Hermann Föttinger (9 February 1877 in Nuremberg – 28 April 1945 in Berlin ) was a German engineer and inventor. In the course of his life he submitted over 100 patent applications, but he is most notable for inventing fluid coupling .
107-470: From 1895 to 1899 Hermann Föttinger studied electrical engineering at the Technical University of Munich . From 1904 he worked as a chief designer in the shipyard AG Vulcan Stettin . He was responsible for the introduction and testing of new steam turbines . During this time he developed the fluid coupling consisting of a pump and a turbine in a unit that in further development resulted in
214-621: A peer-reviewed academic journal . The best-known research degree title in the English-speaking world , is Doctor of Philosophy (abbreviated Ph.D., PhD or, at some British universities, DPhil ) awarded in many countries throughout the world. In the U.S., for instance, although the most typical research doctorate is the PhD, accounting for about 98% of the research doctorates awarded, there are more than 15 other names for research doctorates. Other research-oriented doctorates (some having
321-572: A 45-hectare sports center, was built on the grounds of the 1972 Summer Olympics . In 1970, the TH München was renamed to its present name Technische Universität München . When the Bavarian Higher Education Act came into force in 1974, the six faculties were replaced by eleven departments. In 1992, the field of computer science was established as an independent Department of Informatics , having previously been part of
428-844: A DPhil) was awarded at the University of Oxford . Following the MD, the next professional doctorate in the US, the Juris Doctor (JD), was established by the University of Chicago in 1902. However, it took a long time to be accepted, not replacing the Bachelor of Laws (LLB) until the 1960s, by which time the LLB was generally taken as a graduate degree. Notably, the JD and LLB curriculum were identical, with
535-455: A bachelor's degree in the U.S. and the U.K. However, elsewhere, e.g. in Finland and many other European countries, a master's degree is required. The time required to complete a research doctorate varies from three years, excluding undergraduate study, to six years or more. Licentiate degrees vary widely in their meaning, and in a few countries are doctoral-level qualifications. Sweden awards
642-534: A civil servant). In many Central and Eastern Europe countries, the degree gives venia legendi , Latin for "the permission to lecture", or ius docendi , "the right to teach", a specific academic subject at universities for a lifetime. The French academic system used to have a higher doctorate, called the "state doctorate" ( doctorat d'État ), but, in 1984, it was superseded by the habilitation ( Habilitation à diriger des recherches , "habilitation to supervise (doctoral and post-doctoral) research", abbreviated HDR) which
749-529: A doctoral program is available only for holders of a master's degree; there is no honors procedure for recruiting Bachelors. Entrance is not as controlled as in undergraduate studies, where a strict numerus clausus is applied. Usually, a prospective student discusses their plans with a professor. If the professor agrees to accept the student, the student applies for admission. The professor may recruit students to their group. Formal acceptance does not imply funding. The student must obtain funding either by working in
856-430: A doctorate in canon law in 1608 have been discredited), Elena Cornaro Piscopia in 1678 at the University of Padua , Laura Bassi in 1732 at Bologna University , Dorothea Erxleben in 1754 at Halle University and María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda in 1785 at Complutense University , Madrid. The use and meaning of the doctorate have changed over time and are subject to regional variations. For instance, until
963-657: A full dissertation. In the Philippines, the University of the Philippines Open University offers a Doctor of Communication (DComm) professional doctorate. All doctorates in the UK and Ireland are third cycle qualifications in the Bologna Process , comparable to US research doctorates. Although all doctorates are research degrees, professional doctorates normally include taught components, while
1070-716: A height of 62 m. The Garching campus is connected to Munich by the Autobahn and the Munich U-Bahn . It has its own fire department . The third TUM campus is located 35 km north of Munich in Weihenstephan , Freising . It hosts the School of Life Sciences . Additional TUM facilities are located in Ottobrunn ( Department of Aerospace and Geodesy ), Straubing , Heilbronn , and Singapore . TUM operates
1177-408: A higher doctorate a student must have completed a research doctorate at least seven to ten years prior to submitting the research portfolio used to award them a higher doctorate. Doctoral candidates are normally required to have a master's degree in a related field. Exceptions are based on their individual academic merit. A second and a third foreign language are other common requirements, although
SECTION 10
#17327833115431284-496: A minimum of six years of university-level study (including any pre-professional bachelor's or associate degree) and meet the academic requirements for professional licensure in the discipline. The definition for a professional doctorate does not include a requirement for either a dissertation or study beyond master's level, in contrast to the definition for research doctorates ("doctor's degree – research/scholarship"). However, individual programs may have different requirements. There
1391-409: A monograph or it an edited collection of 3 to 7 journal articles. Students unable or unwilling to write a dissertation may qualify for a licentiate degree by completing the coursework requirement and writing a shorter thesis, usually summarizing one year of research. When the dissertation is ready, the faculty names two expert pre-examiners with doctoral degrees from the outside the university. During
1498-513: A portfolio of research publications. The habilitation (highest available degree) demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing, and, more recently, the ability to generate supportive funding. The habilitation follows the research doctorate, and in Germany, it can be a requirement for appointment as a Privatdozent or professor. Since the Middle Ages ,
1605-552: A professional practice focus) include the Doctor of Education (Ed.D. or EdD ), the Doctor of Science (D.Sc. or Sc.D. ), Doctor of Arts (D.A. ), Doctor of Juridical Science (J.S.D. or S.J.D. ), Doctor of Musical Arts (D.M.A. ), Doctor of Professional Studies /Professional Doctorate (ProfDoc or DProf), Doctor of Public Health (Dr.P.H. ), Doctor of Social Science (D.S.Sc. or DSocSci ), Doctor of Management (D.M. or D.Mgt.), Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A. or DBA ),
1712-402: A public lecture before a panel of experts (including external members from other universities), and a written exam. In recent years some initiatives as jointly supervised doctorates (e.g. "cotutelles") have become increasingly common in the country, as part of the country's efforts to open its universities to international students. Denmark offers two types of "doctorate"-like degrees: For
1819-574: A research platform for the improvement of Singapore's public transportation . As a technical university , the university specializes in engineering , technology , medicine , and the applied and natural sciences . Compared to a Volluniversität (a universal university), it lacks the Geisteswissenschaften , including law and many branches of the social sciences . As of 2023, the Technical University of Munich
1926-474: A research unit or through private scholarships. Funding is more available for natural and engineering sciences than in letters. Sometimes, normal work and research activity are combined. Prior to introduction of the Bologna process, Finland required at least 42 credit weeks (1,800 hours) of formal coursework. The requirement was removed in 2005, leaving the decision to individual universities, which may delegate
2033-503: A science specialty, one must have a master's degree (M.Sc.) (or two diplomas before the introduction of M.Sc. degree in Egypt) before applying. The M.D. degree involves courses in the field and defending a dissertation. It takes on average three to five years. Many postgraduate medical and surgical specialties students earn a doctorate. After finishing a 6-year medical school and one-year internship (house officer), physicians and surgeons earn
2140-472: A separate Departmental Student Council. Every year, university elections are held to elect student representatives in the Senate, the university's highest academic authority, and in the faculty councils. Doctorate A doctorate (from Latin doctor , meaning "teacher") or doctoral degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from
2247-805: A subsidiary in Singapore . In 2001, the German Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) – TUM Asia was founded in partnership with the National University of Singapore and the Nanyang Technological University , offering a range of Master's programs. In 2010, TUM Asia started offering bachelor's degrees in collaboration with the Singapore Institute of Technology . In 2010, TUM and the Nanyang Technological University founded TUMCREATE ,
SECTION 20
#17327833115432354-635: A team from the university won second place at the Indy Autonomous Challenge , a autonomous racecar competition in Las Vegas. The Student Council is the main body for university-wide student representation. It elects the General Student Committee ( AStA ), which represents the professional, economic and social interests of the students, by the Bavarian Higher Education Act. Each school or department will also have
2461-734: A thesis that must represent an original and relevant contribution to existing knowledge. The thesis is examined in a final public oral exam administered by at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external. After completion, which normally consumes 4 years, the candidate is commonly awarded the degree of Doutor (Doctor) followed by the main area of specialization, e.g. Doutor em Direito (Doctor of Laws), Doutor em Ciências da Computação (Doctor of Computer Sciences), Doutor em Filosofia (Doctor of Philosophy), Doutor em Economia (Doctor of Economics), Doutor em Engenharia (Doctor of Engineering) or Doutor em Medicina (Doctor of Medicine). The generic title of Doutor em Ciências (Doctor of Sciences)
2568-539: Is a public research university in Munich , Bavaria , Germany . It specializes in engineering , technology , medicine , and applied and natural sciences . Established in 1868 by King Ludwig II of Bavaria , the university now has additional campuses in Garching , Freising , Heilbronn , Straubing , and Singapore , with the Garching campus being its largest. The university is organized into seven schools, and
2675-462: Is a master's degree or equivalent. All universities have the right to award doctorates. The ammattikorkeakoulu institutes (institutes of higher vocational education that are not universities but often called "Universities of Applied Sciences" in English) do not award doctoral or other academic degrees. The student must: The way to show that these general requirements have been met is: Entrance to
2782-479: Is a research degree. When a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's contributions to a particular field or philanthropic efforts, it may choose to grant a doctoral degree honoris causa ('for the sake of the honor'), waiving the usual requirements for granting the degree. Some universities do not award honorary degrees, for example, Cornell University , the University of Virginia , and Massachusetts Institute of Technology . In Argentina
2889-438: Is a resemblance between the ijazah and the licentia docendi . However, Toby Huff and others reject Makdisi's theory. Devin J. Stewart notes a difference in the granting authority (individual professor for the ijzazah and a corporate entity in the case of the university doctorate). The doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century (likely c. 1652). The term "philosophy" does not refer here to
2996-936: Is also a category of "doctor's degree – other" for doctorates that do not fall into either the "professional practice" or "research/scholarship" categories. All of these are considered doctoral degrees. In contrast to the US, many countries reserve the term "doctorate" for research degrees. If, as in Canada and Australia, professional degrees bear the name "Doctor of ...", etc., it is made clear that these are not doctorates. Examples of this include Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD), Doctor of Medicine (MD), Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS), Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP), and Juris Doctor (JD). Contrariwise, for example, research doctorates like Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), Doctor of Education (EdD) and Doctor of Social Science (DSS) qualify as full academic doctorates in Canada though they normally incorporate aspects of professional practice in addition to
3103-458: Is between US$ 500 and $ 1000. A degree of Doutor usually enables an individual to apply for a junior faculty position equivalent to a US assistant professor . Progression to full professorship, known as Professor Titular requires that the candidate be successful in a competitive public exam and normally takes additional years. In the federal university system, doctors who are admitted as junior faculty members may progress (usually by seniority) to
3210-805: Is conferred after a successful dissertation defence. In 2006, there were approximately 2,151 postgraduate careers in the country, of which 14% were doctoral degrees. Doctoral programs in Argentina are overseen by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation , an agency in Argentina's Ministry of Education, Science and Technology. The Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) categorizes tertiary qualifications into ten levels that are numbered from one to ten in ascending order of complexity and depth. Of these qualification levels, six are for higher education qualifications and are numbered from five to ten. Doctoral degrees occupy
3317-573: Is located in the Olympiapark , the former site of the 1972 Summer Olympics . The campus in Garching , located around 10 km north of Munich, has grown to become the largest TUM campus. In the last decades, the departments of Physics , Chemistry , Mechanical Engineering , Informatics and Mathematics have all relocated from their former buildings in the Main Campus. They have since been joined by numerous research institutes, including
Hermann Föttinger - Misplaced Pages Continue
3424-678: Is normally used to refer collectively to doctorates in the natural sciences (i.e. Physics, Chemistry, Biological and Life Sciences, etc.) All graduate programs in Brazilian public universities are tuition-free (mandated by the Brazilian constitution ). Some graduate students are additionally supported by institutional scholarships granted by federal government agencies like CNPq ( Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico ) and CAPES ( Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento do Pessoal de Ensino Superior ). Personal scholarships are provided by
3531-821: Is one of the most research-focused universities in Europe. This claim is supported by relevant rankings, such as the funding ranking of the German Research Foundation and the research ranking of the Centre for Higher Education . Under the German Universities Excellence Initiative , TUM has obtained funding for multiple research clusters, including e-conversion ( energy technology ), MCQST ( quantum mechanics ), ORIGINS ( astrophysics , biophysics and particle physics ), and SYNERGY ( neurology ). In addition to
3638-783: Is organized into seven schools and 29 departments: Other institutions include the Rechts der Isar Hospital , the TUM Graduate School and the Munich School of Politics and Public Policy . The TUM School of Management is triple accredited by the European Quality Improvement System (EQUIS), the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) and the Association of MBAs (AMBA). The Technical University of Munich
3745-758: Is ranked 28th worldwide (first in Germany) in the QS World University Rankings 2025, 26th worldwide (first in Germany) in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2025, and 47th worldwide (second in Germany) in the Academic Ranking of World Universities 2024. TUM ranked 11th in Europe in the 2024 QS Europe rankings. In the 2023 Nature Index of academic institutions, TUM ranked 59th worldwide and first in Germany. In
3852-423: Is required to have a master's degree, but not necessarily a ph.d. The ph.d. was introduced as a separate title from the higher doctorate in 1992 as part of the transition to a new degree structure, since the changes in the degree system would otherwise leave a significant amount of academics without immediately recognizable qualifications in international settings. The original vision was purported to be to phase out
3959-542: Is supported by numerous research centers. It is one of the largest universities in Germany, with 52,580 students and an annual budget of €1,839.2 million including the university hospital . A University of Excellence under the German Universities Excellence Initiative , TUM is among the leading universities in the European Union . Its researchers and alumni include 18 Nobel laureates and 24 Leibniz Prize winners. In 1868, King Ludwig II of Bavaria founded
4066-467: Is the prerequisite to supervise PhDs and to apply to Full Professorships. In many countries of the previous Soviet Union ( USSR ), for example the Russian Federation or Ukraine there is the higher doctorate (above the title of "Candidate of Sciences"/PhD) under the title " Doctor of Sciences ". While this section has focused on earned qualifications conferred in virtue of published work or
4173-489: Is then typically defended by the candidate during an oral examination (called viva (voce) in the UK and India) by the committee, which then awards the degree unconditionally, awards the degree conditionally (ranging from corrections in grammar to additional research), or denies the degree. Candidates may also be required to complete graduate-level courses in their field and study research methodology. Criteria for admission to doctoral programs vary. Students may be admitted with
4280-549: The Department of Mathematics since 1967. In 2002, TUM Asia was founded in Singapore, in cooperation with the Nanyang Technological University and the National University of Singapore . It was the first time that a German university had established a subsidiary abroad. The Department of Sport and Health Sciences and the School of Management were established in 2002. The Weihenstephan departments were combined into
4387-449: The Doctor of Sacred Theology (S.T.D., or D.S.Th.) are research doctorates in theology. Criteria for research doctorates vary but typically require completion of a substantial body of original research, which may be presented as a single thesis or dissertation , or as a portfolio of shorter project reports ( thesis by publication ). The submitted dissertation is assessed by a committee of, typically, internal, and external examiners. It
Hermann Föttinger - Misplaced Pages Continue
4494-684: The German Empire . Martha Schneider-Bürger became the first German female civil engineer to graduate from the university in 1927. In 1913, Jonathan Zenneck became director of the newly created Physics Institute . During the Weimar Republic , the TH München faced the challenge of limited resources and was drawn into radical political conflicts during the November Revolution , the Great Depression , and
4601-849: The Max Planck Institutes for Plasma Physics , Astrophysics , Extraterrestrial Physics and Quantum Optics , the Forschungsreaktor München II (FRM II), the headquarters of the European Southern Observatory (ESO), and the Leibniz Supercomputing Centre , one of the fastest supercomputers in Europe. A landmark of the Garching campus is the Oskar von Miller Tower , a meteorological measurement tower with
4708-494: The Polytechnische Schule München with Karl Maximilian von Bauernfeind as founding director. The new school had its premises at Arcisstraße, where it is still located today. At that time, around 350 students were supervised by 24 professors and 21 lecturers. The institution was divided into six departments: The "General Department" ( mathematics , natural sciences , humanities , law and economics ),
4815-628: The TUM Speaker Series (past speakers having included Ban Ki-moon , Tony Blair , Bill Gates , Sam Altman and Eric Schmidt ), and IKOM , a career fair. A notable student group is the Workgroup for Rocketry and Space Flight (WARR), which won all SpaceX Hyperloop pod competitions in 2017 through 2019. In 2021, TUM Boring , won the tunnel-boring competition sponsored by The Boring Company in Las Vegas, Nevada . In 2023,
4922-709: The Walter Schottky Institute (WSI), the Hans Eisenmann-Zentrum for Agricultural Science, and the Institute for Food & Health (ZIEL). TUM has over 160 international partnerships, ranging from joint research activities to international study programs. Partners include: Through the Erasmus+ program and its international student exchange program TUMexchange, students can complete exchange semesters at partner universities. TUM
5029-428: The auditorium (ex auditorio) . For the higher doctorate, the candidate (referred to as præses ) is required to submit a thesis of major scientific significance, and to proceed to defend it orally against two official opponents, as well as against any and all opponents from the auditorium ( ex auditorio ) – no matter how long the proceedings take. The official opponents are required to be full professors. The candidate
5136-582: The rise of Adolf Hitler . Two of the 16 Nazis killed in Hitler's failed coup attempt in 1923 were students at the university. The National Socialist German Students' League became the strongest faction in the General Students' Committee in 1930, and Jewish and politically unpopular professors were terrorized by the young students. After Hitler took power, the TH was soon aligned and a "Führer rector"
5243-490: The "Engineering Department" ( civil engineering and surveying ), the "Building Construction Department" ( architecture ), the "Mechanical-Technical Department" ( mechanical engineering ), the "Chemical-Technical Department" ( chemistry ), and the "Agricultural Department". In 1877, the Polytechnische Schule München became the Technische Hochschule München (TH München), and in 1901 it was granted
5350-409: The "Weihenstephan Centre of Life and Food Sciences" (WZW), which would later become the School of Life Sciences . With the establishment of the School of Education in 2009, the School of Governance in 2016, the Department of Aerospace and Geodesy in 2018, the [[TUM School of Natural Sciences|School of Natural Sciences] in 2023, the university comprises 7 schools and 29 research departments. Since
5457-660: The "faculty of philosophy". The Doctorate of Philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though most degrees are not for the study of philosophy. Chris Park explains that it was not until formal education and degree programs were standardized in the early 19th century that the Doctorate of Philosophy was reintroduced in Germany as a research degree, abbreviated as Dr. phil. (similar to Ph.D. in Anglo-American countries). Germany, however, differentiated then in more detail between doctorates in philosophy and doctorates in
SECTION 50
#17327833115435564-500: The 19th century "when holding a doctorate seemed no longer sufficient to guarantee a proficient transfer of knowledge to the next generation". In many federal states of Germany, the habilitation results in an award of a formal "Dr. habil." degree or the holder of the degree may add "habil." to their research doctorate such as "Dr. phil. habil." or "Dr. rer. nat. habil." In some European universities, especially in German -speaking countries,
5671-686: The 2023 edition of the Times Higher Education's Global University Employability Ranking, graduates from TUM were ranked 13th globally and first in Germany. The same year, TUM held the 28th position globally (also first in Germany) in the Times Higher Education World Reputation Rankings. In the QS World University Sustainability Ranking 2023, TUM was ranked 109th overall and first in Germany. In
5778-598: The Bible . The right to grant a licentia docendi (i.e. the doctorate) was originally reserved to the Catholic Church , which required the applicant to pass a test, take an oath of allegiance , and pay a fee. The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed access—at that time essentially free of charge—to all able applicants. Applicants were tested for aptitude. This right remained a bone of contention between
5885-535: The M.B. B.Ch. degree, which is equivalent to a US MD degree. They can then apply to earn a master's degree or a speciality diploma, then an MD degree in a specialty. The Egyptian M.D. degree is written using the name of one's specialty. For example, M.D. (Geriatrics) means a doctorate in Geriatrics , which is equivalent to a Ph.D. in Geriatrics. The Finnish requirement for the entrance into doctoral studies
5992-678: The Munich School of Robotics and Machine Intelligence (MSRM). Corporate research centers (CRCs) carry out research independently of the schools and departments, cooperating with industry partners for application-driven research. They include the research reactor FRM II , the Center for Functional Protein Assemblies (CPA), the Catalysis Research Center (CRC), the center for translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM),
6099-599: The SS herb garden on the grounds of the Dachau concentration camp with his students. During World War II , the TH München conducted extensive research in armaments to support the war effort. Notable professors during this time included aircraft designer Willy Messerschmitt and physicist Walther Meissner . Despite the war, high-level basic research continued to be conducted in some institutes, as some professors, staff members, and students dared to disobey and resist. Nobel laureate Hans Fischer protected Jewish students from Nazi persecution. He committed suicide shortly before
6206-485: The Swedish/Finnish licentiate degree). While other licences (such as the Licence in Canon Law) are at the level of master's degrees. A higher tier of research doctorates may be awarded based on a formally submitted portfolio of published research of an exceptionally high standard. Examples include the Doctor of Science (DSc or ScD), Doctor of Divinity (DD), Doctor of Letters (DLitt or LittD), Doctor of Law or Laws (LLD), and Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) degrees found in
6313-737: The Times Higher Education World University Rankings, TUM ranks 27th in business and economics, 22nd in the physical sciences, 22nd in engineering and technology, and 15th in computer science, and is the highest ranked German university in these areas. TUM is also ranked first in Germany in several subject areas by ARWU, including computer science and engineering, electrical engineering, aerospace engineering, food science, biotechnology, environmental engineering, medical technology, management, and transportation science. As of winter semester 2023/24, 52,580 students are enrolled at TUM, of whom 36% are female and 45% are international students . Various initiatives are run by students, including TEDx TUM,
6420-409: The Times Higher Education's Impact Rankings 2024 (industry, innovation, and infrastructure), TUM tied for first place worldwide. In Reuters ' 2019 European Most Innovative University ranking, TUM ranked 7th. In the QS World Rankings, TUM is placed 49th overall and is the highest ranked German university in engineering and technology (19th), natural sciences (23rd), and computer science (31st). In
6527-665: The UK Doctor of Management (DMan), various doctorates in engineering, such as the US Doctor of Engineering (D.Eng., D.E.Sc. or D.E.S., also awarded in Japan and South Korea), the UK Engineering Doctorate (EngD), the German engineering doctorate Doktoringenieur ( Dr.-Ing. ) the German natural science doctorate Doctor rerum naturalium ( Dr. rer. nat. ) and the economics and social science doctorate Doctor rerum politicarum ( Dr. rer. pol. ). The UK Doctor of Medicine (MD or MD (Res)) and Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) are research doctorates. The Doctor of Theology (Th.D., D.Th. or ThD ), Doctor of Practical Theology (DPT) and
SECTION 60
#17327833115436634-446: The UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries, and the traditional doctorates in Scandinavia like the Doctor Medicinae (Dr. Med.). The habilitation teaching qualification ( facultas docendi or "faculty to teach") under a university procedure with a thesis and an exam is commonly regarded as belonging to this category in Germany , Austria , France , Liechtenstein , Switzerland , Poland , etc. The degree developed in Germany in
6741-415: The United Kingdom, the older-style doctorates take much longer to complete since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects. These doctorates are less common than the PhD in some countries and are often awarded honoris causa . The habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU. It involves either a long new thesis (a second book) or
6848-555: The ancient formalism licentia docendi ("licence to teach"). In most countries, a research degree qualifies the holder to teach at university level in the degree's field or work in a specific profession . There are a number of doctoral degrees; the most common is the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to scientific disciplines. Many universities also award honorary doctorates to individuals deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or other contributions to
6955-459: The apprenticeship term for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree . University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men. The first women to be granted doctorates were Juliana Morell in 1608 at Lyons or maybe Avignon (she "defended theses" in 1606 or 1607, although claims that she received
7062-420: The architect Arnold Zenetti oversaw the construction of several hospital buildings which are today attached to the Munich universities or form part of the TUM campus. In 1967, a TUM School of Medicine was founded with campuses in the buildings of Rechts der Isar Hospital . By 1968, the so called TH München comprised six faculties, 8,400 students, and 5,700 staff. In 1972, the Zentrale Hochschulsportanlage ,
7169-420: The authority to faculties or individual professors. In Engineering and Science, required coursework varies between 40 and 70 ECTS . The duration of graduate studies varies. It is possible to graduate three years after the master's degree, while much longer periods are not uncommon. The study ends with a dissertation, which must present substantial new scientific/scholarly knowledge. The dissertation can either be
7276-427: The automatic automobile transmission. In 1909 he obtained a position at the Technische Hochschule in Danzig where he started the institute for fluid dynamics technology. In 1924 he took up a position as head of the current department of physics and turbines at Technische Hochschule Berlin (now Technische Universität Berlin ). Here he remained until his death from grenade fragments in April 1945. Föttinger laid
7383-448: The basis of an original and significant contribution to professional practice. Higher doctorates are typically titled similarly to professional doctorates and are awarded based on a submitted portfolio of research that follows a consistent theme and is internationally recognized as an original and substantive contribution to knowledge beyond that required for the awarding of a research doctorate. Typically, to be eligible to be awarded
7490-516: The basis of the fluid dynamics from Euler over Rankine and Hermann von Helmholtz to its current uses in the boundary layer of airplane wings and propulsion theory. Together with Franz Kruckenberg he started the Flugbahn-Gesellschaft mbH to develop the Schienenzeppelins (railroad cars). Föttinger's patents for internal combustion engines include: Technical University of Munich The Technical University of Munich ( TUM or TU Munich ; German : Technische Universität München )
7597-431: The central borough of Munich. Today, the departments of Architecture , Civil, Geo and Environmental Engineering , Electrical and Computer Engineering and the Schools of Management , Governance , Education are located here. The TUM School of Medicine is located at the site of its university hospital , the Rechts der Isar Hospital , in the district of Haidhausen . The TUM Department of Sport and Health Sciences
7704-466: The church authorities and the universities, slowly distancing themselves from the Church. In 1213 the right was granted by the pope to the University of Paris , where it became a universal license to teach ( licentia ubique docendi ). However, while the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree ( baccalaureus ), the latter was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to
7811-440: The country, professional doctorates may also be research degrees at the same level as PhDs . The relationship between research and practice is considered important and professional degrees with little or no research content are typically aimed at professional performance. Many professional doctorates are named "Doctor of [subject name] and abbreviated using the form "D[subject abbreviation]" or "[subject abbreviation]D", or may use
7918-514: The degree being renamed as a doctorate, and it (like the MD) was not equivalent to the PhD, raising criticism that it was "not a 'true Doctorate ' ". When professional doctorates were established in the UK in the late 1980s and early 1990s, they did not follow the US model. Still, they were set up as research degrees at the same level as PhDs but with some taught components and a professional focus for research work. Now usually called higher doctorates in
8025-412: The degree is insufficient to have teaching duties without professor supervision (or teaching and supervising PhD students independently) without an additional teaching title such as Privatdozent . In Austria, the habilitation bestows the graduate with the facultas docendi , venia legendi. Since 2004, the honorary title of "Privatdozent" (before this, completing the habilitation resulted in appointment as
8132-426: The doctorate ( doctorado ) is the highest academic degree. The intention is that candidates produce original contributions in their field knowledge within a frame of academic excellence. A dissertation or thesis is prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director. It is reviewed by a Doctoral Committee composed of examiners external to the program and at least one examiner external to the institution. The degree
8239-591: The doctorate's importance. Today, a research doctorate (PhD) or its equivalent (as defined in the US by the NSF ) is generally a prerequisite for an academic career. However, many recipients do not work in academia. Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward. The first professional doctorate offered in the United States was the MD at Kings College (now Columbia University ) after
8346-399: The early 20th century, few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders . After that time, the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread. Universities' shift to research-oriented education (based upon the scientific method, inquiry, and observation) increased
8453-572: The end of the war. During the war, 80 percent of the university's facilities in Munich had been destroyed . Under these difficult conditions, teaching resumed in April 1946. In 1956, the construction of a research reactor in Garching was the beginning of the Garching campus. In 1969, the physics department building was opened there, followed in 1977 by new buildings for the chemistry , biology and geoscience departments. Between 1868 and 1870
8560-456: The equivalent, a higher doctorate may also be presented on an honorary basis by a university — at its own initiative or after a nomination — in recognition of public prestige, institutional service, philanthropy, or professional achievement. In a formal listing of qualifications, and often in other contexts, an honorary higher doctorate will be identified using language like " DCL , honoris causa ", "Hon LLD ", or " LittD h.c. ". Depending on
8667-455: The field or academic discipline of philosophy ; it is used in a broader sense under its original Greek meaning of "love of wisdom". In most of Europe , all fields ( history , philosophy, social sciences , mathematics , and natural philosophy / natural sciences ) were traditionally known as philosophy, and in Germany and elsewhere in Europe the basic faculty of liberal arts was known as
8774-458: The higher doctorate in favor of the ph.d. (or merge the two), but so far, there are no signs of this happening. Many Danish academics with permanent positions wrote ph.d. dissertations in the 90s when the system was new, since at that time, a ph.d. degree or equivalent qualifications began to be required for certain academic positions in Denmark . Until the late 20th century, the higher doctorate
8881-477: The highest of these levels: level ten. All doctoral degrees involve research and this is a defining characteristic of them. There are three categories of doctoral degrees recognized by the AQF: research doctorates, professional doctorates and higher doctorates. Research doctorates and professional doctorates are both completed as part of a programme of study and supervised research. Both have entry requirements of
8988-515: The inception of the German Universities Excellence Initiative in 2006, TUM has won every round of evaluation and the title University of Excellence . As part of its Agenda 2030 , the 15 schools and departments were consolidated into seven schools by 2023. TUM's academic faculties are divided amongst numerous campuses. The historic Main Campus ( Stammgelände ) is located in Maxvorstadt ,
9095-476: The licentiate degree as a two-year qualification at the doctoral level and the doctoral degree (PhD) as a four-year qualification. Sweden originally abolished the Licentiate in 1969 but reintroduced it in response to demands from business. Finland also has a two-year doctoral level licentiate degree, similar to Sweden's. Outside of Scandinavia, the licentiate is usually a lower-level qualification. In Belgium,
9202-553: The licentiate was the basic university degree prior to the Bologna Process and was equivalent to a bachelor's degree. In France and other countries, it is the bachelor's-level qualification in the Bologna process. In the Pontifical system, the Licentiate in Sacred Theology (STL) is equivalent to an advanced master's degree, or the post-master's coursework required in preparation for a doctorate (i.e. similar in level to
9309-478: The master's degree ( magister ) and doctorate, both of which now became the accepted teaching qualifications. According to Keith Allan Noble (1994), the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150 by the University of Paris. George Makdisi theorizes that the ijazah issued in early Islamic madrasahs was the origin of the doctorate later issued in medieval European universities . Alfred Guillaume and Syed Farid al-Attas agree that there
9416-425: The medical school's founding in 1767. However, this was not a professional doctorate in the modern American sense. It was awarded for further study after the qualifying Bachelor of Medicine (MB) rather than a qualifying degree. The MD became the standard first degree in medicine in the US during the 19th century, but as a three-year undergraduate degree. It did not become established as a graduate degree until 1930. As
9523-473: The more generic titles "Professional Doctorate", abbreviated "ProfDoc" or "DProf", " Doctor of Professional Studies " (DPS) or "Doctor of Professional Practice" (DPP). In the US, professional doctorates (formally "doctor's degree – professional practice" in government classifications) are defined by the US Department of Education 's National Center for Educational Statistics as degrees that require
9630-480: The name PhD/DPhil is normally used for doctorates purely by thesis. Professional, practitioner, or practice-based doctorates such as the DClinPsy, MD, DHSc, EdD, DBA, EngD and DAg are full academic doctorates. They are at the same level as the PhD in the national qualifications frameworks; they are not first professional degrees but are "often post-experience qualifications" in which practice is considered important in
9737-423: The natural sciences, abbreviated as Dr. rer. nat. and also doctorates in the social/political sciences, abbreviated as Dr. rer. pol., similar to the other traditional doctorates in medicine (Dr. med.) and law (Dr. jur.). University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild . The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts" was seven years, matching
9844-413: The number and types of doctorates awarded by universities have proliferated throughout the world. Practice varies from one country to another. While a doctorate usually entitles a person to be addressed as "doctor", the use of the title varies widely depending on the type and the associated occupation. Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of publishable academic research, at least in principle, in
9951-437: The ph.d. degree, the candidates (ph.d. students or fellows) – who are required to have a master's degree – enroll at a ph.d. school at a university and participate in a research training program, at the end of which they each submit a thesis and defend it orally at a formal disputation . In the disputation, the candidates defend their theses against three official opponents, and may take opponents or questions from those present in
10058-427: The pre-examination process, the student may receive comments on the work and respond with modifications. After the pre-examiners approve, the doctoral candidate applies the faculty for permission to print the thesis. When granting this permission, the faculty names the opponent for the thesis defence, who must also be an outside expert, with at least a doctorate. In all Finnish universities, long tradition requires that
10165-403: The rank of associate professor, then become eligible to take the competitive exam for vacant full professorships. In São Paulo state universities, associate professorships and subsequent eligibility to apply for a full professorship are conditioned on the qualification of Livre-docente and requires, in addition to a doctorate, a second thesis or cumulative portfolio of peer-reviewed publications,
10272-466: The requirements regarding proficiency commonly are not strict. The admissions process varies by institution. Some require candidates to take tests while others base admissions on a research proposal application and interview only. In both instances however, a faculty member must agree prior to admission to supervise the applicant. Requirements usually include satisfactory performance in advanced graduate courses, passing an oral qualifying exam and submitting
10379-600: The research context. In 2009 there were 308 professional doctorate programs in the UK, up from 109 in 1998, with the most popular being the EdD (38 institutions), DBA (33), EngD/DEng (22), MD/DM (21), and DClinPsy/DClinPsych/ClinPsyD (17). Similarly, in Australia, the term "professional doctorate" is sometimes applied to the Scientiae Juridicae Doctor (SJD), which, like the UK professional doctorates,
10486-542: The right to award doctorates . With an average of 2,600 to 2,800 students, the TH München became for a time Germany's largest technical university , ahead of the TH Berlin . In 1970 the institution was renamed Technische Universität München . In 1906, Anna Boyksen became the first female student to enroll in electrical engineering , after the Bavarian government had allowed women to study at technical universities in
10593-688: The schools and departments, TUM has set up numerous research centers with external cooperation partners. Integrative research centers (IRCs) combine research with teaching. They include the TUM Institute for Advanced Study (TUM-IAS), the Munich Center for Technology in Society (MCTS), the Munich Data Science Institute (MDSI), the Munich School of Engineering (MSE), the Munich School of BioEngineering (MSB), and
10700-553: The standard qualifying degree in medicine, the MD gave that profession the ability (through the American Medical Association , established in 1847 for this purpose) to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice. In the shape of the German-style PhD, the modern research degree was first awarded in the US in 1861, at Yale University . This differed from the MD in that the latter
10807-484: The student having a supervisor that has agreed to supervise their research, along with the student possessing an honours degree with upper second-class honours or better or a master's degree with a substantial research component. Research doctorates are typically titled Doctor of Philosophy and they are awarded on the basis of an original and significant contribution to knowledge. Professional doctorates are typically titled Doctor of (field of study) and they are awarded on
10914-472: The university or society. The term doctor derives from Latin, meaning "teacher" or "instructor". The doctorate (Latin: doctoratus ) appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin ( licentia docendi ) at a university . Its roots can be traced to the early church in which the term doctor referred to the Apostles , church fathers , and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted
11021-464: The various FAP's ( Fundações de Amparo à Pesquisa ) at the state level, especially FAPESP in the state of São Paulo , FAPERJ in the state of Rio de Janeiro and FAPEMIG in the state of Minas Gerais . Competition for graduate financial aid is intense and most scholarships support at most 2 years of Master's studies and 4 years of doctoral studies. The normal monthly stipend for doctoral students in Brazil
11128-476: Was a condition for attaining full professorship; it is no longer required per se for any positions, but is considered amply equivalent to the ph.d. when applying for academic positions. In Egypt, the highest degree doctorate is awarded by Al-Azhar University est. 970, which grants ( العالمية Ālimiyya\ Habilitation ). The Medical doctorate (abbreviated as M.D.) is equivalent to the Ph.D. degree. To earn an M.D. in
11235-498: Was a vocational " professional degree " that trained students to apply or practice knowledge rather than generate it, similar to other students in vocational schools or institutes. In the UK, research doctorates initially took higher doctorates in Science and Letters, first introduced at Durham University in 1882. The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada and was instituted at all British universities from 1917. The first (titled
11342-637: Was appointed, with the deans directly responsible to him. The Führerprinzip was also imposed on universities, resulting in a significant restriction of the autonomy of the TH München. In 1933, the newly enacted Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service led to the dismissal of staff deemed "non- Aryan " or married to "non-Aryans," as well as politically "undesirable" professors. Jewish students lost their rights and were banned from enrolling after 1938. The university
11449-728: Was deeply involved in the crimes of the Nazi regime. For instance, Heinz Henseler, a professor in charge of animal breeding at the university, headed a new "Colonial Science Seminar" from 1940. The seminar focused on exploring how to "Germanize" the landscapes of Poland and Russia for future colonization and settlement during the war. The entire Faculty of Agriculture was influenced by the ideology of blood and soil , and agricultural scientists had no qualms about using forced laborers and prisoners of war on university experimental farms. Henseler repeatedly asked his former student and SS chief Heinrich Himmler for additional land and led several excursions to
#542457