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93-512: Under Harald Bluetooth's rule, he is said on a Jelling rune stone to have unified the territory that comprises modern-day Denmark under his rule, as well as Norway. The latter claim is more tenuous, as he most likely only had periodic and indirect power over parts of modern-day Norway. Under the House of Knýtlinga, early state formation in Denmark occurred. In 1018 AD the House of Knýtlinga brought

186-653: A causal process or as a necessary mechanism within certain conditions and they may borrow from other approaches. In general the theories highlight: economic stratification , conquest of other peoples , conflict in circumscribed areas , and the neo-evolutionary growth of bureaucracy. Other aspects are highlighted in different theories as of contributing importance. It is sometimes claimed that technological development, religious development, or socialization of members are crucial to state development. However, most of these factors are found to be secondary in anthropological analysis. In addition to conquest, some theories contend that

279-929: A demarcated territory. Early Modern State Scholars generally agree that the modern state system originated with the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, which established the concept of state sovereignty . This event notably marked the shift from the medieval practice of feudalism to the emergence of increasingly centralized state systems that held monopolies over violence and effectively extracted revenue from their civilian populations. There are two existing explanations behind this transition: dramatic shifts in Europe's political, economic, and cultural climate and changes in Europe's natural environment. The political change in Europe during this period can be attributed to improvements in military technology and increased warfare between Western European states, as they catalyzed

372-508: A division of labor would automatically trigger creation of the state form. A third voluntary hypothesis, particularly common with some explanations of early state development, is that long distance trade networks created an impetus for states to develop at key locations: such as ports or oases. For example, the increased trade in the 16th century may have been a key to state formation in West African states such as Whydah , Dahomey , and

465-550: A king claiming such powers and interfering in their daily lives. However, Canute's ambitions were not purely domestic. As the grandnephew of Canute the Great , who had ruled England , Denmark and Norway until 1035, Canute considered the crown of England to be rightfully his and regarded William I of England as a usurper . In 1085, with the support of his father-in-law, Count Robert, and Olaf III of Norway , Canute planned an invasion of England and called his fleet in leding at

558-572: A large capital, cities, villages, and hamlets). Primary states are those state societies that developed in regions where no states existed before. These states developed by strictly internal processes and interaction with other non-states societies. The exact number of cases which qualify as primary states is not clearly known because of limited information about political organization before the development of writing in many places, but Sandeford lists ten likely cases of primary state formation in Eurasia,

651-721: A member of Sweyn's 1069 raid on England , and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reports that Canute was one of the leaders of another raid against England in 1075. When returning from England in 1075, the Danish fleet stopped in the County of Flanders . Because of its hostility towards William I of England , Flanders was a natural ally for the Danes. He also led successful campaigns to Sember and Ester, according to skald Kálfr Mánason. When Sweyn died, Canute's brother Harald III

744-430: A result of some shared rational interest. The theories largely focus on the development of agriculture, and the population and organizational pressure that followed and resulted in state formation. The argument is that such pressures result in integrative pressure for rational people to unify and create a state. Much of the social contract philosophical tradition proposed a voluntary theory for state formation. One of

837-419: A shared identity. As a result of these circumstances, many new states failed to effectively monopolize the means of violence and extract revenue from their citizens, making them (as a general rule) weaker than older states. Theories on the formation of modern states focus on the processes that support the development of modern states, particularly those that formed in late-medieval Europe and then spread around

930-575: A similar language or ethnic identity (David, 2010). To get to the modernly defined state, we can trace its emergence to European nations that assembled states after the Enlightenment period for a myriad of reasons. Using the contractarian view of the state, scholars accredit state function with reducing the harmful effects of citizens' desires to act in their own self interests, without respect to their fellow citizens (Roberts, Golder, Nadecnichek Golder, 2019). By establishing states, people are spared

1023-512: Is considered to be territoriality bound and is distinct from tribes, lineages, firms, churches and other units without centralized institutions. Tilly defines a state's "essential minimal activities" as: Jeffrey Herbst holds that there is another relevant characteristic of modern states: nationalism . This feeling of belonging to a certain territory plays a central role in state formation since it increases citizens' willingness to pay taxes. According to Michael Hechter and William Brustein ,

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1116-482: Is disputed; both of them had issue. The existence of Gunhild of Wenden and Sigrid the Haughty is disputed, some details of their lives can be exchanged to each other or associated to another figures. State formation State formation is the process of the development of a centralized government structure in a situation in which one did not exist. State formation has been a study of many disciplines of

1209-414: Is one such example. When thinking about the current global political climate, it is easy to conflate the concepts of nations and states with one another. In his book "Comparative Politics", David Samuels articulates the idea that a state is a non tangible entity that regulates the actions of its citizens in a defined territory, while a nation refers to a group of people who share a commonality, whether that be

1302-592: Is recognised by the Catholic Church as his feast day. In Sweden and Finland he is historically, however, partially associated with St. Knut's Day , which in reality was celebrated in the memory of the death of his nephew , Canute Lavard . In 1300, his remains and those of his brother Benedict were interred in Saint Canute's Cathedral , built in his honour, where his remains are on display. The reign of Canute has been interpreted differently through

1395-720: The Aegean Bronze Age Greek civilizations and the Malagasy civilization in Madagascar . Unlike primary state formation, early state formation does not require the creation of the first state in that cultural context or autonomous development, independently from state development nearby. Early state formation causation can thus include borrowing, imposition, and other forms of interaction with already existing states. Pre-modern state formation occurred in China during

1488-521: The Benin Empire . Conflict theories of state formation regard conflict and dominance of some population over another population as key to the formation of states. In contrast with voluntary theories, these arguments believe that people do not voluntarily agree to create a state to maximize benefits, but that states form due to some form of oppression by one group over others. A number of different theories rely on conflict, dominance, or oppression as

1581-652: The Danish monarchy , devotedly supported the Roman Catholic Church , and had designs on the English throne . Slain by rebels in 1086, he was the first Danish king to be canonized . He was recognized by the Roman Catholic Church as patron saint of Denmark in 1101. Canute was born c.  1042 , one of the many sons of Sweyn II Estridsson by an unknown mistress. He is first noted as

1674-639: The Limfjord . The fleet never set sail, as Canute was preoccupied in Schleswig by the potential threat of Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor with whom both Denmark and Flanders were on unfriendly terms. Canute feared an invasion by Henry, whose enemy Rudolf of Rheinfelden had sought refuge in Denmark. The warriors of the fleet, mostly made up of peasants who needed to be home for the harvest season, got weary of waiting and elected Canute's brother Olaf (the later Olaf I of Denmark ) to argue their case. That raised

1767-503: The Protestant Reformation and the Enlightenment ). In terms of the natural environment, Europe experienced a sudden population boom during this period due to a rise in food production. The resulting increase in Europe's population density accelerated state centralization in the region. Late Modern State The majority of late-forming states emerged during the decolonization period that followed World War 2 and

1860-583: The South Korean and Taiwanese states. However, Chin-Hao Huang and Dave Kang argue that Tilly's bellicist theory of state formation does not account for Korea and Japan, as they did not face intense security threats. Robert Holden and Miguel Angel Centeno find limited evidence for the applicability of the bellicist theory to state formation in Latin America. A 2017 study which tests the predictions of warfare theories of Tilly and others found that

1953-437: The social sciences for a number of years, so much so that Jonathan Haas writes, "One of the favorite pastimes of social scientists over the course of the past century has been to theorize about the evolution of the world's great civilizations." The study of state formation is divided generally into the study of ancient state formation (those that developed in stateless societies ), medieval or early modern state formation, and

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2046-440: The "neo-Darwinian" framework for the emergence of sovereign states is the dominant explanation in the scholarship. The neo-Darwininian framework emphasizes how the modern state emerged as the dominant organizational form through natural selection and competition. Thomas Ertman wrote in 1997, "it is now generally accepted that the territorial state triumphed over other possible political forms (empire, city-state, lordship) because of

2139-666: The 1648 Peace of Westphalia , there began to be the development in Europe of modern states with large-scale capacity for taxation, coercive control of their populations, and advanced bureaucracies. The state became prominent in Europe over the next few centuries before the particular form of the state spread to the rest of the world via the colonial and international pressures of the 19th century and 20th century. Other modern states developed in Africa and Asia prior to colonialism, but were largely displaced by colonial rule. Political scientists, sociologists, and anthropologists began studying

2232-826: The Americas, and the Pacific. Studies on the formation of the first states tend to focus on processes that made statehood feasible. Prominent explanations for the emergence of the first states emphasize domestication of plants and animals, as well as complex water management systems. Some scholars point to greater land productivity as a prerequisite for the state, whereas others point to the adoption of easy-to-tax crops, such as cereal grains . Some scholars point to military revolutions rooted in bronze metallurgy and iron metallurgy, which made it easier for large states to control and conquer vast territories. Examples of early states which developed in interaction with other states include

2325-581: The Christianization of Denmark. The ruling royal house also developed a model of royal power, which was consistent with later European kingdoms, as well as engaged in the first Scandinavian minting of coins. According to Andres Dobat, the Jelling dynasty are an example of stranger kings , as the first rulers, Harthacnut I or Gorm, were likely foreign. According to Sverre Bagge , the first signs of clear rules of succession in Denmark take place under

2418-613: The English throne, but he was betrayed and captured by Godwin, Earl of Wessex , who supported Cnut's son, Harold Harefoot . Alfred was blinded, and died soon after. Harold ruled until 1040, although his mother Ælfgifu may have ruled during part of his reign. Harold initially shared England with his half brother Harthacnut , the son of Cnut and Emma. Harold ruled in Mercia and Northumbria , and Harthacnut ruled in Wessex . However Harthacnut

2511-556: The Fat ), who were born shortly before his death (ca. 1085/86). Ingerid's descendants, the House of Bjälbo , would ascend to the throne of Sweden and Norway and Canute IV's blood returned to the Danish throne in the person of Olaf II of Denmark . Canute quickly proved himself to be a highly ambitious king as well as a devout one. He enhanced the authority of the church, and demanded austere observation of church holidays. He gave large gifts to

2604-632: The Jelling dynasty. The House of Knýtlinga ruled the Kingdom of England from 1013 to 1014 and from 1016 to 1042. In 1013 Sweyn Forkbeard , already the king of Denmark and of Norway , overthrew King Æthelred the Unready of the House of Wessex . Sweyn had first invaded England in 1003 to avenge the death of his sister Gunhilde and many other Danes in the St. Brice's Day massacre , which had been ordered by Æthelred in 1002. Sweyn died in 1014 and Æthelred

2697-442: The abilities of African states to progress economically in the same time frame as European states had. There are a number of different theories and hypotheses regarding early state formation that seek generalizations to explain why the state developed in some places but not others. Other scholars believe that generalizations are unhelpful and that each case of early state formation should be treated on its own. The earliest forms of

2790-619: The absence of state consolidation until German and Italian unification in the 19th century. Other theories have emphasized the role of trade, finance and urbanization in state formation. These theories emphasize the end of the feudal system and the economic transformations that ensued. Some such theories are neo-marxist whereas other theories are new institutionalist . New institutionalists such as Douglass North argue that state centralization happened as contracts and agreements were made between rulers and influential economic groups within their territory. The ruler could provide public goods in

2883-415: The advantage of legitimacy." Tilly's theory is prominent in the field of historical sociology , where scholars have tended to identify the onset of modern state formation as coinciding with the military revolution in the 16th century. Michael Roberts and Geoffrey Parker agree with Tilly that warfare was a key factor, but that the primary causal factor was not the "state-makers" themselves, but simply

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2976-553: The aftermath of the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Traditional scholars hold that newer states were introduced to modern state systems through Western European colonial rule and, upon obtaining independence, merged them with local forms of governance. In recent years, however, there has been increased criticism of the Eurocentric approach to late-state formation within the academic community. Shmuel Eisenstadt

3069-897: The and after the Warring States period (475-221 BCE). State formation occurred in Japan and Korea during the period 400-800 CE. The key institutional innovation of East Asian state formation was the world's first civil services . Early state formation in Europe happened in the late 9th century to the early 11th century, as stable kingdoms formed in Germany, France, England, and Scotland; three stable, large kingdoms formed in Scandinavia (Denmark, Norway and Sweden), as well as three in East Central Europe (Poland, Bohemia and Hungary). Historian R.I. Moore argues that 970–1215

3162-403: The arid environment, to create a state apparatus that could build and maintain large irrigation projects. In addition to this, is what Carneiro calls the automatic hypothesis , which contends that the development of agriculture easily produces conditions necessary for the development of a state. With surplus food stocks created by agricultural development, creation of distinct worker classes and

3255-461: The belief that the state is an expression of the 'genius' of a people, or that it arose through a 'historical accident.' Such notions make the state appear to be something metaphysical or adventitious, and thus place it beyond scientific understanding." Similarly, social Darwinist perspectives like those of Walter Bagehot in Physics and Politics argued that the state form developed as a result of

3348-403: The bellicist theories do not specify the micro processes, such as the advantages for rulers in adopting certain institutions, and the incentives for elites and rivals to support or oppose rulers. Third, Spruyt argues that war was neither a necessary nor sufficient condition for state formation, pointing to the survival of small and odd states, the development of states in the absence of warfare, and

3441-402: The best leaders and organized societies gradually gaining power until a state resulted. Such explanations are not considered sufficient to explain the formation of the state. In the medieval period (500-1400) in Europe, there were a variety of authority forms throughout the region. These included feudal lords, empires, religious authorities, free cities, and other authorities. Often dated to

3534-407: The boundaries drawn up by colonizers. These two factors have been detrimental to the growth of African states, as there is no recognized alternative to nationalism or war efforts in terms of generating economic prosperity; some would argue federalist policies as a possible way of elevating the status of state's economy, though these policies typically result in the corruption and autocratic behavior of

3627-529: The chaos of Hobbes' "state of nature", where every individual will only act in their own interest and therefore harm thy neighbor (Samuels, 2010; Moehler, 2009) European states formed in alliance with the contractarian view of the state because of their lucky population boom in medieval times as a result of a food surplus, shift in power reverence from papal figures to non secular individuals, and their fear of being conquered by others (David, 2010). States that had successful economies were able to invade and conquer

3720-493: The church and slew Canute, along with his brother Benedict and seventeen of their followers, before the altar. According to the chronicler Ælnoth of Canterbury , Canute died following a lance thrust in the flank . He was succeeded by Olaf as Olaf I of Denmark . Because of his martyrdom and advocacy of the Church, Canute quickly began to be considered a saint. Under the reign of Olaf, Denmark suffered from crop failure, which

3813-596: The churches in Dalby , Odense , Roskilde , and Viborg , and especially to Lund . Ever a champion of the Church, he sought to enforce the collection of tithes . His aggrandizement of the church served to create a powerful ally, who in turn supported Canute's power position. In May 1085, Canute wrote a letter of donation to Lund Cathedral , which was under construction, granting it large tracts of land in Scania , Zealand , and Amager . He founded Lund Cathedral School at

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3906-465: The colonists, African states' struggled to grow economically. Furthermore, African states have not been able to reap the benefits of state generation of greater revenues because they have not had any reason to willingly pay higher rates in taxes or mobilize against any external threat. African states most typically gained independence peacefully, thus not receiving the benefits of the economic booms associated with wartime efforts, and they also have accepted

3999-445: The creation of states in late colonial and post-colonial societies. The lessons from these studies of the formation of states in the modern period are often used in theories about State-building . Other theories contend that the state in Europe was constructed in connection with peoples from outside Europe and that focusing on state formation in Europe as a foundation for study silences the diverse history of state formation. Based on

4092-600: The crowns of Denmark and England together under a personal union . At the height of its power, in the years 1028–1030, the House reigned over Denmark , England and Norway . After the death of Cnut the Great's heirs within a decade of his own death and the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the legacy of the Knýtlinga was almost lost to history. The ruling royal house built impressive ring fortresses, as well as implementing new military organizational innovations, and oversaw

4185-517: The development of the Indian state, as they show that "districts that were more exposed to pre-colonial conflict experienced greater early state-making." Others have argued that bellicist theories can account for state formation in China during the Warring States period , Latin America and Africa. According to Jeffrey Herbst, external security threats have had a fundamental role in the development of

4278-408: The domestic balance of power and the agreements reached between domestic elites may have been more important for state formation than international warfare. Hendrik Spruyt has several critiques of bellicist theories: First, neither the presence of warfare nor states can be taken as exogenous factors. Bellicist theories fail to explain why Europe was defined by such a competitive environment. Second,

4371-483: The emergence of the modern state as a dominant polity: (1) Security-based explanations that emphasize the role of warfare, (2) Economy-based explanations that emphasize trade, property rights and capitalism as drivers behind state formation, and (3) Institutionalist theories that sees the state as an organizational form that is better able to resolve conflict and cooperation problems than competing political organizations. According to Philip Gorski and Vivek Swaroop Sharma,

4464-433: The following in common: "centralized institutions that impose rules, and back them up by force, over a territorially circumscribed population; a distinction between the rulers and the ruled; and an element of autonomy, stability, and differentiation. These distinguish the state from less stable forms of organization, such as the exercise of chiefly power." The most commonly used definition is by Max Weber who describes

4557-455: The form of property rights and protection while getting revenue in the form of taxation from the economic groups. Cnut IV of Denmark Canute IV ( c.  1042  – 10 July 1086), later known as Canute the Holy ( Danish : Knud IV den Hellige ) or Saint Canute ( Sankt Knud ), was King of Denmark from 1080 until 1086. Canute was an ambitious king who sought to strengthen

4650-487: The formation of vast state-controlled militaries and large state bureaucracies for levying taxes. Economically, Western European states saw a drastic increase in tax revenue due to the emergence of a merchant middle class, the establishment of overseas empires, and increased rates of domestic production. Finally, cultural values in Europe changed as ruling classes abandoned the practice of feudalism and people moved away from traditional religious practices (due to events such as

4743-447: The international legal context for popular sovereignty was instituted. Two related theories are based on military development and warfare, and the role that these forces played in state formation. Charles Tilly developed an argument that the state developed largely as a result of "state-makers" who sought to increase the taxes they could gain from the people under their control so they could continue fighting wars. According to Tilly,

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4836-541: The juridicial equivalence of states. The two features began to emerge in the Late Middle Ages but the modern state form took centuries to come firmly into fruition. Spruyt notes that sovereign equality did not become fully global until after World War II amid decolonization. Adom Getachew writes that it was not until the 1960 Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples that

4929-435: The members of European societies gave into the bounds of social contract theory and cooperated in paying higher taxes in order to protect their territories. In reality, majority of early European states failed because the weaker, smaller states were taken over by their more powerful neighbors who were able to extort more revenue from their citizens and thus better prepare themselves for interstate war and conquest. The origin of

5022-465: The military technological revolutions that allowed development of larger armies. The argument is that with the expanded state of warfare, the state became the only administrative unit that could endure in the constant warfare in the Europe of this period, because only it could develop large enough armies. This view—that the modern state replaced chaos and general violence with internal disciplinary structures—has been challenged as ethnocentric, and ignoring

5115-419: The model of European states, it has been commonly assumed that development is the natural path that states will eventually walk through. However, Herbst holds that in the case African states, as well as in developing countries of other regions, development need not be the natural step. States that struggle their consolidation could remain permanently weak. There are three prominent categories of explanations for

5208-538: The modern state can be traced back to these instances of European conflicts and geographical changes in the range of the 1500s to the 1600s, as they classify the moments citizens put the needs of the state over their financial interests and entrusted the state with greater powers to govern them. Imperfect Conditions that Inhibit the Advancement of Later State Formation States on the African continent do not reflect

5301-582: The modern state was differentiated from "leagues of independent cities, empires, federations held together by loose central control, and theocratic federations" by four characteristics: Theories of state formation have two distinct focuses, depending largely on the field of study: Scholars differ in their definition of the state and in the time periods in which state formation occurred. States are minimally defined by anthropologist David S. Sandeford as socially stratified and bureaucratically governed societies with at least four levels of settlement hierarchy (e.g.,

5394-500: The most prominent theories of early and primary state formation is the hydraulic hypothesis , which contends that the state was a result of the need to build and maintain large-scale irrigation projects. The theory was most significantly detailed by Karl August Wittfogel 's argument that, in arid environments, farmers would be confronted by the production limits of small-scale irrigation. Eventually different agricultural producers would join together in response to population pressure and

5487-421: The need for defense from military conquest or the military organization to conquer other peoples is the key aspect leading to state formation. Some theories proposed in the 19th century and early 20th century have since been largely discredited by anthropologists. Carneiro writes that theories "with a racial basis, for example, are now so thoroughly discredited that they need not be dealt with...We can also reject

5580-574: The peasants breaking the leding of 1085 as specified in the Chronicon Roskildense , or as a result of his vigorous tithe policy. The document of his donation to Lund Cathedral was the oldest comprehensive text from Denmark, and provided broad insights into Danish post- Viking Age society. The donation might have had the aim of establishing the Danish Archdiocese of Lund according to Sweyn II Estridsson's wishes, which

5673-412: The population to agree. Taxes and revenue raising have been repeatedly pointed out as a key aspect of state formation and the development of state capacity . Economist Nicholas Kaldor emphasized on the importance of revenue raising and warned about the dangers of the dependence on foreign aid. Tilly argues, state making is similar to organized crime because it is a "quintessential protection racket with

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5766-433: The predictions do not match the empirical record. The study found that median state size decreased from 1100 to 1800, and that the number of states increases rapidly between the twelfth and thirteen centuries and remained constant until 1800. Historian Sverre Bagge argues that neither external nor internal wars were important per se in processes of state formation. To what extent warfare was important in state formation, it

5859-407: The roles of warfare, commerce, contracts, and cultural diffusion in ushering in the state as a dominant organizational form. There is no academic consensus on the definition of the state. The term "state" refers to a set of different, but interrelated and often overlapping, theories about a certain range of political phenomena . According to Walter Scheidel, mainstream definitions of the state have

5952-476: The same efficiency of European state consolidation, likely because their boundaries were artificially carved out by colonial powers during the Partition of Africa in 1884 and 1885. As a result of the colonists' uneducated divisions of the continent, nations were split by new boundaries and segmented into different countries. By reducing the power of nationalism, as nations were not united in the states devised by

6045-450: The same period as when China unified, but Europe did not have unification during that period. Bagge also argues that the number of states did not meaningfully reduce, even though new military technology gave advantages to larger and wealthier units. He writes that "there are relatively few examples in Europe of kingdoms formed by conquest." Historian Ian Morris similarly disagrees with Tilly's thesis; Morris turns it around and says "War made

6138-416: The same time. Canute had gathered the land largely as pay for the pardon of outlawed subjects. The clerics at Lund got extended prerogatives of the land, being able to tax and fine the peasantry there. However, Canute kept his universal royal rights to pardon the outlaws, impose fines on subjects who failed to answer his leding call to war, and demand transportation for his retinue . His reign

6231-637: The state and the state made peace." Vivek Swaroop Sharma distinguishes between total wars of conquest and limited wars, arguing that total wars of territorial conquest were infrequent between Western states. Anna Grzymala-Busse lists three major theoretical critiques of the bellicist theories: First, state formation needs peace and stability in order to succeed (war can destabilize regimes and institutions, as well as deplete state resources). Second, rulers did not just compete for territory but also policy-making authority (which meant that rulers cooperated to agree on borders rather than seek to expand borders). Third,

6324-567: The state as a compulsory political organization with a centralized government that maintains a monopoly of the legitimate use of force within a certain territory. Weber writes that the state "is a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory." Charles Tilly defines states as "coercion-wielding organisations that are distinct from households and kinship groups and exercise clear priority in some respects over all other organizations within substantial territories." The state

6417-462: The state emerged whenever it became possible to centralize power in a durable way. Agriculture and a settled population have been attributed as necessary conditions to form states. Certain types of agriculture are more conducive to state formation, such as grain (wheat, barley, millet), because they are suited to concentrated production, taxation, and storage. Voluntary theories contend that diverse groups of people came together to form states as

6510-435: The state formation processes in Europe and elsewhere in the 17th century—beginning significantly with Max Weber . However, state formation became a primary interest in the 1970s. The question was often framed as a contest between state forces and society forces and the study of how the state became prominent over particular societies. A number of theories developed regarding state development in Europe. Other theories focused on

6603-459: The state makes war and war makes states. In the constant warfare of the centuries in Europe, coupled with expanded costs of war with mass armies and gunpowder, warlords had to find ways to finance war and control territory more effectively. The modern state presented the opportunity for them to develop taxation structures, the coercive structure to implement that taxation, and finally the guarantee of protection from other states that could get much of

6696-474: The state's leaders. African states are also marred by the long lasting effects of European colonialism, beyond the extent of the artificial boundaries of their states, but in the ways many African states were forced to use government systems the colonists had designed (Samuels 2010). Though many African states were peacefully granted independence, the long lasting effects of colonialism's exploitation of their land, people, and makeshift governments further inhibited

6789-546: The study of modern state formation (particularly of the form that developed in Europe in the 17th century and spread around the world). State formation can include state-building and nation-building . Academic debate about various theories is a prominent feature in fields like anthropology, sociology, economics, and political science. Dominant frameworks emphasize the superiority of the state as an organization for waging war and extracting resources. Prominent theories for medieval, early modern, and modern state formation emphasize

6882-427: The superior fighting ability which it derived from access to both urban capital and coercive authority over peasant taxpayers and army recruits." According to Hendrik Spruyt , the modern state is different from its predecessor polities in two main aspects: (1) Modern states have greater capacity to intervene in their societies, and (2) Modern states are buttressed by the principle of international legal sovereignty and

6975-569: The suspicion of Canute, who had Olaf arrested and sent to Flanders. The leding was eventually dispersed, and the peasants tended to their harvests. Before the fleet could reassemble, a peasant revolt broke out in Vendsyssel , where Canute was staying, in early 1086. Canute first fled to Schleswig and eventually to Odense . On 10 July 1086, Canute and his men took refuge inside the wooden St. Alban's Priory , in Odense. The rebels stormed into

7068-442: The times; from a violent king who tyrannized his subjects, to a strict but fair ruler who devotedly supported the Roman Catholic Church and fought for justice without regard to his own person. He was never a thoroughly popular saint in Denmark, but his sainthood granted the Danish monarchy an aura of divine legitimacy . The cause of the rebellion which killed Canute is unknown, but has been speculated as originating in fines issued to

7161-473: The violence of modern states. A 1999 statistical analysis by William R. Thompson and Karen Rasler found support for the notion that major, regional warfare was linked to an increase in army size, but that a military technology revolution was not. Scholars have debated the applicability of bellicist theories of state formation to non-European regions. Economists Mark Dincecco, James Fenske, Anil Menon, and Shivaji Mukherjee have found evidence for Tilly's thesis in

7254-424: The weaker states in their regions, causing many states to increase the revenues they derived from their citizens and tax them at higher rates and the citizens of these states to act in accordance with social contract theory. After recognizing the kinship they felt to the individuals who also lived in their constrained territory and their preference for the stipulations of their current government over an invading one,

7347-630: The western Enlightenment took inspiration from the eastern world, especially East Asia. Newer states formed under drastically different conditions than older states did. For one, these new states developed during an era that had little to no overt conflict between states. In addition to this, imperialist empires stunted the economic development of their colonies, leaving most new states impoverished upon achieving independence. Finally, since colonial powers drew territorial borders with little regard towards religious, ethnic, and cultural differences within indigenous populations, civilians in most new states lacked

7440-444: The world with colonialism. Starting in the 1940s and 1950s, with decolonization processes underway, attention began to focus on the formation and construction of modern states with significant bureaucracies, ability to tax, and territorial sovereignty around the world. However, some scholars hold that the modern state model formed in other parts of the world prior to colonialism, but that colonial structures replaced it. Safavid Iran

7533-458: Was also king of Denmark (as Cnut III), and spent most of his time there, so that Harold was effectively sole ruler of England. Harthacnut succeeded Harold as king of England (he is sometimes also known as Cnut II). He died two years later, and his half-brother Edward the Confessor became king. Edward was the son of Æthelred and Emma, and so with his succession to the throne the House of Wessex

7626-488: Was elected king, and as Canute went into exile in Sweden , he was possibly involved in the active opposition to Harald. On 17 April 1080, Harald died, and Canute succeeded him to the throne of Denmark. On his accession, he married Adela , daughter of Count Robert I of Flanders . They had one son, Charles , who was born in 1084, and twin daughters Cæcilia (who later married Erik Jarl) and Ingerid (who later married Folke

7719-585: Was essentially Viking. In this manner, the Vikings ultimately (if indirectly) finally conquered and kept England after all. In 1085–86 King Cnut IV of Denmark planned one last Danish invasion of England, but he was assassinated by Danish rebels before he could carry it out. This was the last time the Vikings attempted to attack Western Europe, and Cnut's death is regarded as the end of the Viking Age . The parentage of Strut-Harald and Gunnhild Konungamóðir

7812-794: Was finally achieved in 1104. Canute's son Carl became Count of Flanders from 1119 to 1127, ruling as Charles the Good . Like his father, Charles was slain in a church by rebels (in Bruges , 1127), and later beatified by the Catholic church. According to Niels Lund, Lecturer in Medieval History at the University of Copenhagen , Canute's abortive invasion of England "marked the end of the Viking Age." In 2008, an X-ray computed tomography

7905-438: Was indirectly "by mobilizing the aristocracy in the king's service and by necessitating drastically increased taxation and bureaucratization." Furthermore, he argues that the chronology of events in China and Europe are inconsistent with Tilly's argument that increasing costs of warfare led to processes of state formation. Substantial technological and organizational changes that raised the cost of warfare happened in Europe during

7998-498: Was marked by vigorous attempts to increase royal power in Denmark, by stifling the nobles and keeping them to the word of the law. Canute issued edicts arrogating to himself the ownership of common land , the right to the goods from shipwrecks , and the right to inherit the possessions of foreigners and kinless folk. He also issued laws to protect freed thralls as well as foreign clerics and merchants. These policies led to discontent among his subjects, who were unaccustomed to

8091-489: Was one of the first scholars to give voice to this criticism when he argued that there are "Multiple Modernities" rather than just the widely accepted Western "patterns of modernity". Since then, many scholars have begun to approach state formation with a more inclusive perspective. For instance, in The Eastern Origins of Western Civilization , John Hobson investigates eastern modern state formation and shows how

8184-508: Was restored. Edward the Confessor ruled until 1066. His brother in law, Harold Godwinson —the son of Alfred's betrayer—became king, provoking the Norman conquest of England in the same year. Harold II was the last Anglo-Saxon king to rule over England. The Normans were descended from Vikings who had settled in Normandy, and although they had adopted the French language, their heritage

8277-687: Was restored. However, in 1015 Sweyn's son, Cnut the Great , invaded England. After Æthelred died in April 1016, his son Edmund Ironside briefly became king, but was forced to surrender half of England to Cnut. After Edmund died in November that same year, Cnut became king of all England. Scotland submitted to him in 1017, and Norway in 1028. Although Cnut was already married to Ælfgifu of Northampton , he married Æthelred's widow, Emma of Normandy . He ruled until his death in 1035. After his death another of Æthelred's sons, Alfred Aetheling , tried to retake

8370-427: Was seen as divine retribution for the sacrilegious killing of Canute. Miracles were soon reported as taking place at his grave, and his canonization was already being sought during the reign of Olaf. On 19 April 1101, persuaded by the envoys from Eric I of Denmark , Pope Paschal II confirmed the "cult of Canute" that had arisen, and King Canute IV was canonized. He was the first Dane to be canonized. 10 July

8463-415: Was taken of Canute, which showed that he was right-handed and of a slender build. It also specified his cause of death as a thrust to the sacrum through the abdomen , negating Ælnoth's account. He had no injuries indicating he fought against multiple enemies, which can be seen as supporting an account saying he faced his death without a struggle. In parts of Spain, Canute's feast day has reportedly become

8556-708: Was the crucial period in European state formation. Historian Sverre Bagge argues that "in its main features, the European state system seems to have been formed between the division of the Carolingian Empire and around 1200. At the latter date, there were fifteen kingdoms in Europe: England, Scotland, France, Castile, Aragon, Portugal, Navarra, Sicily, Germany, Poland, Bohemia, Hungary, Denmark, Norway and Sweden." Of these 15 kingdoms, seven were still in existence by 1648. Of those that disappeared, it

8649-425: Was usually due to marriage alliances and hereditary succession. Some scholars such as Charles Tilly and Otto Hintze primarily characterize European state formation as an early modern 16th to 18th century phenomenon, emphasizing the establishment of state sovereignty in international relations. Some date state formation later to the early 19th century, pointing to the establishment of a monopoly on violence within

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