117-527: Mathieu Kérékou ( French pronunciation: [ma.tjø ke.ʁe.ku] ; 2 September 1933 – 14 October 2015) was a Beninese politician who served as president of the People's Republic of Benin from 1972 to 1991 and the Republic of Benin from 1996 to 2006. After seizing power in a military coup, he ruled the country for 18 years, for most of that time under an officially Marxist–Leninist ideology, before he
234-408: A Presidential Council after violence marred the 1970 elections. On 7 May 1972, Maga ceded power to Ahomadégbé. On 26 October 1972, Lt. Col. Mathieu Kérékou overthrew the ruling triumvirate, becoming president and stating that the country would not "burden itself by copying foreign ideology , and wants neither Capitalism, Communism, nor Socialism". On 30 November 1974, he announced that the country
351-483: A runoff between Yayi Boni and Adrien Houngbédji . The runoff election was held on 19 March and was won by Boni, who assumed office on 6 April. Boni was reelected in 2011 , taking 53.18% of the vote in the first round—enough to avoid a runoff election. He was the first president to win an election without a runoff since the restoration of democracy in 1991. In the March 2016 presidential elections in which Boni Yayi
468-505: A sovereign state , Benin has had democratic governments , military coups , and military governments . A self-described Marxist–Leninist state called the People's Republic of Benin existed between 1975 and 1990. In 1991, it was replaced by the multi-party Republic of Benin. The official language of Benin is French, with indigenous languages such as Fon , Bariba , Yoruba and Dendi also spoken. The largest religious group in Benin
585-531: A 2005 analysis of police, business, and political corruption. Its democratic system "has eroded" since President Talon took office. In 2018, his government introduced new rules for fielding candidates and raised the cost of registering. The electoral commission, packed with Talon's allies, barred all opposition parties from the parliamentary election in 2019, resulting in a parliament made up entirely of supporters of Talon. That parliament subsequently changed election laws such that presidential candidates need to have
702-431: A 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.86/10, ranking it 93rd globally out of 172 countries. Benin shows some variation in elevation and can be divided into four areas from the south to the north, starting with the lower-lying, sandy, coastal plain (highest elevation 10 m (32.8 ft)) which is, at most, 10 km (6.2 mi) wide. It is marshy and dotted with lakes and lagoons communicating with
819-525: A ceremony known as the Annual Customs . By about 1750, the King of Dahomey was earning an estimated £250,000 per year by selling African captives to European slave-traders. The area was named the "Slave Coast" because of a flourishing slave trade. Court protocols which demanded that a portion of war captives from the kingdom's battles be decapitated, decreased the number of enslaved people exported from
936-549: A convention forced Kérékou to release political prisoners and arrange elections. Marxism–Leninism was abolished as the country's form of government. The country's name was officially changed to the Republic of Benin on 1 March 1990, after the newly formed government's constitution was completed. Kérékou lost to Nicéphore Soglo in a 1991 election and became the first President on the African mainland to lose power through an election. Kérékou returned to power after winning
1053-705: A drought, and for social security. The package was not very popular, but was pursued with vigor. Giscard initially tried to project a less monarchical image than had been the case for past French presidents. He took a ride on the Métro , ate monthly dinners with ordinary Frenchmen, and even invited garbage men from Paris to have breakfast with him in the Élysée Palace . However, when he learned that most Frenchmen were somewhat cool to this display of informality, Giscard became so aloof and distant that his opponents frequently attacked him as being too far removed from ordinary citizens. In domestic policy, Giscard's reforms worried
1170-521: A framework of a presidential representative democratic republic in which the President of Benin is both head of state and head of government , within a multi-party system . Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in the government and the legislature. The judiciary is officially independent of the executive and the legislature, while in practice its independence has been gradually hollowed out by Talon, and
1287-416: A granddaughter of minister of state education Agénor Bardoux . Giscard had an elder sister, Sylvie, and younger siblings Olivier , Isabelle, and Marie-Laure. Despite the addition of "d'Estaing" to the family name by his grandfather, Giscard was not a male-line descendant of the extinct aristocratic family of Vice-Admiral d'Estaing . His connection to the D'Estaing family was very remote. His ancestress
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#17327651562241404-599: A guest in Paris. Giscard continued de Gaulle's African policy, and sought to maintain good relations with Middle East Muslim countries so that they would continue delivering oil to France. Senegal, Ivory Coast, Gabon, and Cameroon were the largest and most reliable African allies, and received most of the investments. In 1977, in Opération Lamantin , he ordered fighter jets to deploy in Mauritania and suppress
1521-604: A health crisis in 2014 and was taken to Paris for treatment. Although he recovered, he continued to suffer health problems, and he died in Benin on 14 October 2015 at the age of 82. His death was announced in a statement by President Thomas Boni Yayi . No cause of death was stated. A week of national mourning was declared. Benin Benin ( / b ɛ ˈ n iː n / ben- EEN , / b ɪ ˈ n iː n / bin- EEN ; French : Bénin [benɛ̃] , Fon : Benɛ , Fula : Benen ), officially
1638-534: A parliamentary proposal to reduce the length of a presidential term from seven to five years, a proposal that eventually won its referendum proposal by President Chirac. Following his retirement from the National Assembly his son Louis Giscard d'Estaing was elected in his former constituency. In 2003, Valéry Giscard d'Estaing was admitted to the Académie française . Following his narrow defeat in
1755-626: A part of the 5,500 European population. Religion in Benin (2020 CIA World Factbook estimate) The two main religions in Benin are Christianity , followed mostly in the south and center, and Islam, brought by the Songhai Empire and Hausa merchants and followed in Alibori , Borgou , and Donga provinces, as well as among the Yoruba , who also practice Christianity. Some continue to hold Vodun and Orisha beliefs and have incorporated
1872-403: A result, France treated Dahomey as a sort of preserve in case future discoveries revealed resources worth developing. The French government outlawed the capture and sale of slaves. Previous slaveowners sought to redefine their control over slaves as control over land , tenants , and lineage members. This provoked a struggle among Dahomeans, "concentrated in the period from 1895 to 1920, for
1989-459: A right-wing opposition line. In 1981, despite a high approval rating, he was defeated in a runoff against Mitterrand , with 48.2% of the vote. As president, Giscard d'Estaing promoted cooperation among the European nations, especially in tandem with West Germany , 1974—1982 ruled by the first , second and third cabinet under chancelor Helmut Schmidt ( SPD ). As a former president, he
2106-438: A second five-year term in the March 2001 presidential election under controversial circumstances. In the first round he took 45.4% of the vote; Soglo, who took second place, and parliament speaker Houngbédji, who took third, both refused to participate in the second round, alleging fraud and saying that they did not want to legitimize the vote by participating in it. This left the fourth-place finisher, Amoussou, to face Kérékou in
2223-446: A share to tertiary education: 0.97% of GDP. Between 2009 and 2011, the share of people enrolled at university rose from 10% to 12% of the 18 – 25 year age cohort. Student enrollment in tertiary education more than doubled between 2006 and 2011 from 50,225 to 110,181. These statistics encompass not only bachelor's, master's and Ph.D. programmes but also students enrolled in nondegree post-secondary diplomas. The HIV/AIDS rate in Benin
2340-668: A single term of 5 years in order to combat "complacency". He said that he planned to slash the size of the government from 28 to 16 members. In April 2021, President Patrice Talon was re-elected, with more than 86.3% of the votes cast, in Benin's presidential election . The change in election laws resulted in total control of parliament by president Talon's supporters. In February 2022, Benin saw its largest terrorist attack in history . On 20 February 2022, President Patrice Talon inaugurated an exhibition with 26 pieces of sacred art returned to Benin by France , 129 years after they were looted by colonial forces. Its politics take place in
2457-561: A year in Montreal , Canada, where he worked as a teacher at Collège Stanislas . He graduated from the École Polytechnique and the École nationale d'administration (1949–1951) and chose to enter the prestigious Inspection des finances . He was admitted to the Tax and Revenue Service, then joined the staff of Prime Minister Edgar Faure (1955–1956). He was fluent in German. In 1956, he
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#17327651562242574-888: Is Christianity (52.2%), followed by Islam (24.6%) and African Traditional Religions (17.9%). Benin is a member of the United Nations , the African Union , the Economic Community of West African States , the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , the South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone , Francophonie , the Community of Sahel–Saharan States , the African Petroleum Producers Association and
2691-741: Is bounded by Togo to the west, Burkina Faso and Niger to the north, Nigeria to the east, and the Bight of Benin to the south. The distance from the Niger River in the north to the Atlantic Ocean in the south is about 650 km (404 mi). Although the coastline measures 121 km (75 mi), the country measures about 325 km (202 mi) at its widest point. Four terrestrial ecoregions lie within Benin's borders: Eastern Guinean forests , Nigerian lowland forests , Guinean forest-savanna mosaic , and West Sudanian savanna . It had
2808-511: Is celebrated each year as Independence Day , a national holiday . The president who led the country to independence was Hubert Maga . After 1960, there were coups and regime changes, with the figures of Hubert Maga , Sourou Apithy , Justin Ahomadégbé , and Émile Derlin Zinsou dominating; the first 3 each represented a different area and ethnicity of the country. These 3 agreed to form
2925-732: Is from April to late July, with a shorter less intense rainy period from September to November. The main dry season is from December to April, with a cooler dry season from July to September. Temperatures and humidity are higher along the tropical coast. In Cotonou , the average maximum temperature is 31 °C (87.8 °F); the minimum is 24 °C (75.2 °F). Val%C3%A9ry Giscard d%27Estaing Valéry René Marie Georges Giscard d'Estaing ( UK : / ˌ ʒ iː s k ɑːr d ɛ ˈ s t æ̃ / , US : / ʒ ɪ ˌ s k ɑːr -/ , French: [valeʁi ʁəne maʁi ʒɔʁʒ ʒiskaʁ dɛstɛ̃] ; 2 February 1926 – 2 December 2020), also known as simply Giscard or VGE ,
3042-507: The 1969 presidential campaign , he supported the winning candidate Georges Pompidou , after which he returned to the Ministry of Economy and Finance. He was representative of a new generation of politicians emerging from the senior civil service, seen as " technocrats ". In 1974, after the sudden death of President Georges Pompidou, Giscard announced his candidacy for the presidency. His two main challengers were François Mitterrand for
3159-571: The Atakora region, and Vodun and Orisha veneration among the Yoruba and Tado peoples in the center and south of the nation. The town of Ouidah on the central coast is the spiritual center of Beninese Vodun or Voodoo. The literacy rate in 2015 it was estimated to be 38.4% (49.9% for males and 27.3% for females). Benin has achieved universal primary education and half of the children (54%) were enrolled in secondary education in 2013, according to
3276-538: The Atlantic Ocean . The capital is Porto-Novo , and the seat of government is in Cotonou , the most populous city and economic capital. Benin covers an area of 112,622 km (43,484 sq mi), and its population in 2021 was estimated to be approximately 13 million. It is a tropical country with an economy heavily dependent on agriculture , and is an exporter of palm oil and cotton . From
3393-549: The Demographic and Health Surveys Program in 2011-2012 indicated that followers of Christianity comprised 57.5% of the population (with Catholics making up 33.9%, Methodists 3.0%, Celestials 6.2% and other Christians 14.5%), while Muslims were 22.8%. According to the most recent (2020) estimate, the population of Benin was 52.2% Christian, 24.6% Muslim, 17.9% animist, and 5.3% followed other faiths or had no religion. Traditional religions include local animistic religions in
3510-1052: The European Monetary System . They induced the Soviet Union to establish a degree of liberalisation through the Helsinki Accords . He promoted the creation of the European Council at the Paris Summit in December 1974. In 1975, he invited the heads of government from West Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States to a summit in Rambouillet , to form the Group of Six major economic powers (now
3627-580: The Niger Basin Authority . During French colonial rule and after independence on 1 August 1960, the country was named Dahomey, after the Kingdom of Dahomey . On 30 November 1975, following a Marxist–Leninist military coup , the country was renamed Benin, after the Bight of Benin , which borders the country, due to Dahomey only being associated with the Fon who inhabited the southern half of
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3744-605: The Polisario guerrillas fighting against Mauritania. Most controversial was his involvement with the regime of Bokassa in the Central African Republic . Giscard was initially a friend of Bokassa, and supplied the regime. The growing unpopularity of that government led Giscard to begin distancing himself from Bokassa. In 1979's Operation Caban , French troops helped drive Bokassa out of power and restore former president David Dacko to power. This action
3861-520: The Republic of Benin ( French : République du Bénin ), is a country in West Africa . It was formerly known as Dahomey . It is bordered by Togo to the west, Nigeria to the east, Burkina Faso to the north-west, and Niger to the north-east. The majority of its population lives on the southern coastline of the Bight of Benin , part of the Gulf of Guinea in the northernmost tropical portion of
3978-504: The UNESCO Institute for Statistics . While at a time the education system was not free, Benin has abolished school fees and is carrying out the recommendations of its 2007 Educational Forum. The government has devoted more than 4% of GDP to education since 2009. In 2015, public expenditure on education (all levels) amounted to 4.4% of GDP, according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics . Within this expenditure, Benin devoted
4095-529: The first round . Chirac finished third and refused to recommend that his supporters back Giscard in the runoff, though he declared that he himself would vote for Giscard. Giscard lost to Mitterrand by 3 points in the runoff and blamed Chirac for his defeat thereafter. In later years, it was widely said that Giscard loathed Chirac; certainly on many occasions Giscard criticised Chirac's policies despite supporting Chirac's governing coalition. After his defeat, Giscard retired temporarily from politics. In 1984, he
4212-641: The regional elections of March 2004 , marked by the victory of the left wing in 21 of 22 regions, he decided to leave partisan politics and to take his seat on the Constitutional Council as a former president of the country. Some of his actions there, such as his campaign in favour of the treaty establishing the European Constitution, were criticised as unbecoming to a member of this council, which should embody nonpartisanship and should not appear to favour one political option over
4329-742: The "best economist in France" at the time, succeeded him. Unexpectedly, the right-wing coalition won the 1978 legislative election . Nevertheless, relations with Chirac, who had founded the Rally for the Republic (RPR), became more tense. Giscard reacted by founding a centre-right confederation, the Union for French Democracy (UDF). Valéry Giscard d'Estaing was a close friend of West German chancellor Helmut Schmidt and together they persuaded smaller European states to hold regular summit meetings, and set up
4446-1101: The 12th century); the Dendi in the north-central area (who came from Mali in the 16th century); the Bariba and the Fula in the northeast; the Betammaribe and the Somba in the Atakora Mountains ; the Fon in the area around Abomey in the South Central and the Mina , Xueda , and Aja (who came from Togo) on the coast. Migrations have brought other African nationals to Benin, including Nigerians, Togolese, and Malians. The foreign community includes Lebanese and Indians involved in trade and commerce. The personnel of European embassies and foreign aid missions and of nongovernmental organisations and missionary groups account for
4563-697: The 17th to the 19th century, political entities in the area included the Kingdom of Dahomey , the city-state of Porto-Novo, and other states to the north. This region was referred to as the Slave Coast of West Africa from the early 17th century due to the high number of people who were sold and trafficked during the Atlantic slave trade to the New World. France took over the territory in 1894, incorporating it into French West Africa as French Dahomey . In 1960, Dahomey gained full independence from France. As
4680-531: The 1980s, provoking widespread unrest in 1989. A student strike began in January of that year; subsequently strikes among various elements of society increased in frequency and the nature of their demands grew broader: whereas initially they had focused on economic issues such as salary arrears, this progressed to include demands for political reform. In the period of reforms towards multiparty democracy in Africa at
4797-462: The 1990 National Conference, which was nationally televised, Kérékou spoke to the Archbishop of Cotonou , Isidore de Souza , confessing guilt and begging forgiveness for the flaws of his regime. An observer described it as a "remarkable piece of political theater", full of cultural symbolism and significance; in effect, Kérékou was seeking forgiveness from his people. Such a gesture, so unusual for
Mathieu Kérékou - Misplaced Pages Continue
4914-580: The 1996 vote. In 2001, an election resulted in Kérékou winning another term, after which his opponents claimed election irregularities. In 1999, Kérékou issued a national apology for the substantial role that Africans had played in the Atlantic slave trade. Kérékou and former president Soglo did not run in the 2006 elections, as both were barred by the constitution's restrictions on age and total terms of candidates. On 5 March 2006, an election resulted in
5031-585: The 26th highest rate of maternal mortality in the world. According to a 2013 UNICEF report, 13% of women had undergone female genital mutilation . An approach strategy was extended to all areas of healthcare, with subsequent improvement in the health care indicators and improvement in health care efficiency and cost. Demographic and Health Surveys has surveyed the issue in Benin since 1996. The north–south strip of land in West Africa lies between latitudes 6° and 13°N , and longitudes 0° and 4°E . It
5148-410: The African leaders of the time, could have fatally weakened Kérékou's political standing, but he performed the gesture in such a way that, far from ending his political career, it instead served to symbolically redeem him and facilitate his political rehabilitation, while also "securing him immunity from prosecution". Kérékou shrewdly utilized the timing and setting: "Culturally as well as theologically it
5265-678: The Constitutional Court is headed by his former personal lawyer. The political system is derived from the 1990 Constitution of Benin and the subsequent transition to democracy in 1991. It was ranked 18th out of 52 African countries and scored best in the categories of Safety & Rule of Law and Participation & Human Rights. In its 2007 Worldwide Press Freedom Index, Reporters Without Borders ranked Benin 53rd out of 169 countries. That place had fallen to 78th by 2016, when Talon took office, and has fallen further to 113th. Benin has been rated equal-88th out of 159 countries in
5382-553: The French Army in 1960. Following independence, from 1961 to 1963 he was an aide-de-camp to Dahomeyan President Hubert Maga . Following Maurice Kouandété 's coup d'état in December 1967, Kérékou, who was his cousin, was made chairman of the Military Revolutionary Council. After Kérékou attended French military schools from 1968 to 1970, Maga made him a major, deputy chief of staff, and commander of
5499-655: The French claims. Ruth-Rolland was quickly dismissed from her post in what she described as a "coup de force" by Dacko. The saga contributed to Giscard losing his 1981 reelection bid . Giscard d'Estaing fancied himself a peace-maker with the Soviet Union and their embroilment in Afghanistan . At their summit in May 1980, he proposed an arrangement that would see Leonid Brezhnev partially withdraw his forces and thought
5616-418: The French thought he had been a good president. He was considered to be an honest and competent politician, but also a distant man. On 21 January 2017, with a lifespan of 33,226 days, he surpassed Émile Loubet (1838–1929) in terms of longevity, and became the oldest former president in French history. Throughout his political career, Giscard was a proponent of a greater amount of European integration in
5733-762: The G7, including Canada and the European Union). In 1975, Giscard pressured the future King of Spain Juan Carlos I to leave Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet out of his coronation by stating that if Pinochet attended he would not. Although France received many Chilean political refugees, Giscard d'Estaing's government secretly collaborated with Pinochet's and Videla's juntas as shown by journalist Marie-Monique Robin . Giscard d'Estaing sought to improve Franco-Romanian ties and in 1979 visited Bucharest . In 1980 he received Romanian president Nicolae Ceaucescu as
5850-737: The Gaullists and left the majority coalition. Giscard refused to resign and founded the Independent Republicans (RI), which became the junior partner of the Gaullists in the "presidential majority". It was during his time at the Ministry of the Economy that he coined the phrase " exorbitant privilege " to characterise the hegemony of the US dollar in international payments under the Bretton Woods system . However, in 1966, he
5967-523: The National Revolutionary Assembly in 1980, re-elected in 1984. Establishing relations with China , North Korea , and Libya , he put "nearly all" businesses and economic activities under state control, causing foreign investment in Benin to dry up. Kérékou attempted to reorganize education, pushing his own aphorisms such as "Poverty is not a fatality". The regime financed itself by contracting to take nuclear waste, first from
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#17327651562246084-760: The Ouidah paratroop unit. Kérékou seized power in Dahomey in a military coup on 26 October 1972, ending a system of government in which three members of a presidential council were to rotate power (earlier in the year Maga had handed over power to Justin Ahomadegbé ). During his first two years in power, Kérékou expressed only nationalism and said that the country's revolution would not "burden itself by copying foreign ideology ... We do not want communism or capitalism or socialism. We have our own Dahomean social and cultural system." On 30 November 1974, however, he announced
6201-473: The Soviet Union and later from France. In the 1980s, Benin experienced higher economic growth rates (15.6% in 1982, 4.6% in 1983 and 8.2% in 1984), until the closure of the Nigerian border with Benin led to a drop in customs and tax revenues. The government was no longer able to pay civil servants' salaries. In 1989, riots broke out when the regime did not have enough money to pay its army. The banking system collapsed. Eventually, Kérékou renounced Marxism , and
6318-573: The abortion issue. On taking office Giscard was quick to initiate reforms; they included increasing the minimum wage as well as family allowances and old-age pensions. He extended the right to political asylum, expanded health insurance to cover all Frenchmen, lowered the voting age to 18, and modernised the divorce law. On 25 September 1974, Giscard summed up his goals: To reform the judicial system, modernize social institutions, reduce excessive inequalities of income, develop education, liberalize repressive legislation, develop culture. He pushed for
6435-440: The adoption of Marxism-Leninism by the state. The country was renamed from the Republic of Dahomey to the People's Republic of Benin a year later; the banks and petroleum industry were nationalized. The People's Revolutionary Party of Benin ( Parti de la révolution populaire du Bénin , PRPB) was established as the sole ruling party. In 1980, Kérékou was elected president by the Revolutionary National Assembly; he retired from
6552-469: The age of 94, and is the longest-lived French president in history. Valéry René Marie Georges Giscard d'Estaing was born on 2 February 1926 in Koblenz , Germany , during the French occupation of the Rhineland . He was the elder son of Jean Edmond Lucien Giscard d'Estaing, a high-ranking civil servant, and his wife, Marthe Clémence Jacqueline Marie (May) Bardoux. His mother was the daughter of senator and academic Achille Octave Marie Jacques Bardoux , and
6669-458: The approval of at least 10% of Benin's MPs and mayors. As parliament and most mayors' offices are controlled by Talon, he has control over who can run for president. These changes have drawn condemnation from international observers and led to the United States government partially terminating development assistance to the country. Benin is divided into twelve departments (French: départements ) which are subdivided into 77 communes . In 1999,
6786-447: The area. The number went from 102,000 people per decade in the 1780s to 24,000 per decade by the 1860s. The decline was partly due to the Slave Trade Act 1807 banning the trans-Atlantic slave trade by Britain in 1808, followed by other countries. This decline continued until 1885 when the last slave ship departed the modern Benin Republic for Brazil , which had yet to abolish slavery. The capital Porto-Novo ("New Port" in Portuguese)
6903-448: The army in 1987. It has been suggested that Kérékou's move to Marxism-Leninism was motivated mainly by pragmatic considerations, and that Kérékou himself was not actually a leftist radical; the new ideology offered a means of legitimization, a way of distinguishing the new regime from those that had preceded it, and was based on broader unifying principles than the politics of ethnicity. Kérékou's regime initially included officers from both
7020-449: The beginning of the 1990s, Benin moved onto this path early, with Kérékou being forced to make concessions to popular discontent. Benin's early and relatively smooth transition may be attributed to the particularly dismal economic situation in the country, which seemed to preclude any alternative. In the midst of increasing unrest, Kérékou was re-elected as president by the National Assembly in August 1989, but in December 1989 Marxism-Leninism
7137-445: The cabinet. For that reason the Gaullists refused to re-elect him to that position after the 1968 legislative election . In 1969, unlike most of FNRI's elected officials, Giscard advocated a "no" vote in the constitutional referendum concerning the regions and the Senate, while De Gaulle had announced his intention to resign if the "no" won. The Gaullists accused him of being largely responsible for De Gaulle's departure. During
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#17327651562247254-413: The coastal cities of Allada and Whydah . Dahomey had become a tributary of the Oyo Empire, and rivaled but did not directly attack the Oyo-allied city-state of Porto-Novo . The rise of Dahomey, its rivalry with Porto-Novo, and tribal politics in the northern region persisted into the colonial and post-colonial periods. In the Dahomey , some younger people were apprenticed to older soldiers and taught
7371-431: The conservative electorate and the Gaullist party, especially the law by Simone Veil legalising abortion. Although he said he had "deep aversion against capital punishment", Giscard claimed in his 1974 campaign that he would apply the death penalty to people committing the most heinous crimes. He did not commute three of the death sentences that he had to decide upon during his presidency. France under his administration
7488-497: The country and the office of the presidency, notably overseeing such far-reaching infrastructure projects as the TGV and the turn towards reliance on nuclear power as France's main energy source. Giscard d'Estaing launched the Grande Arche , Musée d'Orsay , Arab World Institute and Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie projects in the Paris region, later included in the Grands Projets of François Mitterrand . He promoted liberalisation of trade; however, his popularity suffered from
7605-467: The country. The bight takes its name from the Kingdom of Benin , located in present-day Nigeria . Prior to 1600, present-day Benin comprised a variety of areas with different political systems and ethnicities. These included city-states along the coast (primarily of the Aja ethnic group, and also including Yoruba and Gbe peoples) and tribal regions inland (composed of Bariba , Mahi, Gedevi, and Kabye peoples). The Oyo Empire , located primarily to
7722-406: The development of the TGV high speed train network and the Minitel telephone upgrade, a precursor of the Internet. He promoted nuclear power , as a way to assert French independence. Economically, Giscard's presidency saw a steady rise in personal incomes, with the purchasing power of workers going up by 29% and that of old age pensioners by 65%. The great crisis that overwhelmed his term
7839-400: The east of Benin, was a military force in the region, conducting raids and exacting tribute from the coastal kingdoms and tribal regions. The situation changed in the 17th and 18th centuries as the Kingdom of Dahomey , consisting mostly of Fon people , was founded on the Abomey plateau and began taking over areas along the coast. By 1727, King Agaja of the Kingdom of Dahomey had conquered
7956-451: The economic downturn that followed the 1973 energy crisis , marking the end of the " Trente Glorieuses " (the "Thirty Glorious Years" of prosperity after 1945). He imposed austerity budgets, and allowed unemployment to rise in order to avoid deficits. Giscard d'Estaing in the centre faced political opposition from both sides of the spectrum: from the newly unified left under Mitterrand and a rising Jacques Chirac , who resurrected Gaullism on
8073-443: The economy and population. Northern areas will see additional regions become deserts. An area of flatter land dotted with rocky hills whose altitude reaches 400 m (1,312 ft) extends around Nikki and Save. A range of mountains extends along the northwest border and into Togo; these are the Atacora . The highest point, Mont Sokbaro , is at 658 m (2,159 ft). Benin has fields, mangroves , and remnants of forests. In
8190-411: The first " cohabitation " (1986–1988) or after the re-election of Mitterrand with the theme of "France united", but he was not chosen for this position. During the 1988 presidential campaign , he refused to choose publicly between the two right-wing candidates, his two former Prime Ministers Jacques Chirac and Raymond Barre . He served as president of the UDF from 1988 to 1996, but he was faced with
8307-423: The influence of young revolutionaries – the "Ligmangers" - the government embarked on a socialist program: nationalization of strategic sectors of the economy, reform of the education system, establishment of agricultural cooperatives and new local government structures, and a campaign to eradicate " feudal forces" including tribalism . The regime banned opposition activities. Mathieu Kérékou was elected president by
8424-574: The kingdom's military customs until they were old enough to join the army. Dahomey instituted an elite female soldier corps variously called Ahosi (the king's wives), Mino ("our mothers" in Fongbe ), or the "Dahomean Amazons ". This emphasis on military preparation and achievement earned Dahomey the nickname of "Black Sparta ", from European observers and 19th-century explorers such as Sir Richard Burton . The kings of Dahomey sold their war captives into transatlantic slavery or killed them ritually in
8541-619: The late 1970s, the regime jettisoned much of its radicalism and settled onto a more moderately socialist course as Kérékou consolidated his personal control. Its relations with France and other African governments in the region deteriorated because of the Marxism claimed by the Beninese regime and the support offered to the Polisario Front for the liberation of Western Sahara. The French government of Valéry Giscard d'Estaing feared
8658-490: The latter had agreed once month later only to be humiliated in front of his G7 partners when Brezhnev fooled him with a lie. His Socialist rival, François Mitterrand , acidly observed in the Assemblée Nationale that he was the "petit télégraphiste de Varsovie" ("little telegraph operator from Warsaw"). In the 1981 presidential election , Giscard took a severe blow to his support when Chirac ran against him in
8775-535: The left and Jacques Chaban-Delmas , a former Gaullist prime minister. Jacques Chirac and other Gaullist personalities published the Call of the 43 [ fr ] where they explained that Giscard was the best candidate to prevent the election of Mitterrand. In the election , Giscard finished well ahead of Chaban-Delmas in the first round, though coming second to Mitterrand. In the run-off on 20 May, however, Giscard narrowly defeated Mitterrand, receiving 50.7% of
8892-400: The mid-1970s to the late 1970s. In 1974, under the influence of young revolutionaries - the "Ligueurs" - the government embarked on a socialist program: nationalization of strategic sectors of the economy, reform of the education system, establishment of agricultural cooperatives and new local government structures, and a campaign to eradicate " feudal forces" including tribalism . Beginning in
9009-407: The money supply; and increases in the income tax, automobile taxes, luxury taxes and bank rates. There were measures to restore the trade balance, and support the growth of the economy and employment. Oil imports, whose price had shot up, were limited. There was special aid to exports, and an action fund was set up to aid industries. There was increased financial aid to farmers, who were suffering from
9126-400: The north and south of the country, but as the years passed the northerners (like Kérékou himself) became clearly dominant, undermining the idea that the regime was not based in ethnicity. By officially adopting Marxism-Leninism, Kérékou may also have wanted to win the support of the country's leftists. Kérékou's regime was rigid and vigorous in pursuing its newly adopted ideological goals from
9243-477: The north, in the rest of the country he found little support. Kérékou was thus the first mainland African president to lose power through a popular election. He apologized for "deplorable and regrettable incidents" that occurred during his rule. After losing the election in March 1991, Kérékou left the political scene and "withdrew to total silence", another move that was interpreted as penitential. Kérékou reclaimed
9360-536: The ocean. Behind the coast lies the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic -covered plateaus of southern Benin (altitude between 20 and 200 m (66 and 656 ft)), which are split by valleys running north to south along the Couffo , Zou , and Ouémé Rivers . This geography makes it vulnerable to climate change . With the majority of the country living near the coast in lower-lying areas sea level rise could have effects on
9477-695: The other. Indeed, the question of the membership of former presidents in the council was raised at this point, with some suggesting that it should be replaced by a life membership in the Senate . On 19 April 2007, he endorsed Nicolas Sarkozy for the presidential election . He supported the creation of the centrist Union of Democrats and Independents in 2012 and the introduction of same-sex marriage in France in 2013. In 2016, he supported former Prime Minister François Fillon in The Republicans presidential primaries . A 2014 poll suggested that 64% of
9594-548: The pantheon of Vodun and Orisha into Christianity. Ahmadiyya , a sect of Islam originating in the 19th century, also has a presence in the country. In the 2013 census, 48.5% of the population of Benin were Christian (25.5% Roman Catholic , 6.7% Celestial Church of Christ , 3.4% Methodist , and 12.9% other Christian denominations), 27.7% were Muslim , 11.6% practiced Vodun , 2.6% practiced other local traditional religions, 2.6% practiced other religions, and 5.8% claimed no religious affiliation. A government survey conducted by
9711-501: The polls to decide who would succeed Kérékou as President of Benin. Yayi Boni defeated Adrien Houngbédji in a run-off vote on 19 March, and Kérékou left office at the end of his term, at midnight on 6 April 2006. Born and baptized in the Roman Catholic faith, although he was a lapsed adherent, Kérékou allegedly converted to Islam in 1980 while on a visit to Libya, and changed his first name to Ahmed, but he later returned to
9828-524: The presidency in the March 1996 election . Soglo's economic reforms and his alleged dictatorial tendencies had caused his popularity to suffer. Although Kérékou received fewer votes than Soglo in the first round, he then defeated Soglo in the second round, taking 52.5% of the vote. Kérékou was backed in the second round by third place candidate Adrien Houngbédji and fourth place candidate Bruno Amoussou ; as in 1991, Kérékou received very strong support from northern voters, but he also improved his performance in
9945-405: The previous six departments were each split into two halves, forming the later twelve. (per km in 2013) Ethnic Groups of Benin (2013 Census) The majority of Benin's 11,485,000 inhabitants live in the south of the country. The life expectancy is 62 years. About 42 African ethnic groups live in this country, including the Yoruba in the southeast (migrated from Nigeria in
10062-408: The redistribution of control over land and labor. Villages sought to redefine boundaries of lands and fishing preserves. Religious disputes scarcely veiled the factional struggles over control of land and commerce which underlay them. Factions struggled for the leadership of great families". In 1958, France granted autonomy to the Republic of Dahomey , and full independence on 1 August 1960 which
10179-552: The rest of the country, the savanna is covered with thorny scrub and dotted with baobab trees. Some forests line the banks of rivers. In the north and the northwest of Benin, the Reserve du W du Niger and Pendjari National Park has African bush elephants , lions , antelopes, hippopotamus and monkeys. Pendjari National Park together with the bordering Parks Arli and W National Park in Burkina Faso and Niger are among
10296-549: The rise of a new generation of politicians called the rénovateurs ("renovation men"). Most of the UDF politicians supported the candidacy of the RPR Prime Minister Édouard Balladur at the 1995 presidential election , but Giscard supported his old rival Jacques Chirac, who won the election. That same year Giscard suffered a setback when he lost a close election for the mayoralty of Clermont-Ferrand . In 2000, he made
10413-467: The run-off, and Kérékou easily won with 83.6% of the vote. It was subsequently discovered that the American corporation Titan gave more than two million dollars to Kérékou's re-election campaign as a bribe. During Kérékou's second period in office his government followed a liberal economic path. The period also saw Benin take part in international peacekeeping missions in other African states. Kérékou
10530-464: The south. Soglo alleged fraud, but this was rejected by the Constitutional Court, which confirmed Kérékou's victory. When taking the oath of office, Kérékou left out a portion that referred to the "spirits of the ancestors" because he had become a born-again Christian after his defeat by Soglo. He was subsequently forced to retake the oath including the reference to spirits. Kérékou was re-elected for
10647-477: The spread of Marxism in West Africa and decided to react. He was joined by Félix Houphouet-Boigny ( Ivory Coast ), Gnassingbé Eyadéma ( Togo ), Joseph-Désiré Mobutu ( Zaire ) and Hassan II ( Morocco ), who, in addition to the diplomatic isolation and attempts to destabilize Benin economically, decided to organize an attempted coup d'état. This was Operation Shrimp , entrusted to the French mercenary Bob Denard , on 17 January 1977, but it failed completely. It
10764-471: The strongholds of the lion in West Africa; with an estimated 246–466 lions, W-Arli-Pendjari harbors the largest remaining lion population in West Africa . Historically Benin has served as habitat for the endangered African wild dog , Lycaon pictus ; this canid is thought to have been locally extinct . Annual rainfall in the coastal area averages 1300 mm or about 51 inches. Benin has two rainy and two dry seasons per year. The principal rainy season
10881-626: The use of the name Mathieu. This alleged conversion may have been designed to please the Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi and obtain financial and military support. Alternatively, the conversion story may have been a rumor planted by some of his opponents in order to destabilize his regime. He subsequently became a born-again Christian . Some Vodun believers in Benin regarded him as having magical powers, explaining his ability to survive repeated coup attempts during his military rule. Nicknamed "the chameleon" from an early point in his career, Kérékou's motto
10998-576: The vote. In 1974, Giscard was elected President of France , defeating Socialist candidate François Mitterrand by 425,000 votes. At 48, he was the third youngest president in French history at the time, after Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte and Jean Casimir-Perier . In his appointments he was innovative regarding women. He gave major cabinet positions to Simone Veil as Minister of Health and Françoise Giroud as secretary for women's affairs. Giroud worked to improve access to meaningful employment and to reconcile careers with childbearing. Veil confronted
11115-727: The École Gerson and the Lycées Janson-de-Sailly and Louis-le-Grand in Paris. He joined the French Resistance and participated in the Liberation of Paris ; during the liberation, he was assigned to protecting Alexandre Parodi . He then joined the French First Army and served until the end of the war. He was later awarded the Croix de guerre for his military service. In 1948, he spent
11232-480: Was "the branch will not break in the arms of the chameleon". The nickname and motto he adopted were full of cultural symbolism, articulating and projecting his power and ability. Unlike some past rulers who had adopted animal symbolism intending to project a violent, warlike sense of power, Kérékou's symbolic animal suggested skill and cleverness; his motto suggested that he would keep the branch from breaking, but implicitly warned of what could happen to "the branch" if it
11349-570: Was Lucie Madeleine d'Estaing, Dame de Réquistat (1769–1844), who in turn was descendant of Joachim I d'Estaing, sieur de Réquistat (1610–1685), illegitimate son of Charles d'Estaing (1585–1661), sieur de Cheylade, Knight of Saint John of Jerusalem , son of Jean III d'Estaing, seigneur de Val (1540–1621) and his wife, Gilberte de La Rochefoucauld (1560–1623). Giscard studied at the Lycée Blaise-Pascal in Clermont-Ferrand ,
11466-529: Was a French politician who served as President of France from 1974 to 1981. After serving as Minister of Finance under prime ministers Jacques Chaban-Delmas and Pierre Messmer , Giscard d'Estaing won the presidential election of 1974 with 50.8% of the vote against François Mitterrand of the Socialist Party . His tenure was marked by a more liberal attitude on social issues—such as divorce, contraception and abortion—and by attempts to modernise
11583-737: Was a member of the Constitutional Council . He also served as president of the Regional Council of Auvergne from 1986 to 2004. Involved with the process of European integration , he notably presided over the Convention on the Future of Europe that drafted the ill-fated Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe . In 2003, he was elected to the Académie Française , taking the seat that his friend and former president of Senegal Léopold Sédar Senghor had held. He died at
11700-404: Was a worldwide economic crisis based on rapidly rising oil prices. He turned to Prime Minister Raymond Barre in 1976, who advocated numerous complex, strict policies ("Barre Plans"). The first Barre plan emerged on 22 September 1976, with a priority to stop inflation. It included a 3-month price freeze; a reduction in the value added tax; wage controls; salary controls; a reduction of the growth in
11817-563: Was also controversial, particularly given that Dacko was Bokassa's cousin and had appointed Bokassa as head of the military; and unrest continued in the Central African Republic, leading to Dacko being overthrown in another coup in 1981 . The Diamonds Affair , known in France as l'affaire des diamants , was a major political scandal in the Fifth Republic . In 1973, while Minister of Finance , Giscard d'Estaing
11934-440: Was barred by the constitution from running for a third term, businessman Patrice Talon won the second round with 65.37% of the vote, defeating investment banker and former Prime Minister Lionel Zinsou . Talon was sworn in on 6 April 2016. Speaking on the same day that the Constitutional Court confirmed the results, Talon said that he would "first and foremost tackle constitutional reform", discussing his plan to limit presidents to
12051-595: Was barred from running again in 2006 on two counts. The constitution not only stipulated an absolute two-term limit, but also required that presidential candidates be younger than 70; he turned 70 in 2003, during his second term. Kérékou said in July 2005 that he would not attempt to amend the constitution to allow him to run for a third term. "If you don't leave power," he said, "power will leave you." There was, however, speculation that he had wanted it to be changed, but faced too much opposition. On 5 March 2006, voters went to
12168-760: Was dismissed from the cabinet. He transformed the RI into a political party, the National Federation of the Independent Republicans (FNRI), and founded the Perspectives and Realities Clubs . In this, he criticised the "solitary practice of the power" and summarised his position towards De Gaulle's policy by a "yes, but ...". As chairman of the National Assembly Committee on Finances, he criticised his successor in
12285-528: Was dropped as the state ideology, and a national conference was held in February 1990. The conference turned out to be hostile to Kérékou and declared its own sovereignty; despite the objections of some of his officers to this turn of events, Kérékou did not act against the conference, although he labelled the conference's declaration of sovereignty a "civilian coup". During the transition that followed, Kérékou remained president but lost most of his power. During
12402-750: Was elected to the National Assembly as a deputy for the Puy-de-Dôme département , in the domain of his maternal family. He joined the National Centre of Independents and Peasants (CNIP), a conservative grouping. After the proclamation of the Fifth Republic , the CNIP leader Antoine Pinay became Minister of Economy and Finance and chose him as Secretary of State for Finances from 1959 to 1962. In 1962, while Giscard had been nominated Minister of Economy and Finance , his party broke with
12519-610: Was estimated in 2013 at 1.13% of adults aged 15–49 years. Malaria is a problem in Benin, being a leading cause of morbidity and mortality among children younger than 5 years. During the 1980s, less than 30% of the country's population had access to primary health care services. Benin's infant mortality rate stood at 203 deaths for every 1 000 live births. One in three mothers had access to child health care services. The Bamako Initiative changed that by introducing community-based healthcare reform, resulting in "more efficient and equitable" provision of services. As of 2015 , Benin had
12636-544: Was given a number of diamonds by Bokassa. The affair was unveiled by the satirical newspaper Le Canard Enchaîné on 10 October 1979, towards the end of Giscard's presidency. In order to defend himself, Giscard d'Estaing claimed to have sold the diamonds and donated the proceeds to the Central African Red Cross . He expected CARC authorities to confirm the story. However, the head of the local Red Cross society, Jeanne-Marie Ruth-Rolland , publicly denied
12753-448: Was hoped that the nationalizations of the 1970s would help develop the economy, but it remained in a very poor condition. Kérékou began reversing course in the early 1980s, closing down numerous state-run companies and attempting to attract foreign investment. He also accepted an IMF structural readjustment programme in 1989, agreeing to austerity measures that severely cut state expenditure. The economic situation continued to worsen during
12870-428: Was impossible to refuse forgiveness on these terms." World Bank economist Nicéphore Soglo , chosen as prime minister by the conference, took office in March, and a new constitution was approved in a December 1990 referendum. Multi-party elections were held in March 1991, which Kérékou lost, obtaining only about 32% of the vote in the second round against Prime Minister Soglo; while he won very large vote percentages in
12987-507: Was not "in the arms of the chameleon"—political chaos. To some, his nickname seemed particularly apt as he successfully adapted himself to a new political climate and neoliberal economic policies in the 1990s. He used the campaign slogan, "Experience in the service of youth." After leaving office in 2006, Kérékou stayed out of politics and spent time at his homes in Cotonou and Natitingou in northwestern Benin, his native region. He suffered
13104-677: Was officially Marxist , under control of the Military Council of the Revolution (CMR), which nationalized the petroleum industry and banks. On 30 November 1975, he renamed the country the People's Republic of Benin . The regime of the People's Republic of Benin underwent changes over the course of its existence: a nationalist period (1972–1974); a socialist phase (1974–1982); and a phase involving an opening to Western countries and economic liberalism (1982–1990). In 1974, under
13221-485: Was originally developed as a port for the slave trade. Among the goods the Portuguese sought were carved items of ivory made by Benin's artisans in the form of carved saltcellars, spoons, and hunting horns - pieces of African art produced for sale abroad as exotic objects. Another major good sought by European settlers was palm oil. In 1856 approximately 2,500 tons of palm oil was exported by British companies which
13338-584: Was re-elected to his seat in the National Assembly and won the presidency of the regional council of Auvergne . He was president of the Council of European Municipalities and Regions from 1997 to 2004. In 1982, along with his friend Gerald Ford , he co-founded the annual AEI World Forum . He also served on the Trilateral Commission after being president, writing papers with Henry Kissinger . He hoped to become prime minister during
13455-535: Was stripped of his powers by the National Conference of 1990. He was defeated in the 1991 presidential election but was returned to the presidency in the 1996 election and controversially re-elected in 2001 . Kérékou was born in 1933 in Kouarfa village, in north-west French Dahomey . After having studied at military schools in modern-day Mali and Senegal, Kérékou served in the military by joining
13572-770: Was thus the last country in the European Community to apply the death penalty, and until the resumption of executions in the United States in 1977, the only in the Western world. The last death sentence , bearing Giscard's signature, was executed in September 1977, the last ratified by the Court of Cassation in March 1981, but rescinded by presidential pardon after Giscard's defeat in the presidential election in May. A rivalry arose with his Prime Minister Jacques Chirac, who resigned in 1976. Raymond Barre , called
13689-472: Was valued at £112,500. By the middle of the 19th century , Dahomey had "begun to weaken and lose its status as the regional power ". The French took over the area in 1892. In 1899, the French included the land called French Dahomey within the larger French West Africa colonial region. France sought to benefit from Dahomey and the region "appeared to lack the necessary agricultural or mineral resources for large-scale capitalist development ". As
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