended almost entirely on agriculture. The Black Death swept Iceland twice, first in 1402–1404 and again in 1494–1495. The former outbreak killed 50% to 60% of the population, and the latter 30% to 50%. Around the middle of the 16th century, as part of the Protestant Reformation , King Christian III of Denmark began to impose Lutheranism on all his subjects. Jón Arason ,
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#17327719708552178-434: A surprise attack on Sigmundr’s farm on Skúvoy . Sigmundr and Þórir escape by leaping into the sea, and they subsequently attempt to swim all the way to Suðuroy, but the effort pushes them to the limits of their endurance. Þórir drowns just offshore, and although an exhausted Sigmundr manages to make it onto the beach he is then murdered by a local farmer, Þorgrímr inn illi, who desires his gold ring. Þorgrímr subsequently buries
2277-611: Is a Nordic island country between the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans , on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge between North America and Europe . It is culturally and politically linked with Europe and is the region's westernmost and most sparsely populated country . Its capital and largest city is Reykjavík , which is home to about 36% of the country's roughly 380,000 residents (excluding nearby towns/suburbs which are separate municipalities). The official language of
2376-566: Is a sitka spruce planted in 1949 in Kirkjubæjarklaustur ; it was measured at 25.2 m (83 ft) in 2013. Algae such as Chondrus crispus , Phyllphora truncata and Phyllophora crispa and others have been recorded from Iceland. The only native land mammal when humans arrived was the Arctic fox , which came to the island at the end of the ice age, walking over the frozen sea. On rare occasions, bats have been carried to
2475-501: Is also where most settlements are situated. The island's interior, the Highlands of Iceland , is a cold and uninhabitable combination of sand, mountains, and lava fields . The major towns are the capital city of Reykjavík , along with its outlying towns of Kópavogur , Hafnarfjörður , and Garðabær , nearby Reykjanesbær where the international airport is located, and the town of Akureyri in northern Iceland. The island of Grímsey on
2574-480: Is believed to be a synthesis of astral magic derived from Arabic influences and exorcism derived from Christian and Jewish teachings. Arabic influences are evident in rituals that involve moon phases, sun placement, day and time. Fumigation and the act of burying images are also found in both astral magic and necromancy. Christian and Jewish influences appear in the symbols and in the conjuration formulas used in summoning rituals. Practitioners were often members of
2673-460: Is closer to continental Europe than to mainland North America, although it is closest to Greenland (290 kilometres; 155 nautical miles), an island of North America. Iceland is generally included in Europe for geographical, historical, political, cultural, linguistic and practical reasons. Geologically, the island includes parts of both continental plates. The closest bodies of land in Europe are
2772-543: Is crippled. As the last man left standing, Leifr Ǫzurarson is left as the sole ruler of the Faeroes, and the saga ends with him travelling to Norway to pay homage to the new king there, Magnús Óláfsson . This Faroe Islands article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about sagas is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Iceland Iceland ( Icelandic : Ísland , pronounced [ˈistlant] )
2871-475: Is found in Homer 's Odyssey . Under the direction of Circe , a powerful sorceress, Odysseus travels to the underworld ( katabasis ) in order to gain insight about his impending voyage home by raising the spirits of the dead through the use of spells which Circe has taught him. He wishes to invoke and question the shade of Tiresias in particular; however, he is unable to summon the seer's spirit without
2970-500: Is low compared with other countries (over one million species have been described worldwide). Iceland is essentially free of mosquitoes . Necromancy Necromancy ( / ˈ n ɛ k r ə m æ n s i / ) is the practice of magic involving communication with the dead by summoning their spirits as apparitions or visions for the purpose of divination ; imparting the means to foretell future events and discover hidden knowledge. Sometimes categorized under death magic ,
3069-471: Is the surface expression of the Iceland Plateau , a large igneous province forming as a result of volcanism from the Iceland hotspot and along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge , the latter of which runs right through it. This means that the island is highly geologically active with many volcanoes including Hekla , Eldgjá , Herðubreið , and Eldfell . The volcanic eruption of Laki in 1783–1784 caused
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3168-650: Is to be reputed the most foolish which deals with the belief in Necromancy, the sister of Alchemy , which gives birth to simple and natural things." In the present day, necromancy is more generally used as a term to describe manipulation of death and the dead, or the pretense thereof, often facilitated through the use of ritual magic or some other kind of occult ceremony. Contemporary séances , channeling and Spiritualism verge on necromancy when supposedly invoked spirits are asked to reveal future events or secret information. Necromancy may also be presented as sciomancy,
3267-507: The Munich Manual of Demonic Magic : The rare confessions of those accused of necromancy suggest that there was a range of spell casting and related magical experimentation. It is difficult to determine if these details were due to their practices, as opposed to the whims of their interrogators. John of Salisbury is one of the first examples related by Richard Kieckhefer , but as a Parisian ecclesiastical court record of 1323 shows,
3366-463: The Boreal Kingdom . Plantlife consists mainly of grassland, which is regularly grazed by livestock. The most common tree native to Iceland is the northern birch ( Betula pubescens ), which formerly formed forests over much of Iceland, along with aspens ( Populus tremula ), rowans ( Sorbus aucuparia ), common junipers ( Juniperus communis ), and other smaller trees, mainly willows. When
3465-602: The Faroe Islands (420 km; 225 nmi); Jan Mayen Island (570 km; 310 nmi); Shetland and the Outer Hebrides , both about 740 km (400 nmi); and the Scottish mainland and Orkney , both about 750 km (405 nmi). The nearest part of Continental Europe is mainland Norway, about 970 km (525 nmi) away, while mainland North America is 2,070 km (1,120 nmi) away, at
3564-589: The Little Ice Age , and overgrazing by sheep imported by settlers caused a loss of critical topsoil due to erosion . Today, many farms have been abandoned. Three-quarters of Iceland's 100,000 square kilometres (39,000 sq mi) is affected by soil erosion; 18,000 km (6,900 sq mi) is affected to a degree serious enough to make the land useless. Only a few small birch stands now exist in isolated reserves. The Icelandic Forest Service and other forestry groups promote large-scale reforestation in
3663-529: The Mid-Atlantic Ridge , a ridge along which the oceanic crust spreads and forms new crust. This part of the mid-ocean ridge is located above a mantle plume, causing Iceland to be subaerial (above the surface of the sea). The ridge marks the boundary between the Eurasian and North American Plates , and Iceland was created by rifting and accretion through volcanism along the ridge. Many fjords punctuate Iceland's 4,970-km-long (3,088-mi) coastline, which
3762-704: The Treaty of Kiel formally ceded Iceland to Denmark in 1814. Influenced by ideals of nationalism after the French Revolution , Iceland's struggle for independence took form and culminated in the Danish–Icelandic Act of Union in 1918, with the establishment of the Kingdom of Iceland , sharing through a personal union the incumbent monarch of Denmark . During the occupation of Denmark in World War II, Iceland voted overwhelmingly to become
3861-549: The Tórshavn þing is defeated by Þrándr, who mobilises the farmers against him, so he launches a night raid on Gøta, captures Þrándr and forces him to convert under threat of death. With their leader subverted, the Faroese pagans quickly yield, and the islanders adopt Christianity as their new religion. Þrándr is keen to take revenge, but bides his time. Several years later he and his hot-tempered nephew Sigurðr Þorláksson launch
3960-463: The Vestmannaeyjar archipelago. Lakes and glaciers cover 14.3% of its surface; only 23% is vegetated. The largest lakes are Þórisvatn reservoir: 83–88 km (32–34 sq mi) and Þingvallavatn : 82 km (32 sq mi); other important lakes include Lagarfljót and Mývatn . Jökulsárlón is the deepest lake, at 248 m (814 ft). Geologically, Iceland is part of
4059-442: The ghosts of deceased forebears. Classical necromancers addressed the dead in "a mixture of high-pitch squeaking and low droning", comparable to the trance-state mutterings of shamans. Necromancy was prevalent throughout antiquity with records of its practice in ancient Egypt , Babylonia , Greece , ancient Etruria , Rome , and China . In his Geographica , Strabo refers to νεκρομαντία ( nekromantia ), or "diviners by
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4158-619: The 1850s under the leadership of Jón Sigurðsson , based on the burgeoning Icelandic nationalism inspired by the Fjölnismenn and other Danish-educated Icelandic intellectuals. In 1874, Denmark granted Iceland a constitution and limited home rule. This was expanded in 1904, and Hannes Hafstein served as the first Minister for Iceland in the Danish cabinet. The Danish–Icelandic Act of Union , an agreement with Denmark signed on 1 December 1918 and valid for 25 years, recognised Iceland as
4257-621: The Arctic Circle contains the northernmost habitation of Iceland, whereas Kolbeinsey contains the northernmost point of Iceland. Iceland has three national parks : Vatnajökull National Park , Snæfellsjökull National Park , and Þingvellir National Park . The country is considered a "strong performer" in environmental protection, having been ranked 13th in Yale University 's Environmental Performance Index of 2012. A geologically young land at 16 to 18 million years old, Iceland
4356-531: The Catholic Church condemned it. Though the practitioners of necromancy were linked by many common threads, there is no evidence that these necromancers ever organized as a group. One noted commonality among practitioners of necromancy was usually the utilization of certain toxic and hallucinogenic plants from the nightshade family such as black henbane , jimson weed , belladonna or mandrake , usually in magic salves or potions. Medieval necromancy
4455-530: The Christian clergy, though some nonclerical practitioners are recorded. In some instances, mere apprentices or those ordained to lower orders dabbled in the practice. They were connected by a belief in the manipulation of spiritual beings – especially demons – and magical practices. These practitioners were almost always literate and well educated. Most possessed basic knowledge of exorcism and had access to texts of astrology and of demonology . Clerical training
4554-644: The Commonwealth of Nations, such as Canada, whose sovereign is King Charles III . During World War II, Iceland joined Denmark in asserting neutrality. After the German occupation of Denmark on 9 April 1940, the Althing replaced the King with a regent and declared that the Icelandic government would take control of its own defence and foreign affairs. A month later, British armed forces conducted Operation Fork ,
4653-501: The LORD, and because of these abominations the LORD thy God doth drive them out from before thee ( KJV ). Though Mosaic Law prescribed the death penalty to practitioners of necromancy ( Leviticus 20:27 ), this warning was not always heeded. One of the foremost examples is when King Saul had the Witch of Endor invoke the spirit of Samuel , a judge and prophet , from Sheol to divine
4752-699: The Left-Green Movement, headed by Prime Minister Katrín Jakobsdóttir. In April 2024, Bjarni Benediktsson of the Independence party succeeded Katrín Jakobsdóttir as prime minister. Iceland is at the juncture of the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. The main island is entirely south of the Arctic Circle , which passes through the small Icelandic island of Grímsey off the main island's northern coast. The country lies between latitudes 63 and 68°N , and longitudes 25 and 13°W . Iceland
4851-529: The Middle Ages was called sorcery, shades into modern spiritualistic practice. There is no doubt, however, that necromancy is the touch-stone of occultism, for if, after careful preparation the adept can carry through to a successful issue, the raising of the soul from the other world, he has proved the value of his art. The archvillain in J.R.R. Tolkien's Lord of the Rings fantasy, Sauron, first reappears in
4950-458: The Prophet, "Why hast thou disquieted me?" Saul died the next day in combat, with Chronicles 10:13 implying this was due to the prohibition against necromancy. Many medieval writers believed that actual resurrection required the assistance of God. They saw the practice of necromancy as conjuring demons who took the appearance of spirits. The practice became known explicitly as maleficium , and
5049-700: The US Marshall Plan programme, through which Icelanders received the most aid per capita of any European country (at US$ 209, with the war-ravaged Netherlands a distant second at US$ 109). Vigdís Finnbogadóttir assumed Iceland's presidency on 1 August 1980, making her the first elected female head of state in the world. The 1970s were marked by the Cod Wars —several disputes with the United Kingdom over Iceland's extension of its fishing limits to 200 nmi (370 km) offshore. Iceland hosted
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#17327719708555148-464: The adventurer Olaf Tryggvason kills Jarl Hákon and becomes King of Norway. Óláfr is a Christian , and he promptly sets about trying to convert Norway and its neighbouring territories to this new religion. To this end he invites Sigmundr to Norway, persuades him to accept Christianity and instructs him to convert the Faeroe Islands. Sigmundr’s initial attempt to promulgate the new religion at
5247-464: The advice of the cunning Þrándr, and he also becomes increasingly impetuous and violent, committing a series of brutal killings (including that of Leifr Þórisson, son of Þórir Beinisson) which make him unpopular with the islanders. Eventually Leifr Ǫzurarson and the three sons of Sigmundr Brestisson conspire to kill Sigurðr, although two of the Sigmundarsons are killed in the attempt and the third
5346-441: The assistance of others. The Odyssey ' s passages contain many descriptive references to necromantic rituals: rites must be performed around a pit with fire during nocturnal hours, and Odysseus has to follow a specific recipe, which includes the blood of sacrificial animals, to concoct a libation for the ghosts to drink while he recites prayers to both the ghosts and gods of the underworld. Practices such as these, varying from
5445-532: The authors of the Manual knowingly designed the book to be in discord with ecclesiastical law . The main recipe employed throughout the Manual used the same religious language and names of power alongside demonic names. An understanding of the names of God derived from apocryphal texts and the Hebrew Torah required that the author of such rites have at least a casual familiarity with these sources. Within
5544-578: The beginning of Færeyinga Saga in Flateyjarbók that Grímur Kamban settled in the Faroes when Harald Fairhair was king of Norway (c.872-930 AD). This does not correspond with the writings of the Irish monk Dicuil . However, the version from Ólafs saga Tryggvasonar does correspond with the writings of Dicuil. The opening text is, "There was a man named Grímr Kamban; he first settled in Faroe. But in
5643-473: The corpses of Sigmundr and Þórir to prevent his crime being uncovered. Þrándr seizes control of the Faeroes, granting half to Leifr Ǫzurarson (son of Ǫzurr Hafgrímsson). He makes several offers of compensation to Sigmundr’s widow and her young sons, but they refuse. Eventually he proposes a marriage between Leifr and Sigmundr’s daughter Þóra, which the latter accepts on condition that Þrándr track down her father’s killer. Þrándr uses pagan necromancy to summon up
5742-463: The country is Icelandic . Iceland is on a rift between tectonic plates , and its geologic activity includes geysers and frequent volcanic eruptions . The interior consists of a volcanic plateau with sand and lava fields , mountains and glaciers , and many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands . Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate , despite
5841-575: The country's climate continued to grow colder, resulting in mass emigration to the New World , particularly to the region of Gimli , Manitoba in Canada, which was sometimes referred to as New Iceland . About 15,000 people emigrated, out of a total population of 70,000. A national consciousness arose in the first half of the 19th century, inspired by romantic and nationalist ideas from mainland Europe. An Icelandic independence movement took shape in
5940-416: The country's total exports. Birds, especially seabirds, are an important part of Iceland's animal life. Atlantic puffins , skuas , and black-legged kittiwakes nest on its sea cliffs. Commercial whaling is practised intermittently along with scientific whale hunts. Whale watching has become an important part of Iceland's economy since 1997. Around 1,300 species of insects are known in Iceland. This
6039-417: The country. Due to the reforestation efforts, the forest cover of Iceland increased six-fold since the 1990s. This helps to offset carbon emissions, prevent sand storms and increase the productivity of farms. The planting of new forests has increased the number of trees, but the result does not compare to the original forests. Some of the planted forests include introduced species . The tallest tree in Iceland
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#17327719708556138-532: The days of Harald Fairhair many men fled before the king’s overbearing." The first man to settle in the Faroe Islands is, according to this text, a man with a Norse first name and a Gaelic last name. This suggests that he might have come from Norse–Gael settlements to the south in Scotland or Ireland and probably was not Norwegian . The text says that many men fled from Norway when Harald Fairhair
6237-606: The dead", as the foremost practitioners of divination among the people of Persia , and it is believed to have also been widespread among the peoples of Chaldea (particularly the Hermeticists , or "star-worshipers") and Babylonia. The Babylonian necromancers were called manzazuu or sha'etemmu , and the spirits they raised were called etemmu . Traditional Chinese folk religion involves necromancy in seeking blessing from dead ancestors through ritual displays of filial piety . The oldest literary account of necromancy
6336-527: The eruption, known as the Mist Hardships ( Icelandic : Móðuharðindin ), over half of all livestock in the country died. Around a quarter of the population starved to death in the ensuing famine . In 1814, following the Napoleonic Wars , Denmark-Norway was broken up into two separate kingdoms via the Treaty of Kiel , but Iceland remained a Danish dependency. Throughout the 19th century,
6435-588: The events known locally as the Turkish Abductions , in which hundreds of residents were taken into slavery in North Africa and dozens killed; this was the only invasion in Icelandic history to have casualties. The 1707–08 Iceland smallpox epidemic is estimated to have killed a quarter to a third of the population. In 1783 the Laki volcano erupted, with devastating effects. In the years following
6534-415: The first permanent residents of Iceland to be documented. The Norwegian-Norse chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson built his homestead in present-day Reykjavík in 874. Ingólfr was followed by many other emigrant settlers, largely Scandinavians and their thralls , many of whom were Irish or Scottish . By 930, most arable land on the island had been claimed; the Althing , a legislative and judicial assembly
6633-404: The greatest migration from Iceland since 1887, with a net emigration of 5,000 people in 2009. Iceland's economy stabilised under the government of Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir and grew by 1.6% in 2012. The centre-right Independence Party was returned to power in coalition with the Progressive Party in the 2013 election. In the following years, Iceland saw a surge in tourism as the country became
6732-423: The invasion and occupation of the country, violating Icelandic neutrality . In 1941, the Government of Iceland, friendly to Britain, invited the then-neutral United States to take over its defence so that Britain could use its troops elsewhere. On 31 December 1943, the Danish–Icelandic Act of Union expired after 25 years. Beginning on 20 May 1944, Icelanders voted in a four-day plebiscite on whether to terminate
6831-476: The island was first settled, it was extensively forested, with around 30% of the land covered in trees. In the late 12th century, Ari the Wise described it in the Íslendingabók as "forested from mountain to sea shore". Permanent human settlement greatly disturbed the isolated ecosystem of thin, volcanic soils and limited species diversity . The forests were heavily exploited over the centuries for firewood and timber. Deforestation , climatic deterioration during
6930-440: The island was then called Garðarshólmur, which means "Garðar's Isle". Then came a Viking named Flóki Vilgerðarson ; his daughter drowned en route, then his livestock starved to death. The sagas say that the rather despondent Flóki climbed a mountain and saw a fjord ( Arnarfjörður ) full of icebergs, which led him to give the island its new and present name. The notion that Iceland's Viking settlers chose that name to discourage
7029-444: The island with the winds, but they are not able to breed there. No native or free-living reptiles or amphibians are on the island. The animals of Iceland include the Icelandic sheep , cattle , chickens , goats , the sturdy Icelandic horse , and the Icelandic Sheepdog , all descendants of animals imported by Europeans. Wild mammals include the Arctic fox, mink , mice, rats, rabbits, and reindeer . Polar bears occasionally visit
7128-415: The island, travelling from Greenland on icebergs, but no Icelandic populations exist. In June 2008, two polar bears arrived in the same month. Marine mammals include the grey seal ( Halichoerus grypus ) and harbour seal ( Phoca vitulina ). Many species of fish live in the ocean waters surrounding Iceland, and the fishing industry is a major part of Iceland's economy, accounting for roughly half of
7227-440: The land which the LORD thy God giveth thee, thou shalt not learn to do according to the abominations of those nations. There shall not be found among you any one who maketh his son or his daughter to pass through the fire, or who useth divination, or an observer of times, or an enchanter, or a witch, or a charmer, or a consulter with familiar spirits, or a wizard, or a necromancer. For all who do these things are an abomination unto
7326-437: The last Catholic bishop of Hólar , was beheaded in 1550 along with two of his sons. The country subsequently became officially Lutheran, and Lutheranism has since remained the dominant religion. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Denmark imposed harsh trade restrictions on Iceland. Natural disasters, including volcanic eruptions and disease, contributed to a decreasing population. In the summer of 1627, Barbary Pirates committed
7425-474: The mundane to the grotesque, were commonly associated with necromancy. Rituals could be quite elaborate, involving magic circles , wands , talismans , and incantations . The necromancer might also surround himself with morbid aspects of death, which often included wearing the deceased's clothing and consuming foods that symbolized lifelessness and decay such as unleavened black bread and unfermented grape juice. Some necromancers even went so far as to take part in
7524-445: The mutilation and consumption of corpses. These ceremonies could carry on for hours, days, or even weeks, leading up to the eventual summoning of spirits. Frequently they were performed in places of interment or other melancholy venues that suited specific guidelines of the necromancer. Additionally, necromancers preferred to summon the recently departed based on the premise that their revelations were spoken more clearly. This timeframe
7623-534: The northeastern hinterland. The temperature records for Reykjavík are 26.2 °C (79.2 °F) on 30 July 2008, and −24.5 °C (−12.1 °F) on 21 January 1918. The entire country is in a single ecoregion , the Iceland boreal birch forests and alpine tundra . Some areas are covered by glaciers . Phytogeographically , Iceland belongs to the Arctic province of the Circumboreal Region within
7722-410: The northern tip of Labrador . Iceland is the world's 18th-largest island , and Europe's second-largest island after Great Britain and before Ireland. The main island covers 101,826 km (39,315 sq mi), but the entire country is 103,000 km (40,000 sq mi) in size, of which 62.7% is tundra . Iceland contains about 30 minor islands, including the lightly populated Grímsey and
7821-401: The ocean in a series of volcanic eruptions between 8 November 1963 and 5 June 1968. Only scientists researching the growth of new life are allowed to visit the island. The country has around 30 active volcanic systems. Within each are volcano-tectonic fissure systems and many, but not all of them, also have at least one central volcano (mostly in the form of a stratovolcano , sometimes of
7920-408: The outcome of a coming battle ( 1 Samuel 28:3–25 ). However, the so-called witch was shocked at the presence of a familiar spirit in the image of Samuel for in I Sam 28:7 states "Behold, there is a woman that hath a familiar spirit at Endor" and in I Sam 28:12 says, "when the woman saw Samuel, she cried out in a loud voice", and the familiar spirit questioned his reawakening, asking as if he were Samuel
8019-517: The personal union with Denmark, abolish the monarchy, and establish a republic. The vote was 97% to end the union, and 95% in favour of the new republican constitution. Iceland formally became a republic on 17 June 1944, with Sveinn Björnsson as its first president. In 1946, the US Defence Force Allied left Iceland. The nation formally became a member of NATO on 30 March 1949, amid domestic controversy and riots . On 5 May 1951,
8118-602: The service of Hákon illi , the Jarl of Hlaðir , for whom they fight in a series of campaigns, most notably the Battle of Hjörungavágr against the famous Jomsvikings . Having built up a reputation as warriors, they return home to the Faeroes, kill Ǫzurr Hafgrímsson and take control of the southern Faeroes. They then force Þrándr to turn over the northern islands to them as well, and they also coerce him into paying them weregild (compensation) for their fathers’ deaths. Around AD 995 ,
8217-634: The settlement of their verdant isle is most likely a myth. According to both Landnámabók and Íslendingabók , monks known as the Papar lived in Iceland before Scandinavian settlers arrived, possibly members of a Hiberno-Scottish mission . An archaeological excavation has revealed the ruins of a cabin in Hafnir on the Reykjanes peninsula . Carbon dating indicates that it was abandoned sometime between 770 and 880. In 2016, archaeologists uncovered
8316-668: The signing of the Old Covenant in 1262, which ended the Commonwealth and brought Iceland under the Norwegian crown. Possession of Iceland passed from the Kingdom of Norway (872–1397) to the Kalmar Union in 1415, when the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden were united. After the break-up of the union in 1523, it remained a Norwegian dependency, as a part of Denmark–Norway . Infertile soil, volcanic eruptions, deforestation, and an unforgiving climate made for harsh life in
8415-480: The smallest population of any NATO member and is the only one with no standing army , possessing only a lightly armed coast guard . The Sagas of Icelanders say that a Norwegian named Naddodd (or Naddador) was the first Norseman to reach Iceland; in the ninth century, he named it Snæland or "Snowland" because it was snowing. Following Naddodd, the Swede Garðar Svavarsson arrived, and so
8514-463: The south coast is warmer, wetter, and windier than the north. The Central Highlands are the coldest part of the country. Low-lying inland areas in the north are the aridest. Snowfall in winter is more common in the north than in the south. The highest air temperature recorded was 30.5 °C (86.9 °F) on 22 June 1939 at Teigarhorn on the southeastern coast. The lowest was −38 °C (−36.4 °F) on 22 January 1918 at Grímsstaðir and Möðrudalur in
8613-457: The spirits of Sigmundr and Þórir, which relate to him how they died. Armed with this information, Þrándr confronts Þorgrímr, who confesses to killing Sigmundr and is promptly hanged at Tórshavn. Þrándr, his nephew Sigurðr and Leifr continue to rule the Faeroe Islands for many years, extending through the reigns of the Norwegian kings Óláfr Haraldsson and Sveinn Knútsson . However, over time Sigurðr becomes overconfident, listening less and less to
8712-502: The tales related in occult manuals are found connections with stories from other cultures' literary traditions. For instance, the ceremony for conjuring a horse closely relates to the Arabic One Thousand and One Nights and French romances ; Chaucer's The Squire's Tale also bears marked similarities. This becomes a parallel evolution of spells to foreign gods or demons that were once acceptable, and frames them into
8811-453: The term is occasionally also used in a more general sense to refer to black magic or witchcraft as a whole. The word necromancy is adapted from Late Latin necromantia : a loan word from the post-Classical Greek νεκρομαντεία ( nekromanteía , or 'divination through a dead body'), a compound of Ancient Greek νεκρός ( nekrós , or 'dead body') and μαντεία ( manteía , or 'divination'). The Koine Greek compound form
8910-467: The wake of inconsistencies of judgment, necromancers and other practitioners of the magic arts were able to utilize spells featuring holy names with impunity, as any biblical references in such rituals could be construed as prayers rather than spells . As a consequence, the necromancy that appears in the Munich Manual is an evolution of these theoretical understandings. It has been suggested that
9009-550: The world with similar climates include the Aleutian Islands , the Alaska Peninsula , and Tierra del Fuego , although these regions are closer to the equator. Despite its proximity to the Arctic, the island's coasts remain ice-free through the winter. Ice incursions are rare, with the last having occurred on the north coast in 1969. The climate varies between different parts of the island. Generally speaking,
9108-680: The world's wealthiest and most developed nations. In 1994 it became a part of the European Economic Area , further diversifying its economy into sectors such as finance, biotechnology, and manufacturing . Iceland has a market economy with relatively low taxes , compared to other OECD countries, as well as the highest trade union membership in the world . It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides universal health care and tertiary education . Iceland ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as quality of life, education, protection of civil liberties, government transparency, and economic freedom. It has
9207-515: Was adopted by consensus around 999–1000, although Norse paganism persisted among segments of the population for some years afterward. The Icelandic Commonwealth lasted until the 13th century when the political system devised by the original settlers proved unable to cope with the increasing power of Icelandic chieftains. The internal struggles and civil strife of the Age of the Sturlungs led to
9306-671: Was first documented in the writings of Origen of Alexandria in the 3rd century AD. The Classical Greek term was ἡ νέκυια ( nekyia ), from the episode of the Odyssey in which Odysseus visits the realm of the dead souls, and νεκρομαντεία in Hellenistic Greek; necromantīa in Latin , and necromancy in 17th-century English. Early necromancy was related to – and most likely evolved from –forms of shamanism or prehistoric ritual magic that calls upon spirits such as
9405-547: Was governed as an independent commonwealth under the native parliament, the Althing , one of the world's oldest functioning legislative assemblies. After a period of civil strife , Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century. In 1397, Iceland followed Norway's integration into the Kalmar Union along with the kingdoms of Denmark and Sweden, coming under de facto Danish rule upon its dissolution in 1523. The Danish kingdom introduced Lutheranism by force in 1550, and
9504-668: Was informal and university-based education rare. Most were trained under apprenticeships and were expected to have a basic knowledge of Latin, ritual and doctrine. This education was not always linked to spiritual guidance and seminaries were almost non-existent. This situation allowed some aspiring clerics to combine Christian rites with occult practices despite its condemnation in Christian doctrine. Medieval practitioners believed they could accomplish three things with necromancy: will manipulation, illusions, and knowledge: The act of performing medieval necromancy usually involved magic circles, conjurations, and sacrifices such as those shown in
9603-558: Was initiated to regulate the Icelandic Commonwealth . The lack of arable land also served as an impetus to the settlement of Greenland starting in 986. The period of these early settlements coincided with the Medieval Warm Period , when temperatures were similar to those of the early 20th century. At this time about 25% of Iceland was covered with forest, compared to 1% in the present day. Christianity
9702-570: Was king there, but it also says that the isles were settled before that. The protagonist and antihero of the story is Þrándr Þorbjarnarson (in Modern Faeroese Tróndur í Gøtu ), who lives at Gøta on Eysturoy . At the beginning of the story, the Faeroe Islands are split in two, with the northern islands ruled by Þrándr’s cousins Brestir and Beinir Sigmundsson, while the southern islands are ruled from Suðuroy by
9801-499: Was usually limited to the twelve months following the death of the physical body; once this period elapsed, necromancers would evoke the deceased's ghostly spirit instead. While some cultures considered the knowledge of the dead to be unlimited, ancient Greeks and Romans believed that individual shades knew only certain things. The apparent value of their counsel may have been based on things they knew in life or knowledge they acquired after death. Ovid writes in his Metamorphoses of
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