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145-598: The Führerbunker ( German pronunciation: [ˈfyːʁɐˌbʊŋkɐ] ) was an air raid shelter located near the Reich Chancellery in Berlin , Germany . It was part of a subterranean bunker complex constructed in two phases in 1936 and 1944. It was the last of the Führer Headquarters ( Führerhauptquartiere ) used by Adolf Hitler during World War II . Hitler took up residence in

290-448: A bomb penetrated the road and tunnel at Balham tube station , blew up the water mains and sewage pipes, and killed 66 people. At Bank station , a direct hit caused a crater of 37 by 30 metres (120 ft × 100 ft) on 11 January 1941; the road above the station collapsed and killed 56 occupants. The highest death toll was caused by an incident at the unfinished Bethnal Green tube station on 8 March 1943, when 1,500 people entered

435-561: A cage-like construction beneath it. It was designed by John Baker and named after Herbert Morrison , the Minister of Home Security at the time. It was the result of the realisation that due to the lack of house cellars it was necessary to develop an effective type of indoor shelter. The shelters came in assembly kits , to be bolted together inside the home. They were approximately 1.98 metres (6 ft 6 in) long, 1.2 metres (4 ft) wide and 0.76 metres (2 ft 6 in) high, had

580-456: A caisson vertically below the top of the aquifer and then advancing lateral collectors out of the caisson and beneath the surface water body. Pumping from within the caisson induces infiltration of water from the surface water body into the aquifer, where it is collected by the collector well laterals and conveyed into the caisson where it can be pumped to the ground surface. Two additional broad classes of well types may be distinguished, based on

725-470: A circulation fluid to displace cuttings and cool bits during the drilling. Another form of rotary-style drilling, termed mud rotary , makes use of a specially made mud, or drilling fluid, which is constantly being altered during the drill so that it can consistently create enough hydraulic pressure to hold the side walls of the bore hole open, regardless of the presence of a casing in the well. Typically, boreholes drilled into solid rock are not cased until after

870-435: A confined space, it displaces oxygen, reducing oxygen concentration to a level low enough to pose a threat to humans and other aerobic organisms but still high enough for a risk of spontaneous or externally caused explosion. This potential for explosion is what poses such a danger in regards to the drilling and placement of water wells. Low levels of methane in drinking water are not considered toxic. When methane seeps into

1015-498: A constant interior temperature of 7 to 10 °C (45 to 50 °F), which made them perfectly suitable for laboratories, both during and after the war. They were used to protect people, administrative centres, important archives and works of art. Their structures took many forms: usually consisting of square blocks or of low, long rectangular or triangular shapes; straight towers of a square plan rising to great heights, or round tower-like edifices, even pyramidal constructions. Some of

1160-993: A depth of 13 metres (43 ft). Other slightly younger wells are known from this site and from neighbouring Parekklisha-Shillourokambos. A first stone lined well of 5.5 metres (18 ft) depth is documented from a drowned final PPN (c. 7000 BC) site at ‘Atlit-Yam off the coast near modern Haifa in Israel . Wood-lined wells are known from the early Neolithic Linear Pottery culture , for example in Ostrov, Czech Republic, dated 5265 BC, Kückhoven (an outlying centre of Erkelenz ), dated 5300 BC, and Eythra in Schletz (an outlying centre of Asparn an der Zaya ) in Austria , dated 5200 BC. The neolithic Chinese discovered and made extensive use of deep drilled groundwater for drinking. The Chinese text The Book of Changes , originally

1305-686: A divination text of the Western Zhou dynasty (1046 -771 BC), contains an entry describing how the ancient Chinese maintained their wells and protected their sources of water. A well excavated at the Hemedu excavation site was believed to have been built during the neolithic era. The well was cased by four rows of logs with a square frame attached to them at the top of the well. 60 additional tile wells southwest of Beijing are also believed to have been built around 600 BC for drinking and irrigation. In Egypt , shadoofs and sakias are used. The sakia

1450-550: A drilling action. Unlike rotary drilling, cable tool drilling requires the drilling action to be stopped so that the bore hole can be bailed or emptied of drilled cuttings. Cable tool drilling rigs are rare as they tend to be 10x slower to drill through materials compared to similar diameter rotary air or rotary mud equipped rigs. Drilled wells are usually cased with a factory-made pipe, typically steel (in air rotary or cable tool drilling) or plastic / PVC (in mud rotary wells, also present in wells drilled into solid rock). The casing

1595-443: A great deal of energy through plastic deformation without falling apart. (This was in marked contrast to other trench shelters which used concrete for the sides and roof, which were inherently unstable when disturbed by the effects of an explosion – if the roof slab lifted, the walls fell in under the static earth pressure; if the walls were pushed in, the roof would be unsupported at one edge and would fall.) However, when

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1740-743: A group of synthetic organofluorine chemical compounds that have multiple fluorine atoms attached to an alkyl chain. PFAS are a group of "forever chemicals" that spread very quickly and very far in ground water polluting it permanently. Water wells near certain airports where any form fire fighting or training activities occurred up to 2010 are likely to be contaminated by PFAS. A study concluded that of ~39 million groundwater wells 6-20% are at high risk of running dry if local groundwater levels decline by less than five meters, or – as with many areas and possibly more than half of major aquifers – continue to decline. Springs and wells have had cultural significance since prehistoric times, leading to

1885-519: A high-density area of the capital. An estimated 170,000 people sheltered in the tunnels and stations during the war. Although not a great number in comparison to the population of the capital, it almost certainly saved the lives of the people who probably would have had to find alternative, less secure means of protection. Artists and photographers such as Henry Moore and Bill Brandt were employed as war artists to document life in London's shelters during

2030-515: A house was sucked or blown out by a nearby blast, and the floor of the first storey pivoted about its other end (supported by a largely intact wall) and killed the inhabitants. The Morrison shelter was therefore designed to be able to withstand the upper floor falling, of a typical two storey-house undergoing a partial collapse. The shelter was designed to absorb this energy by plastic deformation, since this can absorb two or three orders of magnitude more energy than elastic deformation. Its design enabled

2175-440: A policy of dispersal and eschewed the use of deep shelters, including the use of tube stations and underground tunnels as public shelters. Reasons given were the spread of disease due to the lack of toilet facilities at many stations, the inherent danger of people falling onto the lines, and that people sheltering in the stations and tunnels might be tempted to stay in them day and night because they would feel safer there than outside

2320-496: A public air raid shelter at Aldwych. Floodgates were installed at various points to protect the network should bombs breach the tunnels under the Thames, or large water mains in the vicinity of stations. Seventy-nine stations were fitted with bunks for 22,000 people, supplied with first aid facilities and equipped with chemical toilets. 124 canteens opened in all parts of the tube system. Shelter marshals were appointed, whose function it

2465-430: A pump. The water often comes from an aquifer or groundwater, and can be easily deepened, which may be necessary if the ground water level drops, by telescoping the lining further down into the aquifer. The yield of existing hand dug wells may be improved by deepening or introducing vertical tunnels or perforated pipes. Drawbacks to hand-dug wells are numerous. It can be impractical to hand dig wells in areas where hard rock

2610-433: A screening device, filter pack, slotted casing, or open bore hole is left to allow the flow of water into the well. Constructed screens are typically used in unconsolidated formations (sands, gravels, etc.), allowing water and a percentage of the formation to pass through the screen. Allowing some material to pass through creates a large area filter out of the rest of the formation, as the amount of material present to pass into

2755-406: A segmented steel drilling string, typically made up of 3m (10ft), 6 m (20 ft) to 8m (26ft) sections of steel tubing that are threaded together, with a bit or other drilling device at the bottom end. Some rotary drilling machines are designed to install (by driving or drilling) a steel casing into the well in conjunction with the drilling of the actual bore hole. Air and/or water is used as

2900-760: A serious lack of data on which to base any design recommendations and the Committee proposed that the Home Office should have its own department for research into structural precautions, rather than relying on research work done by the Bombing Test Committee to support the development of bomb design and strategy. This proposal was eventually implemented in January 1939. During the Munich crisis , local authorities dug trenches to provide shelter. After

3045-538: A small civil ceremony within the Führerbunker . He then took secretary Traudl Junge to another room and dictated his last will and testament . Hans Krebs, Wilhelm Burgdorf , Goebbels, and Bormann witnessed and signed the documents at approximately 04:00. Hitler then retired to bed. Late in the evening of 29 April, Krebs contacted Jodl by radio: "Request immediate report. Firstly of the whereabouts of Wenck's spearheads. Secondly of time intended to attack. Thirdly of

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3190-558: A solid 3.2 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 8  in) steel plate "table" top, welded wire mesh sides, and a metal lath "mattress"-type floor. Altogether it had 359 parts and had three tools supplied with the pack. The shelter was provided free to households whose combined income was less than £400 per year (equivalent to £31,000 in 2023). Head of the Engineering Department at Cambridge University , Professor John Baker (later Lord Baker) presented an undergraduate lecture on

3335-416: A stairway set at right angles and could be closed off from each other by a bulkhead and steel door. The Vorbunker was located 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) beneath the cellar of a large reception hall behind the old Reich Chancellery at Wilhelmstrasse  77. The Führerbunker was located about 8.5 m (28 ft) beneath the garden of the old Reich Chancellery, 120 m (390 ft) north of

3480-511: A type of air raid shelters found in Israel inside homes, near residential areas and in other places across the country. These places are also called Merkhav Mugan ( Hebrew : מרחב מוגן , lit.   ' protected space ' ). They are reinforced security rooms required in all new buildings by Israeli law. Cellars in the UK, were mainly included only in larger houses, and in houses built up to

3625-420: A variety of tools including electro-seismic surveying, any available information from nearby wells, geologic maps, and sometimes geophysical imaging . These professionals provide advice that is almost as accurate a driller who has experience and knowledge of nearby wells/bores and the most suitable drilling technique based on the expected target depth. Shallow pumping wells can often supply drinking water at

3770-571: A very important source of potable water in some rural developing areas, where they are routinely dug and used today. Their indispensability has produced a number of literary references, literal and figurative, including the reference to the incident of Jesus meeting a woman at Jacob 's well ( John 4:6) in the Bible and the " Ding Dong Bell " nursery rhyme about a cat in a well. Hand-dug wells are excavations with diameters large enough to accommodate one or more people with shovels digging down to below

3915-615: A very low cost. However, impurities from the surface easily reach shallow sources, which leads to a greater risk of contamination for these wells compared to deeper wells. Contaminated wells can lead to the spread of various waterborne diseases . Dug and driven wells are relatively easy to contaminate; for instance, most dug wells are unreliable in the majority of the United States. Some research has found that, in cold regions, changes in river flow and flooding caused by extreme rainfall or snowmelt can degrade well water quality. Most of

4060-648: A water supply, it is commonly referred to as "methane migration". This can be caused by old natural gas wells near water well systems becoming abandoned and no longer monitored. Lately, however, the described wells/pumps are no longer very efficient and can be replaced by either handpumps or treadle pumps . Another alternative is the use of self-dug wells, electrical deep-well pumps (for higher depths). Appropriate technology organizations as Practical Action are now supplying information on how to build/set-up ( DIY ) handpumps and treadle pumps in practice. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances ( PFAS or PFASs ) are

4205-612: A week (equivalent to £390 in 2023, when adjusted for inflation ). Those with a higher income were charged £7 (£550 in 2023) for their shelter. One and a half million shelters of this type were distributed between February 1939 and the outbreak of war. During the war a further 2.1   million were erected. Large numbers were manufactured at John Summers & Sons ironworks at Shotton on Deeside with production peaking at 50,000 units per week. The Anderson shelters performed well under blast and ground shock, because they had good connectivity and ductility, which meant that they could absorb

4350-693: Is a common problem with groundwater. Nitrates from sewage , sewage sludge or fertilizer are a particular problem for babies and young children. Pollutant chemicals include pesticides and volatile organic compounds from gasoline , dry-cleaning , the fuel additive methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), and perchlorate from rocket fuel, airbag inflators, and other artificial and natural sources. Several minerals are also contaminants, including lead leached from brass fittings or old lead pipes, chromium VI from electroplating and other sources, naturally occurring arsenic , radon , and uranium —all of which can cause cancer—and naturally occurring fluoride , which

4495-399: Is caused when the water table of the soil drops over time and salt begins to accumulate. In turn, the increased amount of salt begins to dry the soil out. The increased level of salt in the soil can result in the degradation of soil and can be very harmful to vegetation. Methane , an asphyxiant, is a chemical compound that is the main component of natural gas. When methane is introduced into

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4640-437: Is constructed by welding, either chemically or thermally, segments of casing together. If the casing is installed during the drilling, most drills will drive the casing into the ground as the bore hole advances, while some newer machines will actually allow for the casing to be rotated and drilled into the formation in a similar manner as the bit advancing just below. PVC or plastic is typically solvent welded and then lowered into

4785-455: Is desirable in low quantities to prevent tooth decay , but can cause dental fluorosis in higher concentrations. Some chemicals are commonly present in water wells at levels that are not toxic, but can cause other problems. Calcium and magnesium cause what is known as hard water , which can precipitate and clog pipes or burn out water heaters. Iron and manganese can appear as dark flecks that stain clothing and plumbing, and can promote

4930-473: Is drilled to a predetermined depth or to a confining formation (clay or bedrock, for example), and then a smaller hole for the well is completed from that point forward. The well is typically cased from the surface down into the smaller hole with a casing that is the same diameter as that hole. The annular space between the large bore hole and the smaller casing is filled with bentonite clay , concrete, or other sealant material. This creates an impermeable seal from

5075-618: Is much more efficient, as it can bring up water from a depth of 10 metres (versus the 3 metres of the shadoof). The sakia is the Egyptian version of the noria . Some of the world's oldest known wells, located in Cyprus, date to 7000–8,500 BC. Two wells from the Neolithic period, around 6500 BC, have been discovered in Israel. One is in Atlit, on the northern coast of Israel, and the other is in

5220-600: Is present, and they can be time-consuming to dig and line even in favourable areas. Because they exploit shallow aquifers, the well may be susceptible to yield fluctuations and possible contamination from surface water, including sewage. Hand dug well construction generally requires the use of a well trained construction team, and the capital investment for equipment such as concrete ring moulds, heavy lifting equipment, well shaft formwork, motorized de-watering pumps, and fuel can be large for people in developing countries. Construction of hand dug wells can be dangerous due to collapse of

5365-477: Is simply hammered into the ground, usually with a tripod and driver , with pipe sections added as needed. A driver is a weighted pipe that slides over the pipe being driven and is repeatedly dropped on it. When groundwater is encountered, the well is washed of sediment and a pump installed. Drilled wells are constructed using various types of drilling machines, such as top-head rotary, table rotary, or cable tool, which all use drilling stems that rotate to cut into

5510-635: The Führerbunker on 16 January 1945, and it became the centre of the Nazi regime until the last week of World War II in Europe. Hitler married Eva Braun there on 29 April 1945, less than 40 hours before they committed suicide . After the war, both the old and new Chancellery buildings were levelled by the Soviet Red Army . The underground complex remained largely undisturbed until 1988–89, despite some attempts at demolition. The excavated sections of

5655-777: The Führerbunker . The third breakout attempt from the Reich Chancellery was made around 01:00 on 2 May, and Bormann managed to cross the Spree . Artur Axmann followed the same route and reported seeing Bormann's body a short distance from the Weidendammer bridge . At 01:00, the Soviet forces picked up a radio message from the LVI Panzer Corps requesting a cease-fire. Down in the Führerbunker , General Krebs and General Burgdorf committed suicide by gunshot to

5800-514: The Hochbunker was the Winkelturm , named after its designer, Leo Winkel of Duisburg . Winkel patented his design in 1934, and from 1936 onward, Germany built 98 Winkeltürme of five different types. The towers had a conical shape with walls that curved downward to a reinforced base. The dimensions of the towers varied. Diameters ranged between 8.4 and 10 metres (28 and 33 ft) and

5945-699: The Anderson shelter would be built in a garden and equipped with beds as a refuge from air raids. Cellars have always been much more important in Continental Europe than in the United Kingdom and especially in Germany almost all houses and apartment blocks have been and still are built with cellars. Air-raid precautions during World War II in Germany could be much more readily implemented by

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6090-576: The Cairo Citadel at 280 feet (85 m) deep and the Pozzo di San Patrizio (St. Patrick's Well) built in 1527 in Orvieto, Italy , at 61 metres (200 ft) deep by 13 metres (43 ft) wide are both larger by volume. Driven wells may be very simply created in unconsolidated material with a well hole structure , which consists of a hardened drive point and a screen (perforated pipe). The point

6235-604: The Cold War , NATO used the shelter for food storage. The cost of demolishing these edifices after the war would have been enormous, as the attempts at breaking up one of the six so-called Flak towers of Vienna proved. The attempted demolition caused no more than a crack in one of the walls of the tower, after which efforts were abandoned. Only the Zoo Tower in Berlin was successfully demolished. One particular variant of

6380-507: The Institution of Civil Engineers , the design was released for production. Anderson shelters were designed to accommodate up to six people. The main principle of protection was based on curved and straight galvanised corrugated steel panels . Six curved panels were bolted together at the top, so forming the main body of the shelter, three straight sheets on either side, and two more straight panels were fixed to each end, one containing

6525-626: The Red Army started the Battle of Berlin , and they started to encircle the city by 19 April. Hitler made his last trip to the surface on 20 April, his 56th birthday, going to the ruined garden of the Reich Chancellery where he awarded the Iron Cross to boy soldiers of the Hitler Youth . That afternoon, Berlin was bombarded by Soviet artillery for the first time. Hitler was in denial about

6670-512: The Soviet 8th Guards Army , at about 04:00 on 1 May, and Chuikov demanded unconditional surrender of the remaining German forces. Krebs did not have the authority to surrender, so he returned to the bunker. In the late afternoon, Goebbels had his children poisoned , and he and his wife left the bunker at around 20:30. There are several different accounts on what followed. According to one account, Goebbels shot his wife and then himself. Another account

6815-518: The Vorbunker with the clear mark of cyanide shown on their faces. The first post-war photos of the interior of the Führerbunker were taken in July 1945. On 4 July, American writer James P. O'Donnell toured the bunker after giving the Soviet guard a pack of cigarettes. Many soldiers, politicians, and diplomats visited the bunker complex in the following days and months. Winston Churchill visited

6960-508: The bacteria , viruses , parasites , and fungi that contaminate well water comes from fecal material from humans and other animals. Common bacterial contaminants include E. coli , Salmonella , Shigella , and Campylobacter jejuni . Common viral contaminants include norovirus , sapovirus , rotavirus , enteroviruses , and hepatitis A and E . Parasites include Giardia lamblia , Cryptosporidium , Cyclospora cayetanensis , and microsporidia . Chemical contamination

7105-710: The filtration of the contaminants of concern, and additional protection may be garnered by installing well-casing screens only at depths where contamination is not present. Wellwater for personal use is often filtered with reverse osmosis water processors; this process can remove very small particles. A simple, effective way of killing microorganisms is to bring the water to a full boil for one to three minutes, depending on location. A household well contaminated by microorganisms can initially be treated by shock chlorination using bleach, generating concentrations hundreds of times greater than found in community water systems; however, this will not fix any structural problems that led to

7250-444: The water table . The excavation is braced horizontally to avoid landslide or erosion endangering the people digging. They can be lined with stone or brick; extending this lining upwards above the ground surface to form a wall around the well serves to reduce both contamination and accidental falls into the well. A more modern method called caissoning uses reinforced concrete or plain concrete pre-cast well rings that are lowered into

7395-786: The Artillery Helmuth Weidling , commander of the LVI Panzer Corps , as the commander of the Berlin Defense Area, replacing Lieutenant Colonel ( Oberstleutnant ) Ernst Kaether . The Red Army had consolidated their investment of Berlin by 25 April, despite the commands being issued from the Führerbunker . There was no prospect that the German defence could do anything but delay the city's capture. Hitler summoned Field Marshal Robert Ritter von Greim from Munich to Berlin to take over command of

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7540-728: The Jezreel Valley. Wells for other purposes came along much later, historically. The first recorded salt well was dug in the Sichuan province of China around 2,250 years ago. This was the first time that ancient water well technology was applied successfully for the exploitation of salt, and marked the beginning of Sichuan's salt drilling industry. The earliest known oil wells were also drilled in China, in 347 CE. These wells had depths of up to about 240 metres (790 ft) and were drilled using bits attached to bamboo poles. The oil

7685-601: The Luftwaffe from Hermann Göring , and he arrived on 26 April along with his mistress, the test pilot Hanna Reitsch . On 28 April, Hitler learned that Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler was trying to discuss surrender terms with the Western Allies through Count Folke Bernadotte , and Hitler considered this treason. Himmler's SS representative in Berlin, Hermann Fegelein , was shot after being court-martialed for desertion, and Hitler ordered Himmler's arrest. On

7830-536: The Ninth Army. Meanwhile, Bormann wired to German Admiral Karl Dönitz : "Reich Chancellery a heap of rubble." He said that the foreign press was reporting fresh acts of treason and "that without exception Schörner, Wenck and the others must give evidence of their loyalty by the quickest relief of the Führer". That evening, von Greim and Reitsch flew out from Berlin in an Arado Ar 96 trainer. Field Marshal von Greim

7975-546: The Reich Chancellery and bunker on 14 July 1945. On 11 December 1945, the Soviets allowed a limited investigation of the bunker grounds by the other Allied powers. Two representatives from each nation watched several Germans dig up soil; this included the site where Hitler's remains had been exhumed that May. Found during the dig were two hats identified as Hitler's, an undergarment with Braun's initials, and some reports to Hitler from Goebbels. The representatives planned to continue

8120-574: The Reich Chancellery. General Weidling surrendered with his staff at 6:00, and his meeting with Chuikov ended at 8:23. Johannes Hentschel , the master electro-mechanic for the bunker complex, stayed after everyone else had either left or committed suicide, as the field hospital in the Reich Chancellery above needed power and water. He surrendered to the Red Army as they entered the bunker complex at 09:00 on 2 May. The bodies of Goebbels' six children were discovered on 3 May. They were found in their beds in

8265-578: The Soviets, including measurements, took place on 16 May 1946. Thereafter, the bunker largely survived, although some areas were partially flooded. In December 1947, the Soviets tried to blow up the bunker, but only the separation walls were damaged. In 1959, the East German government began a series of demolitions of the Chancellery, including the bunker. Because it was near the Berlin Wall ,

8410-463: The Tubes for shelter, at some stations, they began to arrive as early as 4:00 pm, with bedding and bags of food to sustain them for the night. By the time the evening rush hour was in progress, they had already staked their "pitches" on the platforms. The Police did not intervene and some station managers, on their own initiative, provided additional toilet facilities. Transport Minister John Reith , and

8555-449: The UK for air raid protection during World War II . Railway arches were deep, curved structures of brick or concrete, set into the vertical sidewalls of railway lines, which had been intended originally for commercial depots, etc. The arches were covered usually with wooden or brick screen - or curtain walls , thus giving a considerable amount of protection against air raids – provided, of course, that railway lines were not

8700-446: The UK to build 80 specially adapted London Underground stations as shelters. However, during World War II, the government initially ruled out using these as shelters. After Londoners flooded into underground stations during The Blitz , the government reversed its policy. The UK began building street communal shelters as air raid shelters in 1940. Anderson shelters, designed in 1938 and built to hold up to six people, were in common use in

8845-595: The UK. Indoor shelters known as Morrison shelters were introduced as well. Air raid shelters are still in use to some extent in various nations such as Spain, Switzerland, Israel, Singapore and Taiwan. Air raid shelters were built to serve as protection against enemy air raids . Existing edifices designed for other functions, such as underground stations (tube or subway stations ), tunnels , cellars in houses or basements in larger establishments and railway arches, above ground, were suitable for safeguarding people during air raids. A commonly used home shelter known as

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8990-460: The United Kingdom, it was being recognised early that public shelters in open spaces, especially near streets, were urgently needed for pedestrians, drivers and passengers in passing vehicles, etc. The programme of building street communal shelters commenced in March 1940, the government supplying the materials, and being the moving force behind the scheme, and private builders executing the work under

9135-481: The amenities in existing shelters", he promised. "We're setting about providing better lighting and better accommodation for sleeping and better sanitary arrangements." The Ministries of Home Security and Transport jointly issued an "urgent appeal", telling the public "to refrain from using Tube stations as air-raid shelters except in the case of urgent necessity". Over the night of 19/20 September, thousands of Londoners took matters in their own hands. They had flocked to

9280-444: The arrival of inhabitants from other buildings rendered unsafe in earlier attacks. Some occupants perished from heat stroke or carbon monoxide poisoning. Hochbunker ( lit.   ' high-rise bunkers ' or blockhouses ), were a type of construction designed to relieve the pressure Nazi German authorities were facing to accommodate additional numbers of the population in high-density housing areas, as well as pedestrians on

9425-424: The authorities than was possible in the UK. All that was necessary was to ascertain that cellars were being prepared to accommodate all the residents of a building; that all the cellar hatch and window protections were in place; that access to the cellars was safe in the event of an air raid; that once inside, the occupants were secure for any incidents other than direct hits during the air raid and that means of escape

9570-421: The bunker complex for the night. After several weeks of this routine, Hitler seldom left the bunker except for short strolls in the chancellery garden with his dog Blondi . The bunker was crowded, the atmosphere was oppressive, and air raids occurred daily. Hitler mostly stayed on the lower level, where it was quieter and he could sleep. Conferences took place for much of the night, often until 05:00. On 16 April,

9715-483: The capital during most of the war. Increased bombing of Berlin led to expansion of the complex as an improvised permanent shelter. The elaborate complex consisted of two separate shelters, the Vorbunker ("forward bunker"; the upper bunker), completed in 1936, and the Führerbunker , located 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) lower than the Vorbunker and to the west-southwest, completed in 1944. They were connected by

9860-461: The casing during construction and filling the casing annulus with an appropriate sealing material. The sealing material (grout) should be placed from immediately above the production zone back to surface, because, in the absence of a correctly constructed casing seal, contaminated fluid can travel into the well through the casing annulus. Centering devices are important (usually one per length of casing or at maximum intervals of 9 m) to ensure that

10005-493: The chairman of London Transport, Lord Ashfield , inspected Holborn tube station to see for themselves. The government realised that it could not contain this popular revolt. On 21 September, it abruptly changed policy, removing its objections to the use of tube stations. In what it called part of its "deep shelter extension policy", it decided to close the short section of Piccadilly line from Holborn to Aldwych , and convert different sections for specific wartime use, including

10150-487: The circular towers contained helical floors that gradually curved their way upward within the circular walls. Many of these structures may still be seen. They have been converted into offices, storage space; some have even been adapted for hotels, hospitals and schools, as well as many other peacetime purposes. In Schöneberg , a block of flats was built over the Pallasstrasse air-raid shelter after World War II. During

10295-643: The collieries to the river Tyne, had been closed in 1860 and remained so until 1939. In places the tunnels were 12 metres (39 ft) deep, the tunnels, stretching in parts beneath the city of Newcastle, were converted to air raid shelters with a capacity for 9,000 people. Tunnels linked to landing stages built on the River Irwell in Manchester at the end of the nineteenth century were also used as air-raid shelters. The medieval labyrinth of tunnels beneath Dover Castle had been built originally as part of

10440-483: The contamination and generally requires some expertise and testing for effective application. After the filtration process, it is common to implement an ultraviolet (UV) system to kill pathogens in the water. UV light affects the DNA of the pathogen by UV-C photons breaking through the cell wall. UV disinfection has been gaining popularity in the past decades as it is a chemical-free method of water treatment. A risk with

10585-653: The crisis, the British Government decided to make these a permanent feature, with a standard design of precast concrete trench lining. Unfortunately these turned out to perform very poorly. They also decided to issue free to poorer households the Anderson shelter , and to provide steel props to create shelters in suitable basements. During World War II, many types of structures were used as air raid shelters, such as cellars, Hochbunker (in Germany), basements, and underpasses. Bombing raids during World War I led

10730-488: The defensive system of the approaches to England, extended over the centuries and further excavated and reinforced during the world wars, until it was capable of accommodating large parts of the secret defence systems protecting the British Isles. On 26 May 1940, it became the headquarters under Vice Admiral Bertram Ramsay of Operation Dynamo , from which the rescue and evacuation of up to 338,000 troops from France

10875-594: The defensive." SS- Brigadeführer Wilhelm Mohnke , commander of the centre government district of Berlin, informed Hitler during the morning of 30 April that he would be able to hold for less than two days. Later that morning, Weidling informed Hitler that the defenders would probably exhaust their ammunition that night and again asked him for permission to break out. Weidling finally received permission at about 13:00. Hitler shot himself later that afternoon, at around 15:30, while Eva took cyanide . In accordance with Hitler's instructions, his and Eva's bodies were burned in

11020-522: The design and installation of private and municipal septic systems take all these factors into account so that nearby drinking water sources are protected. Education of the general population in society also plays an important role in protecting drinking water. Cleanup of contaminated groundwater tends to be very costly. Effective remediation of groundwater is generally very difficult. Contamination of groundwater from surface and subsurface sources can usually be dramatically reduced by correctly centering

11165-429: The different sections. Sections were normally furnished with six bunks. The construction work then went on rapidly, until the resources of concrete and bricks began to be depleted due to the excessive demand placed on them so suddenly. Also, the performance of the early street shelters was a serious blow to public confidence. Their walls were shaken down either by earth shock or blast, and the concrete roofs then fell onto

11310-572: The dire situation and placed his hopes on the units commanded by Waffen-SS General Felix Steiner , the Armeeabteilung Steiner (" Army Detachment Steiner "). On 21 April, Hitler ordered Steiner to attack the northern flank of the encircling Soviet salient and ordered the German Ninth Army , south-east of Berlin, to attack northward in a pincer attack . That evening, Red Army tanks reached the outskirts of Berlin. Hitler

11455-420: The door—a total of fourteen panels. A small drainage sump was often incorporated in the floor to collect rainwater seeping into the shelter. The shelters were 1.8 metres (6 ft) high, 1.4 metres (4.5 ft) wide, and 2.0 metres (6.5 ft) long. When installed underground, they were buried 1.2 metres (4 ft) deep in the soil and then covered with a minimum of 38 centimetres (15 in) of soil above

11600-424: The drilled well, vertically stacked with their ends nested and either glued or splined together. The sections of casing are usually 6 metres (20 ft) or more in length, and 4 to 12 in (10 to 30 cm) in diameter, depending on the intended use of the well and local groundwater conditions. Surface contamination of wells in the United States is typically controlled by the use of a surface seal . A large hole

11745-434: The drilling process is completed, regardless of the machinery used. The oldest form of drilling machinery is the cable tool , still used today. Specifically designed to raise and lower a bit into the bore hole, the spudding of the drill causes the bit to be raised and dropped onto the bottom of the hole, and the design of the cable causes the bit to twist at approximately 1 ⁄ 4 revolution per drop, thereby creating

11890-414: The family to sleep under the shelter at night or during raids, and to use it as a dining table in the daytime, making it a practical item in the house. Half a million Morrison shelters had been distributed by the end of 1941, with a further 100,000 being added in 1943 to prepare the population for the expected German V-1 flying bomb (doodlebug) attacks. In one examination of 44 severely damaged houses it

12035-513: The formation, thus the term "drilling." Drilled wells can be excavated by simple hand drilling methods (augering, sludging, jetting, driving, hand percussion) or machine drilling (auger, rotary, percussion, down the hole hammer). Deep rock rotary drilling method is most common. Rotary can be used in 90% of formation types (consolidated). Drilled wells can get water from a much deeper level than dug wells can − often down to several hundred metres. Drilled wells with electric pumps are used throughout

12180-493: The garden behind the Reich Chancellery. Goebbels became the new Head of Government and Chancellor of Germany ( Reichskanzler ) in accordance with Hitler's last will and testament. Reichskanzler Goebbels and Bormann sent a radio message to Dönitz at 03:15, informing him of Hitler's death, and that he was the new Head of State and President of Germany ( Reichspräsident ), in accordance with Hitler's last will and testament. Krebs talked to General Vasily Chuikov , commander of

12325-526: The garden. The Führerbunker development was built by the Hochtief company as part of an extensive programme of subterranean construction in Berlin begun in 1940. The construction cost for the Führerbunker totaled 1,349,899.29 Reichsmarks . Hitler's accommodations were in this newer, lower section, and by February 1945 it had been decorated with high-quality furniture taken from the Chancellery, along with several framed oil paintings. After descending

12470-486: The government. The Anderson shelter was designed in 1938 by William Paterson and Oscar Carl (Karl) Kerrison in response to a request from the Home Office. It was named after Sir John Anderson , then Lord Privy Seal with special responsibility for preparing air-raid precautions immediately prior to the outbreak of World War II, and it was he who then initiated the development of the shelter. After evaluation by David Anderson, Bertram Lawrence Hurst, and Sir Henry Jupp, of

12615-427: The grouted annular space is of even thickness. Upon the construction of a new test well, it is considered best practice to invest in a complete battery of chemical and biological tests on the well water in question. Point-of-use treatment is available for individual properties and treatment plants are often constructed for municipal water supplies that suffer from contamination. Most of these treatment methods involve

12760-694: The growth of iron and manganese bacteria that can form slimy black colonies that clog pipes. The quality of the well water can be significantly increased by lining the well, sealing the well head, fitting a self-priming hand pump, constructing an apron, ensuring the area is kept clean and free from stagnant water and animals, moving sources of contamination ( pit latrines , garbage pits, on-site sewer systems ) and carrying out hygiene education. The well should be cleaned with 1% chlorine solution after construction and periodically every 6 months. Well holes should be covered to prevent loose debris, animals, animal excrement, and wind-blown foreign matter from falling into

12905-480: The head. The last defenders in the area of the bunker complex were mainly made up of Frenchmen of the 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne , others being Waffen-SS from the remnants of the 11th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division Nordland , Latvian SS and Spanish SS units. A group of French SS remained in the area of the bunker until the early morning of 2 May. The Soviet forces then captured

13050-515: The height between 20 and 25 metres (66 and 82 ft). The walls of the towers had a minimum thickness for reinforced concrete of 0.8 metres (2 ft 7 in) and 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) for ordinary concrete. The towers were able to shelter between 164 and 500 people, depending on the type. The intent with the Winkeltürme and the other Hochbunker was to protect workers in rail yards and industrial areas. Because of their shape,

13195-560: The helpless occupants, and this was there for all to see. At around the same time rumours of accidents started to circulate, such as on one occasion people being drowned due to a burst main filling up the shelter with water. Although much improved designs were being introduced whose performance had been demonstrated in explosion trials, communal shelters became highly unpopular, and shortly afterwards householders were being encouraged to build or have built private shelters on their properties, or within their houses, with materials being supplied by

13340-416: The hole and decomposing. The cover should be able to be in place at all times, including when drawing water from the well. A suspended roof over an open hole helps to some degree, but ideally the cover should be tight fitting and fully enclosing, with only a screened air vent. Minimum distances and soil percolation requirements between sewage disposal sites and water wells need to be observed. Rules regarding

13485-635: The hole. A well-digging team digs under a cutting ring and the well column slowly sinks into the aquifer , whilst protecting the team from collapse of the well bore . Hand-dug wells are inexpensive and low tech (compared to drilling) and they use mostly manual labour to access groundwater in rural locations of developing countries. They may be built with a high degree of community participation, or by local entrepreneurs who specialize in hand-dug wells. They have been successfully excavated to 60 metres (200 ft). They have low operational and maintenance costs, in part because water can be extracted by hand, without

13630-561: The hole. Driven wells can be created in unconsolidated material with a well hole structure, which consists of a hardened drive point and a screen of perforated pipe, after which a pump is installed to collect the water. Deeper wells can be excavated by hand drilling methods or machine drilling, using a bit in a borehole . Drilled wells are usually cased with a factory-made pipe composed of steel or plastic. Drilled wells can access water at much greater depths than dug wells. Two broad classes of well are shallow or unconfined wells completed within

13775-411: The houses. Well water Wells have traditionally been sunk by hand digging, as is still the case in rural areas of the developing world. These wells are inexpensive and low-tech as they use mostly manual labour, and the structure can be lined with brick or stone as the excavation proceeds. A more modern method called caissoning uses pre-cast reinforced concrete well rings that are lowered into

13920-507: The intensive bombing of London on 7 September 1940 and the overnight raids of 7/8 September, there was considerable pressure to change the policy but, even following a review on 17 September, the government stood firm. On 19 September, William Mabane , parliamentary secretary to the Ministry of Home Security, urged the public not to leave their Anderson shelters for public shelters, saying it deprived others of shelter. "We're going to improve

14065-615: The largest 3,850 (subsequently expanded to take up to 6,500 people.) The largest of the Stockport Air Raid Shelters are open to the public as part of the town's museum service. In southeast London, residents made use of the Chislehurst Caves beneath Chislehurst , a 35-kilometre-long (22 mi) network of caves which have existed since the Middle Ages for the mining of chalk and flint . In

14210-412: The last vestiges of these Nazi landmarks. The construction of the buildings in the area around the Führerbunker was a strategy for ensuring the surroundings remained anonymous and unremarkable. The emergency exit point for the Führerbunker (which had been in the Chancellery gardens) was occupied by a car park . On 8 June 2006, during the lead-up to the 2006 FIFA World Cup , an information board

14355-435: The location of the Ninth Army. Fourthly of the precise place in which the Ninth Army will break through. Fifthly of the whereabouts of General Rudolf Holste 's spearhead." In the early morning of 30 April, Jodl replied to Krebs: "Firstly, Wenck's spearhead bogged down south of Schwielow Lake . Secondly, Twelfth Army therefore unable to continue attack on Berlin. Thirdly, bulk of Ninth Army surrounded. Fourthly, Holste's Corps on

14500-401: The new Reich Chancellery building at Voßstraße  6. Besides being deeper under ground, the Führerbunker had significantly more reinforcement. Its roof was made of concrete almost 3 m (9 ft 10 in) thick. About 30 small rooms were protected by approximately 4 m (13 ft 1 in) of concrete; exits led into the main buildings, as well as an emergency exit up to

14645-410: The old bunker complex were mostly destroyed during reconstruction of that area of Berlin. The site remained unmarked until 2006, when a small plaque was installed with a schematic diagram. Some corridors of the bunker still exist but are sealed off from the public. The Reich Chancellery bunker was initially constructed as a temporary air-raid shelter for Hitler, who actually spent very little time in

14790-446: The pattern of all-night alerts became established, it was realised that in winter Anderson shelters installed outside were cold damp holes in the ground and often flooded in wet weather, and so their occupancy factor would be poor. This led to the development of the indoor Morrison shelter . At the end of the war in Europe, households who had received an Anderson shelter were expected to remove their shelters and local authorities began

14935-514: The period of World War I , after which detached and semi-detached properties were constructed without cellars, usually to avoid the higher building costs entailed. Since house building had increased vastly between the wars, the lack of cellars in more recent housing became a major problem in the Air Raid Precautions (ARP) programmes in the UK during World War II. Alternatives had to be found speedily once it became clear that Germany

15080-406: The placement of water wells is soil salination which occurs when the water table of the soil begins to drop and salt begins to accumulate as the soil begins to dry out. Another environmental problem that is very prevalent in water well drilling is the potential for methane to seep through. The potential for soil salination is a large risk when choosing the placement of water wells. Soil salination

15225-416: The prime target of the attack at the particular time and so being more likely to suffer from direct hits. Each arch could accommodate anything from around 60 to 150 people. However, fewer people could find shelter at night as sleeping areas for the occupants took up more of the space available – a limitation applying to any other type of shelter as well. Subways were actual thoroughfares also in

15370-450: The principles of design of the shelter as an introduction to his theory of plastic design of structures, which can be summarised as follows: It was impractical to produce a design for mass production that could withstand a direct hit, and so it was a matter of selecting a suitable design target that would save lives in many cases of blast damage to bombed houses. Examination of bombed buildings indicated that in many instances, one end wall of

15515-408: The protection of non-combatants as well as combatants against enemy attacks from the air. They are similar to bunkers in many regards, although they are not designed to defend against ground attack (but many have been used as defensive structures in such situations). Prior to World War II , in 1924, an Air Raid Precautions Committee was set up in the United Kingdom. For years, little progress

15660-403: The remains were only partially burned and not buried. Weidling had given the order for the survivors to break out to the northwest, and the plan got underway at around 23:00. The first group from the Reich Chancellery was led by Mohnke; they tried unsuccessfully to break through the Soviet rings and were captured the next day. Mohnke was interrogated by SMERSH , like others who were captured from

15805-466: The roof. When they were buried outside, the earth banks could be planted with vegetables and flowers, that at times could be quite an appealing sight and in this way would become the subject of competitions of the best-planted shelter among householders in the neighbourhood. The internal fitting out of the shelter was left to the owner and so there were wide variations in comfort. Anderson shelters were issued free to all householders who earned less than £5

15950-535: The same day, General Hans Krebs made his last telephone call from the Führerbunker to Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel , Chief of German Armed Forces High Command (OKW) in Fürstenberg . Krebs told him that all would be lost if relief did not arrive within 48 hours. Keitel promised to exert the utmost pressure on Generals Walther Wenck , commander of the Twelfth Army , and Theodor Busse , commander of

16095-478: The screen and the borehole or casing. This allows the water to be filtered of unwanted materials before entering the well and pumping zone. There are two broad classes of drilled-well types, based on the type of aquifer the well is in: A special type of water well may be constructed adjacent to freshwater lakes or streams. Commonly called a collector well but sometimes referred to by the trade name Ranney well or Ranney collector , this type of well involves sinking

16240-405: The shape of arches, normally allowing passage underneath railway lines. Prior to the beginning of the war, shelter policy had been determined by John Anderson , then Lord Privy Seal and, on the declaration of war, Home Secretary and Minister of Home Security. Anderson announced the policy to Parliament on 20 April 1939, based on a report from a committee chaired by Lord Hailey. This reaffirmed

16385-642: The shelter, and insufficient support structures threatened to cause the collapse of basements. When the Wilkinson's Lemonade factory in North Shields received a direct hit on Saturday, 3 May 1941 during a German attack on the north-east coast of England, 107 occupants lost their lives when heavy machinery fell through the ceiling of the basement in which they were sheltering. British cities, prepared for use of railway arches and underpasses in 1935. And railway arches and subways were operationalized in

16530-414: The site was undeveloped and neglected until 1988–89. During extensive construction of residential housing and other buildings on the site, work crews uncovered several underground sections of the old bunker complex; for the most part these were destroyed. Other parts of the Chancellery underground complex were uncovered, but these were ignored, filled in, or resealed. Government authorities wanted to destroy

16675-441: The stairs into the lower section and passing through the steel door, there was a long corridor with a series of rooms on each side. On the right side were a series of rooms which included generator/ventilation rooms and the telephone switchboard. On the left side was Eva Braun's bedroom/sitting room (also known as Hitler's private guest room), an antechamber (also known as Hitler's sitting room), which led into Hitler's study/office. On

16820-400: The station. The crowd suddenly surged forward upon hearing the unfamiliar sound of a new type of anti-aircraft rocket being launched nearby. Someone stumbled on the stairs, and the crowd pushing on, were falling on top of one another, and 173 people were crushed to death in the disaster. The London Underground system was considered one of the safest means of protecting relatively many people in

16965-562: The stations. None of these concerns had been borne out by experience during the bombing raids of the First World War, when eighty specially adapted tube stations had been pressed into use, but in a highly controversial decision in January 1924, Anderson, then chairman of the Air Raid Precautions Committee of Imperial Defence, had ruled out the tube station shelter option in any future conflict. Following

17110-437: The streets during air raids. In contrast to other shelters, these buildings were considered completely bomb-proof. They had the advantage of being built upward, which was much cheaper than downward excavation. Hochbunker usually consisted of large concrete blocks above ground with walls between 1 and 1.5 metres (3 ft 3 in and 4 ft 11 in) thick and with huge lintels above doorways and openings. They often had

17255-438: The supervision of surveyors. These shelters consisted of 360-millimetre (14 in) brick walls and 300-millimetre-thick (1 ft) reinforced concrete roofs, similarly to, but much larger than, the private shelters in backyards and gardens being introduced slightly later. The communal shelters were usually intended to accommodate about fifty persons, and were divided into various sections by interior walls with openings connecting

17400-431: The surface can easily reach shallow sources and contamination of the supply by pathogens or chemical contaminants needs to be avoided. Well water typically contains more minerals in solution than surface water and may require treatment before being potable. Soil salination can occur as the water table falls and the surrounding soil begins to dry out. Another environmental problem is the potential for methane to seep into

17545-413: The surface to the next confining layer that keeps contaminants from traveling down the outer sidewalls of the casing or borehole and into the aquifer . In addition, wells are typically capped with either an engineered well cap or seal that vents air through a screen into the well, but keeps insects, small animals, and unauthorized persons from accessing the well. At the bottom of wells, based on formation,

17690-440: The task of reclaiming the corrugated iron. Householders who wished to keep their Anderson shelter (or more likely the valuable metal) could pay a nominal fee. Because of the large number made and their robustness, many Anderson shelters still survive. Many were dug up after the war and converted into storage sheds for use in gardens and allotments . The Morrison shelter , officially termed Table (Morrison) Indoor Shelter , had

17835-592: The towers became known colloquially as "cigar stubs" or "sugar beets". The theory behind the Winkeltürme was that the curved walls would deflect any bomb hitting the tower, directing it down towards the base. The towers had a small footprint, which was probably a greater protection. A US bomb did hit one tower in Bremen in October 1944; the bomb exploded through the roof, killing five people inside. Miklat ( Hebrew : מקלט , lit.   ' protected place ' ) Is

17980-508: The upper Vorbunker . Two or three dozen support, medical, and administrative staff were also sheltered there. These included Hitler's secretaries (including Traudl Junge ), a nurse named Erna Flegel , and Sergeant Rochus Misch , who was both bodyguard and telephone switchboard operator. Initially, Hitler continued to use the undamaged wing of the Reich Chancellery, where he held afternoon military conferences in his large study. Afterwards, he would have tea with his secretaries before returning to

18125-407: The uppermost saturated aquifer at that location, and deep or confined wells, sunk through an impermeable stratum into an aquifer beneath. A collector well can be constructed adjacent to a freshwater lake or stream with water percolating through the intervening material. The site of a well can be selected by a hydrogeologist , or groundwater surveyor. Water may be pumped or hand drawn. Impurities from

18270-418: The use of the well: A water well constructed for pumping groundwater can be used passively as a monitoring well and a small diameter well can be pumped, but this distinction by use is common. Before excavation, information about the geology, water table depth, seasonal fluctuations, recharge area and rate should be found if possible. This work can be done by a hydrogeologist , or a groundwater surveyor using

18415-583: The wall hung a large portrait of Frederick the Great , one of Hitler's heroes. A door led into Hitler's modestly furnished bedroom. Next to it was the conference/map room (also known as the briefing/situation room) which had a door that led out into the waiting room/anteroom. The bunker complex was self-contained. However, as the Führerbunker was below the water table , conditions were unpleasantly damp, with pumps running continuously to remove groundwater . A diesel generator provided electricity, and well water

18560-463: The war. Many other types of tunnels were adapted for shelters to protect the civil population, and the military and administrative establishment in the UK during the war. Some had been built many years before, some had been part of an ancient defence system, and some had belonged to commercial enterprises, such as coal mining. The Victoria tunnels at Newcastle upon Tyne , for example, completed as long ago as 1842, and used for transporting coal from

18705-490: The water. Very early neolithic wells are known from the Eastern Mediterranean : The oldest reliably dated well is from the pre-pottery neolithic (PPN) site of Kissonerga-Mylouthkia on Cyprus . At around 8400 BC a shaft (well 116) of circular diameter was driven through limestone to reach an aquifer at a depth of 8 metres (26 ft). Well 2070 from Kissonerga-Mylouthkia, dating to the late PPN, reaches

18850-515: The well bore, falling objects and asphyxiation, including from dewatering pump exhaust fumes. The Woodingdean Water Well , hand-dug between 1858 and 1862, is the deepest hand-dug well at 392 metres (1,285 ft). The Big Well in Greensburg, Kansas , is billed as the world's largest hand-dug well, at 109 feet (33 m) deep and 32 feet (9.8 m) in diameter. However, the Well of Joseph in

18995-400: The well slowly decreases and is removed from the well. Rock wells are typically cased with a PVC liner/casing and screen or slotted casing at the bottom, this is mostly present just to keep rocks from entering the pump assembly. Some wells utilize a filter pack method, where an undersized screen or slotted casing is placed inside the well and a filter medium is packed around the screen, between

19140-430: The work, but when they arrived the next morning, an NKVD armed guard met them and accused them of removing documents from the Chancellery. This was denied, but no further outside investigation was allowed until years later. The outer ruins of both Chancellery buildings were levelled by the Soviets between 1945 and 1949 as part of an effort to destroy the landmarks of Nazi Germany. A detailed interior site investigation by

19285-402: The world, typically in rural or sparsely populated areas, though many urban areas are supplied partly by municipal wells. Most shallow well drilling machines are mounted on large trucks, trailers, or tracked vehicle carriages. Water wells typically range from 3 to 18 metres (10–60 ft) deep, but in some areas it can go deeper than 900 metres (3,000 ft). Rotary drilling machines use

19430-444: Was available. The inadequacies of cellars and basements became apparent in the firestorms during the incendiary attacks on the larger German inner cities, especially Hamburg and Dresden . When burning buildings and apartment blocks above them collapsed in the raging winds (which could reach well over 800 °C or 1,470 °F), the occupants often became trapped in these basement shelters, which had also become overcrowded after

19575-521: Was burned to evaporate brine and produce salt . By the 10th century, extensive bamboo pipelines connected oil wells with salt springs. The ancient records of China and Japan are said to contain many allusions to the use of natural gas for lighting and heating. Petroleum was known as Burning water in Japan in the 7th century. Until recent centuries, all artificial wells were pumpless hand-dug wells of varying degrees of sophistication, and they remain

19720-631: Was contemplating air raids as a means of demoralising the population and disrupting supply lines in the UK. Initial recommendations were that householders should shelter under the stairs. Later, authorities supplied materials to households to construct communal street shelters and Morrison and Anderson shelters . Basements also became available for the use of air raid shelters. Basements under factory premises, schools, hospitals, department stores and other businesses were utilised. However, these ad hoc shelters could bring additional dangers, as heavy machinery and materials or water storage facilities above

19865-485: Was directed. In Stockport , 6 mi (9.7 km) south of Manchester, four sets of underground air raid shelter tunnels for civilian use were dug into the red sandstone on which the town centre stands. Preparation started in September 1938 and the first set of shelters was opened on 28 October 1939. (Stockport was not bombed until 11 October 1940.) The smallest of the tunnel shelters could accommodate 2,000 people and

20010-420: Was found that 3 people had been killed, 13 seriously injured, and 16 slightly injured out of a total of 136 people who had occupied Morrison shelters; thus 120 out of 136 escaped from severely bomb-damaged houses without serious injury. Furthermore, it was discovered that the fatalities had occurred in a house which had suffered a direct hit, and some of the severely injured were in shelters sited incorrectly within

20155-455: Was installed to mark the location of the Führerbunker . The board, including a schematic diagram of the bunker, can be found at the corner of In den Ministergärten and Gertrud-Kolmar-Straße, two small streets about three minutes' walk from Potsdamer Platz . Rochus Misch , one of the last people living who was in the bunker at the time of Hitler's suicide, attended the ceremony. Air raid shelter Air raid shelters are structures for

20300-541: Was made with shelters because of the apparently irreconcilable conflict between the need to send the public underground for shelter and the need to keep them above ground for protection against gas attacks . In 1935, every city in the country was given a document to prepare air raid shelters. In February 1936 the Home Secretary appointed a technical Committee on Structural Precautions against Air Attack. By November 1937, there had only been slow progress, because of

20445-453: Was ordered to get the Luftwaffe to attack the Soviet forces that had just reached Potsdamer Platz , only a city block from the Führerbunker . During the night of 28 April, General Wenck reported to Keitel that his Twelfth Army had been forced back along the entire front and it was no longer possible for his army to relieve Berlin. Keitel gave Wenck permission to break off the attempt. Hitler married Eva Braun after midnight on 28–29 April in

20590-628: Was pumped in as the water supply. Communications systems included a telex , a telephone switchboard, and an army radio set with an outdoor antenna. As conditions deteriorated at the end of the war, Hitler received much of his war news from BBC radio broadcasts and via courier. Hitler moved into the Führerbunker on 16 January 1945, joined by his senior staff, including Martin Bormann . Eva Braun and Joseph Goebbels joined them in April, while Magda Goebbels and their six children took residence in

20735-566: Was that they each bit on a cyanide ampule and were given a coup de grâce immediately afterwards. Goebbels' SS adjutant Günther Schwägermann testified in 1948 that the couple walked ahead of him up the stairs and out to the Chancellery garden. He waited in the stairwell and heard the shots, then walked up the remaining stairs and saw the lifeless bodies of the couple outside. He then followed Joseph Goebbels' order and had an SS soldier fire several shots into Goebbels' body, which did not move. The bodies were then doused with petrol and set alight, but

20880-460: Was to keep order, give first aid and assist in case of the flooding of the tunnels. Businesses (for example Plessey Ltd ) were allowed to use the Underground stations and unopened tunnels; government offices were installed in others and the anti-aircraft centre for London used a station as its headquarters. Tube stations and tunnels were still vulnerable to a direct hit and on 14 October 1940,

21025-404: Was told at his afternoon situation conference on 22 April that Steiner's forces had not moved, and he fell into a tearful rage when he realised that the attack was not going to be carried out. He openly declared for the first time the war was lost—and he blamed his generals. Hitler announced that he would stay in Berlin until the end and then shoot himself. On 23 April, Hitler appointed General of

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