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53-633: The name Kâte means 'forest', an epithet for the inlanders on the tip of the Huon peninsula, excepting the people living along the Mape River (Flierl and Strauss 1977). The coastal people to the south, mostly speaking Jabêm, are called Hâwec 'sea' and those to the north, speaking Momare and Migabac, are called Sopâc 'grass'. These were geographical rather than language names. The indigenous glossonyms referred to smaller linguistics units that can be called dialects. McElhanon (1974: 16) identifies five dialects at

106-424: A focus on epithet as a smear word,' writes David Binder, my longtime Times colleague, 'which was still a synonym for 'delineation' or 'characterization' in my big 1942 Webster's but now seems to be almost exclusively a synonym for 'derogation' or 'smear word.' ... In the past century, [epithet] blossomed as 'a word of abuse,' today gleefully seized upon to describe political smears." Descriptive bynames were given to

159-485: A modifier from the animate to the inanimate; for example, "cheerful money" and "suicidal sky". Orators take special care when using epithets so as to not use them as smear words. Orators could be accused of racial or abusive epithets if used incorrectly. American journalist William Safire discussed the use of the word in a 2008 column in The New York Times : "'I am working on a piece about nationalism with

212-520: A person to distinguish them from other people of the same name. In England bynames were used during the period when the use of surnames had not been extensively adopted. As an example the Domesday Book of 1086 identifies 40 individuals with the given name of "Richard". Most (40%), such as "Richard of Coursey" are identified with a locational byname, indicating where they came from, or in some cases where they lived. Others (25%), such as "Richard

265-422: A persuasive tactic. Orators have a variety of epithets that they can employ that have different meanings. The most common are fixed epithets and transferred epithets. A fixed epithet is the repetitive use of the same word or phrase for the same person or object. A transferred epithet qualifies a noun other than the person or thing it is describing. This is also known as a hypallage. This can often involve shifting

318-465: A phenomenon with the syntax–semantics interface , because they have components of both, and also a pragmatic dimension. An epithet is linked to its noun by long-established usage. Not every adjective is an epithet. An epithet is especially recognizable when its function is largely decorative, such as if "cloud-gathering Zeus" is employed other than in reference to conjuring up a storm. "The epithets are decorative insofar as they are neither essential to

371-467: A reference to the mythological place of birth or numinous presence at a specific sanctuary: sacrifice might be offered on one and the same occasion to Pythian Apollo ( Apollo Pythios ) and Delphic Apollo ( Apollo Delphinios ). A localizing epithet refers simply to a particular center of veneration and the cultic tradition there, as the god manifested at a particular festival, for example: Zeus Olympios, Zeus as present at Olympia, or Apollo Karneios, Apollo at

424-450: Is " Apollo , [as] leader of the Muses " and therefore patron of the arts and sciences, while Phoibos Apollo is the same deity, but as shining sun-god. " Athena protects the city as polias , oversees handicrafts as ergane , joins battle as promachos and grants victory as nike ." Alternatively, the epithet may identify a particular and localized aspect of the god, such as

477-414: Is also considered an epithet. The Greek term antonomasia , in rhetoric, means substituting any epithet or phrase for a proper name, as "Pelides", signifying the "son of Peleus", to identify Achilles . An opposite substitution of a proper name for some generic term is also sometimes called antonomasia , as a Cicero for an orator. The use of a father's name or ancestor's name, such as "Pelides" in

530-779: Is barely phonemic in the Wemo dialect, but corresponds to a wider variety of syllable-final consonants in Western Huon languages ( -p, -t, -k, -m, -n, -ŋ ), which are neutralized (to -c, -ŋ ) in the Eastern Huon languages, including Kâte. Pilhofer (1933) writes the lateral flap with an l , but Schneuker (1962) and Flierl and Strauss (1977) write it with an r . The fricatives f and w are both labiodentals, according to Pilhofer (1933), but bilabials, according to Flierl and Strauss (1977). Alveopalatal z and ʒ are affricates, [ts] and [dz] respectively, but they otherwise pattern like

583-547: Is criticized by Martin Manser and other proponents of linguistic prescription . H. W. Fowler noted in 1926 that " epithet is suffering a vulgarization that is giving it an abusive imputation." Epithets are sometimes attached to a person's name or appear in place of their name, as what might be described as a glorified nickname or sobriquet , and for this reason some linguists have argued that they should be considered as pronouns . It has also been argued that epithets are

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636-458: Is marked as accusative, although not a direct object. In Russian , accusative is used not only to display the direct object of an action, but also to indicate the destination or goal of motion. It is also used with some prepositions. The prepositions в and на can both take accusative in situations where they are indicating the goal of a motion. In the masculine , Russian also distinguishes between animate and inanimate nouns with regard to

689-661: Is typical of early Indo-European languages and still exists in some of them (including Albanian , Armenian , Latin, Sanskrit , Greek , German , Nepali , Polish , Romanian , Russian , Serbian , and Ukrainian ), in the Finno-Ugric languages (such as Finnish and Hungarian), in all Turkic languages , in Dravidian languages like Malayalam and Tamil , and in Semitic languages (such as Arabic ). Some Balto-Finnic languages , such as Finnish, have two cases for objects,

742-803: Is usually combined with the nominative case (for example in Latin ). The English term, "accusative", derives from the Latin accusativus , which, in turn, is a translation of the Greek αἰτιατική . The word can also mean "causative", and that might have derived from the Greeks, but the sense of the Roman translation has endured and is used in some other modern languages as the grammatical term for this case, for example in Russian ( винительный ). The accusative case

795-524: The epitheton Comes as companion of another (usually major) divinity. An epithet can even be meant for collective use, e.g., in Latin pilleati , "the felt hat-wearers" for the brothers Castor and Pollux . Some epithets resist explanation. Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, and Christians of other churches practice the use of epithets in the veneration of Jesus (e.g., "Christ"; " Prince of Peace "; " The Good Shepherd "), of Mary, Mother of Jesus (e.g., " Mother of God "; " Panagia "), and of

848-402: The 1st person, presumably due to Austronesian influence. However, this distinction is not maintained in pronominal affixes. The table of free pronouns is from Pilhofer (1933: 51-52). Personal pronouns are only used to refer to animate beings. Demonstratives are used to refer to inanimates. Like nouns, free pronouns can occur in subject or object positions in clauses, although the longer form of

901-566: The Bald . The same epithet can be used repeatedly joined to different names, such as Alexander the Great as well as Constantine the Great . Other epithets can easily be omitted without serious risk of confusion and are therefore known as epitheton ornans . Thus, the classical Roman author Virgil systematically called his main hero pius Aeneas , the epithet being pius , meaning religiously observant, humble and wholesome, as well as calling

954-514: The Heavenly & Zeus the Protector of Guests" all the way to " Johnny Football & King James". American comic books tend to give epithets to superheroes , such as The Phantom being "The Ghost Who Walks", Superman called "The Man of Steel", and "The Dynamic Duo" Batman and Robin , who are individually known as "The Dark Knight" and "The Boy Wonder". Additionally, epíteto ,

1007-588: The Olympian Gods with Zeus . But in specific cults there may be a different equation, based on one specific aspect of the divinity. Thus, the Greek word Trismegistos ("thrice grand") was first used as a Greek name for the Egyptian god of science and invention, Thoth , later as an epitheton for the Greek Hermes and, finally, the fully equated Roman Mercurius Mercury (both were messenger of

1060-545: The Spanish version of epithet, is commonly used throughout poems in Castilian literature. In many polytheistic religions, such as those of ancient India and Iran (the most ancient of which go back to a common Indo-Iranian period), Greece and Rome, a deity's epithets generally reflected a particular aspect of that god's essence and role, for which their influence may be obtained for a specific occasion: Apollo Musagetes

1113-647: The Spartan Carneian festival . Often the epithet is the result of fusion of the Olympian divinity with an older one. Poseidon Erechtheus and Artemis Orthia reflect intercultural equations of a divinity with an older one that is generally considered its pendan. Thus, most Roman gods and goddesses, especially the Twelve Olympians , had traditional counterparts in Greek, Etruscan, and most other Mediterranean pantheons, such as Jupiter as head of

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1166-519: The accusative and the partitive case . In morphosyntactic alignment terms, both do the accusative function, but the accusative object is telic , while the partitive is not. Modern English almost entirely lacks declension in its nouns; pronouns, however, have an understood case usage, as in them , her , him and whom , which merges the accusative and dative functions, and originates in old Germanic dative forms (see Declension in English ). In

1219-424: The accusative case ( accusativus ) can be used: For the accusative endings, see Latin declensions . The accusative case is used for the direct object in a sentence. The masculine forms for German articles , e.g., "the", "a/an", "my", etc., change in the accusative case: they always end in -en. The feminine, neutral and plural forms do not change. For example, Hund (dog) is a masculine ( der ) word, so

1272-508: The accusative case. Another factor that determines the endings of adjectives is whether the adjective is being used after a definite article (the), after an indefinite article (a/an) or without any article before the adjective ( many green apples). In German, the accusative case is also used for some adverbial expressions, mostly temporal ones, as in Diesen Abend bleibe ich daheim (This evening I'm staying at home), where diesen Abend

1325-427: The accusative or the dative. The latter prepositions take the accusative when motion or action is specified (being done into/onto the space), but take the dative when location is specified (being done in/on that space). These prepositions are also used in conjunction with certain verbs, in which case it is the verb in question which governs whether the accusative or dative should be used. Adjective endings also change in

1378-407: The accusative; only the animates carry a marker in this case. The PIE accusative case has nearly eroded in Russian, merging with the genitive or the nominative in most declensions. Only singular first-declension nouns (ending in ' а ', ' я ', or ' ия ') have a distinct accusative (' у ', ' ю ', or ' ию '). Traditional Finnish grammars say the accusative is the case of a total object, while

1431-609: The argument had been stated at length." With persuasion being a key component of rhetoric, it is rational to use epithets. The use of persuasive wording gives leverage to one's arguments. Knowledge along with descriptive words or phrases can be a powerful tool. This is supported in Bryan Short's article when he states, "The New Rhetoric derives its empiricist flavor from a pervasive respect for clarity and directness of language." Rhetoricians use epithets to direct their audience to see their point of view, using verbal forms of imagery as

1484-482: The armsbearer of Aeneas fidus Achates , the epithet being fidus , which means faithful or loyal. Epithets are characteristic of the style of ancient epic poetry , notably in that of Homer or the northern European sagas (see above, as well as epithets in Homer ). When James Joyce uses the phrase "the snot-green sea" he is playing Homer's familiar epithet "the wine-dark sea". The phrase "Discreet Telemachus "

1537-441: The article changes when used in the accusative case: Some German pronouns also change in the accusative case. The accusative case is also used after particular German prepositions. These include bis , durch , für , gegen , ohne , um , after which the accusative case is always used, and an , auf , hinter , in , neben , über , unter , vor , zwischen which can govern either

1590-403: The butler" and "Richard the bald" are identified with an occupational or a personally descriptive byname. Some of the individuals, such as Richard Basset , made use of what would now be recognized as a surname. The distinction between a byname and a surname is that the byname is not usually heritable, and may change for any given person as his circumstances change. Richard the Bald, for example,

1643-547: The case of Achilles, or "Saturnia" in the case of the goddess Juno in Virgil's Aeneid , is specifically called a patronymic device and is in its own class of epithet. In William Shakespeare 's play Romeo and Juliet , epithets are used in the prologue, such as "star-cross'd lovers" and "death-mark'd love." Epithets were in layman's terms glorified nicknames that could be used to represent one's style, artistic nature, or even geographical reference. They originated to simply serve

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1696-405: The case of a partial object is the partitive . The accusative is identical either to the nominative or the genitive , except for personal pronouns and the personal interrogative pronoun kuka / ken , which have a special accusative form ending in -t . The major new Finnish grammar, Iso suomen kielioppi , breaks with the traditional classification to limit the accusative case to

1749-565: The dog). In German, masculine nouns change their definite article from der to den in the accusative case. In Nepali , "Rama sees Shyama" would be translated as रामले श्यामलाई देख्छ। Rama-le Shyama-lai dekhchha. The same sentence in Sanskrit would be रामः पश्यति श्यामम्। Rama: pashyati Shyamam . The accusative case in Latin has minor differences from the accusative case in Proto-Indo-European . Nouns in

1802-455: The gods). Among the Greeks, T.H. Price notes that the nurturing power of Kourotrophos might be invoked in sacrifices and recorded in inscription, without specifically identifying Hera or Demeter . Some epithets were applied to several deities of the same pantheon rather accidentally if they had a common characteristic, or deliberately, emphasizing their blood or other ties. Thus, in pagan Rome, several divinities gods and heroes were given

1855-708: The head noun frequently marks the end of a relative clause and the resumption of the matrix sentence, as in: ŋic man monda-o Monday-on ware-wec come- 3SG . FPST e 3SG ʒira here mi not fo-wec sleep- 3SG . FPST ŋic monda-o ware-wec e ʒira mi fo-wec man Monday-on come-3SG.FPST 3SG here not sleep-3SG.FPST 'the man who came on Monday did not stay here'. (Schneuker 1962: 31-32) Kâte has two types pronominal genitives : possessive suffixes on nouns, and preposed free pronouns suffixed with -re after final vowels or -ne after forms ending in -c (glottal stop) (Pilhofer 1933: 54-57; Schneuker 1962: 27-32). The latter suffix resembles

1908-529: The immediate context nor modeled especially for it. Among other things, they are extremely helpful to fill out a half-verse", Walter Burkert has noted. Some epithets are known by the Latin term epitheton necessarium , as they are required to distinguish the bearers, as an alternative to numbers after a prince's name—such as Richard the Lionheart ( Richard I of England ), or Charles the Fat alongside Charles

1961-534: The invariable -ne that turns nouns into adjectives, as in opâ 'water' > opâ-ne 'watery', hulili 'rainbow' > hulili-ne 'rainbow-colored', hâmoc 'death' > hâmoc-ne 'dead', or fiuc 'theft' > fiuc-ne 'thievish' (Pilhofer 1933: 49). Examples of preposed possessive pronouns include no-re fic 'my house'; no nahac-ne fic 'my very own house'; e-re hâmu 'his/her coconut palm'; jaŋe-re wiak 'their concern/matter' (Schneuker 1962: 28). Direct object ( accusative ) suffixes come between verb stems and

2014-458: The mill", while another might be described as "John Smith the short". Accusative In grammar , the accusative case ( abbreviated ACC ) of a noun is the grammatical case used to receive the direct object of a transitive verb . In the English language , the only words that occur in the accusative case are pronouns : "me", "him", "her", "us", "whom", and "them". For example,

2067-842: The name of a real or fictitious person, place, or thing. It is usually literally descriptive, as in Alfred the Great , Suleiman the Magnificent , Richard the Lionheart , and Ladislaus the Short , or allusive , as in Edward the Confessor , William the Conqueror , Æthelred the Unready , John Lackland , Mehmed the Conqueror and Bloody Mary . The word epithet also may refer to an abusive, defamatory, or derogatory word or phrase. This use

2120-553: The neighboring Mape dialects. All dialects of the chain are being supplanted by Wemo (Suter 2014: 19). Kâte distinguishes six vowels. The low back vowel â (representing /ɔ/) sounds like the vowel of UK English law or saw (Pilhofer 1933: 14). Length is not distinctive. The glottal stop, written -c , only occurs after a vowel and Pilhofer first describes it as a vowel feature that distinguishes, for instance, bo 'sugarcane' from boc 'very' and si 'planting' from sic 'broth'. However, McElhanon (1974) notes that final glottal stop

2173-521: The orator. "It will generally happen, that the Epithets employed by a skillful orator, will be found to be, in fact, so many abridged arguments, the force of which is sufficiently conveyed by a mere hint; e.g., if any one says, 'We ought to take warning from the bloody revolution of France,' the Epithet suggests one of the reasons for our being warned; and that, not less clearly, and more forcibly, than if

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2226-415: The pronoun she , as the subject of a clause , is in the nominative case ("She wrote a book"); but if the pronoun is instead the object of the verb, it is in the accusative case and she becomes her ("Fred greeted her"). For compound direct objects, it would be, e.g., "Fred invited her and me to the party". The accusative case is used in many languages for the objects of (some or all) prepositions . It

2279-429: The purpose of dealing with names that were hard to pronounce or just unpleasant. It from there went to something that could be very significant assigned by elders or counterparts to represent one's position in the community, or it could be a representation of whomever one wanted to be or thought he was. The elegance of this movement was used throughout history and even modern day, with many examples ranging from "Aphrodite

2332-545: The saints (e.g., " Pope Saint John Paul the Great , Saint Theophan the Recluse "). " Our Lady of Lourdes " is essentially periphrasis , except where some aspect of the Virgin is invoked. An epithet is an adjective or adjectival phrase that characterizes a place, a thing, or a person that helps make the characteristics of this thing more prominent. These descriptive phrases can be used in a positive or negative way that benefits

2385-423: The sentence The man sees the dog , the dog is the direct object of the verb "to see". In English , which has mostly lost grammatical cases, the definite article and noun – "the dog" – remain the same noun form without number agreement in the noun either as subject or object, though an artifact of it is in the verb and has number agreement, which changes to "sees". One can also correctly use "the dog" as

2438-576: The singular pronouns ( noni, goki, eki ) can only occur in subject position (Schneuker 1962: 28). Like nouns, free pronouns can also occur with directional affixes and case-marking postpositions, as in no-raonec 'from me'. go-raopec 'toward you', nâhe-hec 'with him and me', jaŋe tâmiric 'without them'. The forms in parentheses ending in -c are "emphatic pronouns" and can be added to regular pronouns, as in go gahac 'you yourself' or jahe jahac 'they themselves'. The free pronouns can also be appended to nouns to indicate A free pronoun coreferent with

2491-716: The special case of the personal pronouns and kuka / ken . The new grammar considers other total objects as being in the nominative or genitive case. The accusative case is assigned to the direct object in a sentence in Hungarian. The accusative marker is always -t , often preceded by a linking vowel to facilitate pronunciation. A The fiú boy eszik. eats. A fiú eszik. The boy eats. The boy eats. A The fiú boy eszik eats egy an almát. apple. ACC . A fiú eszik egy almát. The boy eats an apple.ACC. The boy eats an apple. Every personal pronoun has an accusative form. For

2544-509: The stops, except that z only occurs between vowels, while ʒ occurs morpheme-initially (Flierl and Strauss 1977: xv). Both Pilhofer (1933: 15) and Flierl and Strauss (1977) describe the labiovelars q and ɋ as coarticulated and simultaneously released [kp] and [gb], respectively. (The letter ɋ is a curly q with hooked tail that cannot properly be rendered if it is missing from system fonts.) Unlike pronouns in most Papuan languages, Kâte free pronouns distinguish inclusive and exclusive in

2597-589: The subject of a sentence: "The dog sees the cat." In a declined language, the morphology of the article or noun changes with gender agreement. For example, in German , "the dog" is der Hund . This is the form in the nominative case , used for the subject of a sentence. If this article/noun pair is used as the object of a verb, it (usually) changes to the accusative case, which entails an article shift in German ;– Der Mann sieht den Hund (The man sees

2650-477: The subject-marking suffixes (Pilhofer 1933: 40-43; Schneuker 1962: 30), Neŋgoc-ge-zi mother- 2SG - ERG nânâ food ba-ware-gare-wec hold-come- 2SG . DAT - 3SG . FPST me? Epithet An epithet (from Ancient Greek ἐπίθετον (epítheton)  'adjective', from ἐπίθετος (epíthetos)  'additional'), also a byname , is a descriptive term (word or phrase) commonly accompanying or occurring in place of

2703-665: The subject-marking suffixes. Simple vowel-final verb stems are obligatorily affixed with -c before accusative suffixes, except when the 3rd person singular object suffix is zero. Compare mamac-zi hone-c-gu-wec 'father saw me' vs. mamac-zi hone-wec 'father saw him/her'. (Pilhofer 1933: 38-43; Schneuker 1962: 29-30) Naru girl e 3SG ŋokac woman jajahec two bafi-c-jofa-wec. help-c- 3DU . ACC - 3SG . FPST Naru e ŋokac jajahec bafi-c-jofa-wec. girl 3SG woman two help-c-3DU.ACC-3SG.FPST 'The girl helped two women.' (Schneuker 1962: 30) Indirect object ( dative ) suffixes come between dative verb stems and

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2756-401: The time of earliest mission contact in 1886, each named according to how they pronounce a common word or phrase. Wana and Wemo are nearly identical, but they differ considerably from Mâgobineng and Wamorâ, to such an extent that these might be considered to be three closely related languages. Parec was probably a transitional dialect between Wemo and Wamorâ. The Kâte dialects formed a chain with

2809-455: Was presumably not always bald, and Richard of Brampton may not have always lived at Brampton. The use of bynames did not end with the adoption of surnames. In some cases, before the adoption of middle names, government records, such as taxes lists, included people with both the same given name and the same surname. This led to the use of bynames to further distinguish the person. For example, one "John Smith" might be described as "John Smith of

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