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112-669: Kouroukan Fouga , or Kurukan Fuga , was the constitution of the Mali Empire created after the Battle of Krina (1235) by an assembly of nobles to create a government for the newly established empire, according to the Epic of Sundiata . According to oral tradition of the jelis of Mali and Guinea, the Kouroukan Fouga established the federation of Mandinka clans under one government, outlined how it would operate and established

224-480: A botanist, dedicated six books of his Natural History to trees and woody plants, providing a wealth of information on trees and their uses. The progenitors of Chinese woodworking are considered to be Lu Ban (魯班) and his wife Lady Yun, from the Spring and Autumn period (771 to 476 BC). Lu Ban is said to have introduced the plane , chalk-line, and other tools to China. His teachings were supposedly left behind in

336-592: A century later. Arab interest in the Mali Empire declined after the Songhai conquered the northern regions of the empire which formed the primary contact between Mali and the Arab world. For the later period of the Mali Empire, the major written primary sources are Portuguese accounts of the coastal provinces of Mali and neighboring societies. Mali , Mandé , Manden , and Manding are all various pronunciations of

448-493: A city on what is now the border between Guinea and Mali, was the capital for most of the empire's history, and this notion has taken hold in the popular imagination. Djibril Tamsir Niane , a Guinean historian, has been a forceful advocate of this position in recent decades. The identification of Niani as imperial capital is rooted in an (possibly erroneous) interpretation of the Arab traveler al Umari's work, as well as some oral histories. Extensive archaeological digs have shown that

560-427: A diminished blunting effect on tools. Highly workable wood is easier to manipulate into desired forms. If the wood grain is straight and even, it will be much easier to create strong and durable glued joints. Additionally, it will help protect the wood from splitting when nailed or screwed. Coarse grains require a lengthy process of filing and rubbing down the grain to produce a smooth result. Another important factor

672-494: A fixed form. An attempt to "reconstruct" the Kouroukan Fouga from oral tradition was made in 1998, in a regional workshop held in Kankan , Guinea , with the aim of publishing and preserving the oral history related to the area's djeli or griots. Assisted by modern communicators and Guinea linguists under the supervision of Siriman Kouyaté, the workshop transcribed and translated the laws and edicts preserved in different regions from

784-404: A general pattern, softwoods are not necessarily always “softer” than hardwoods, and vice versa. Softwood is most commonly found in the regions of the world with lower temperatures and is typically less durable, lighter in weight, and more vulnerable to pests and fungal attacks in comparison to hardwoods. They typically have a paler color and a more open grain than hardwoods, which contributes to

896-446: A lack of archaeological evidence of significant trade activity, clearly described by Arab visitors, particularly during the 14th century, Mali's golden age. In fact, there is a conspicuous absence of archaeological samples of any kind from Niani dated to the late 13th through early 15th centuries, suggesting that Niani may have been uninhabited during the heyday of the Mali Empire. Various sources cite several other cities as capitals of

1008-464: A lack of definitive archaeological evidence, and the diversity of oral traditions all contribute to this uncertainty. A particular challenge lies in interpreting early Arabic manuscripts, in which, without vowel markings and diacritics, foreign names can be read in numerous different ways (e.g. Biti, Buti, Yiti, Tati). Ibn Battuta and Leo Africanus both call the capital "Mali." Early European writers such as Maurice Delafosse believed that Niani ,

1120-430: A lighter color, maple also can take stains and paint well. There are many factors to consider when deciding what type of wood to use for a project. One of the most important is the workability of the wood: the way in which it responds when worked by hand or tools, the quality of the grain, and how it responds to adhesives and finishes. When the workability of wood is high, it offers a lower resistance when cutting and has

1232-500: A result is commonly used for outdoor projects such as patios, outdoor furniture, and building exteriors. This wood can be easily found at most home centers in the US and Canada for a moderate price. Within the USA fir , also known as Douglas fir , is inexpensive and common at local home centers. It has a characteristic straight, pronounced grain with a red-brown tint. However, its grain pattern

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1344-673: A series of short reigns, often ending in palace coups. While maintaining a firm grip in the south and west, and even expanding in some areas, imperial control of their northernmost provinces was slipping, as attested by the Mossi raids on Macina. In 1433–1434, the Empire lost control of Timbuktu to the Tuareg, led by Akil Ag-Amalwal. Three years later, Oualata also fell into their hands. The rising Songhai Empire conquered Mema , one of Mali's oldest possessions, in 1465. It then seized Timbuktu from

1456-465: A short commentary prepared by Siriman Kouyaté, as an annex to the "Working Documents" for the "Inter-generational Forum on Endogenous Governance in West Africa" organised by Sahel and West Africa Club / OECD , Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso), 26 to 28 June 2006. According Niang's introduction, it states: "The traditionists are those who [recited] the text; then it has been transcribed and translated, with

1568-518: A successful hajj , kept up correspondence with Morocco and Egypt. Upon Sulayman's death in 1360, the empire was ruled by a string of short-live, cruel, or incompetent rulers. The kankoro-sigui held increasing influence as a power behind the throne. During this period the Jolof Empire was founded, and soon dominated all of northern Senegambia . In the 1370s a war between Mali imperial forces and Berber Tuareg forces from Takedda devastated

1680-703: A variety of forms and styles, from realist to abstract carvings, and often uses unusual wood materials such as rainwood or wood with unique textures to highlight the uniqueness of the work. In recent years, the art of modern wood carving has become increasingly popular among woodworkers and visual art enthusiasts not only in Asia, but also around the world. Modern woodcarving art is often exhibited in art galleries and museums, and can be seen in several global contemporary art exhibitions. Woodworking, especially furniture making, has many different designs/styles. Throughout its history, woodworking designs and styles have changed. Some of

1792-459: A very large group of people; the mansa kept a personal guard of some 500 men, and he gave out so many alms and bought so many things that the value of gold in Egypt and Arabia depreciated for twelve years. When he passed through Cairo , historian al-Maqrizi noted "the members of his entourage proceeded to buy Turkish and Ethiopian slave girls, singing girls and garments, so that the rate of

1904-447: A wide variety of properties, making it easy to find a hardwood to suit nearly any purpose, but they are especially suitable for outdoor use due to their strength and resilience to rot and decay. The coloring of hardwoods ranges from light to very dark, making it especially versatile for aesthetic purposes. However, because hardwoods are more closely grained, they are typically harder to work than softwoods. They are also harder to acquire in

2016-470: Is a life” – as in, “Every life is one life.” As an axiom , Nesbitt indicates content (e.g., race, gender, wealth, language, class, or any other form of entitlement) of inequality is absent from it; rather, content of equality is present – every individual human life is valued equally. In contrast to negative formulations (e.g., “Thou shalt not” in the Hebrew Bible), Nesbitt indicates that the basis for

2128-516: Is a popular choice for its rich color and grain. Lastly, oak is a strong, sturdy, and versatile wood for carving with a defined grain. It is also a popular wood for furniture making. Each area of woodworking requires a different variation of tools. Power tools and hand tools are both used for woodworking. Many modern woodworkers choose to use power tools in their trade for the added ease and to save time. However, many woodworkers still choose to use only hand tools for several reasons such as tradition ,

2240-581: Is a very common material for furniture, and is resistant to normal wear-and-tear, but it is best for indoor pieces. A hardwood, mahogany has a trademark reddish-brown to deep-red tint and is known as "one of the great furniture woods". However, mahogany is not typically grown in sustainable forests, and thus runs a steep price at local lumber yards. With two varieties, red and white, oak is known to be easy to work with and relatively strong. However, furniture makers often opt for white oak over red oak for its attractive figure and moisture-resistance. Depending on

2352-480: Is also known through the account of Shihab al-'Umari , written in about 1340 by a geographer-administrator in Mamluk Egypt . His information about the empire came from visiting Malians taking the hajj , or pilgrim's voyage to Mecca . He had first-hand information from several sources, and from a second-hand source he learned of the visit of Mansa Musa . The traveller Ibn Battuta , who visited Mali in 1352 left

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2464-505: Is fertile and populated; many markets are held every day of the week. It is said there are 7077 villages [heavily disputed] situated very close to each other. The following will give an idea how close they are. If the Sultan, for example, wishes to summon an inhabitant of a village near Lake Debo, the messenger sent goes to one of the gates of the ram-parts and from there shouts the message he is to transmit. From village to village, people repeat

2576-475: Is notably soft, Basswood is particularly popular with beginner carvers. It is used in many lower-cost instruments like guitars and electric basses. Aspen is similarly soft, although slightly harder, and readily available and inexpensive. Butternut has a deeper hue than basswood and aspen and has a nice grain that is easy to carve, and thus friendly for beginners. It is also suitable for furniture. While more expensive than basswood, aspen, and butternut, black walnut

2688-417: Is prone to blotching when stained, so painting birch products is probably best. Birch is easily found at many home centers and is a relatively inexpensive hardwood. Popular and easy to work with, cherry is in high demand for its reddish-brown color and ease of staining and finishing. Cherry likely will not be at the local home center, but should be at a lumberyard for a somewhat expensive price. This hardwood

2800-673: Is relatively easy to work with and takes stain well, but its white to light brown color with a straight grain is visually appealing on its own. However, ash is much more difficult to find than other common woods, and will not be found at the local home center. Larger lumber yards should have it in stock. Hardwood of the European species Fagus sylvatica is widely used for furniture framing and carcase construction, in plywood, musical instruments (drum shells and piano blocks) and turned items like knobs. Whether yellow or white birch, these hardwoods are stable and easy to work with. Despite this, birch

2912-473: Is relatively plain and it does not stain well, so fir is commonly used when the finished product will be painted. While commonly used for building, this softwood would also be suitable for furniture-making. White pine , ponderosa, and southern yellow pine are common species used in furniture-making. White pine and ponderosa are typically used for indoor projects, while Southern yellow pine is recommended for outdoor projects due to its durability. This hardwood

3024-569: Is the durability of the wood, especially in regards to moisture. If the finished project will be exposed to moisture (e.g. outdoor projects) or high humidity or condensation (e.g. in kitchens or bathrooms), then the wood needs to be especially durable in order to prevent rot. Because of their oily qualities, many tropical hardwoods such as teak and mahogany are popular for such applications. While many woods can be used for carving, there are some clear favorites, including aspen, basswood, butternut, black walnut, and oak. Because it has almost no grain and

3136-445: Is the name of a town or a region. Ibn Battuta who visited the capital city from 1352 to 1353, called it Mali. The 1375 Catalan Atlas portrayed a "city of Melly" ( Catalan : ciutat de Melly ) in West Africa. Leo Africanus said that the capital city was called Melli. However, Ibn Fadlallah al-Umari gives Mali as the name of the capital province and Ibn Khaldun refers to Mali as a people, with each giving different names for

3248-483: Is unclear, but there was evidently a power struggle of some kind involving the gbara or great council and donson ton or hunter guilds. Some oral traditions agree with Ibn Khaldun in indicating that a son of Sunjata, named Yerelinkon in oral tradition and Wali in Arabic, took power as Sunjata's successor. Two more of Sundiata's sons would reign, as well as a grandson, before a former slave Sakura , seized power. He

3360-511: The Egyptians for woodworking tools was originally copper and eventually, after 2000 BC bronze as iron working was unknown until much later. Commonly used woodworking tools included axes , adzes , chisels , pull saws , and bow drills . Mortise and tenon joints are attested from the earliest Predynastic period . These joints were strengthened using pegs, dowels and leather or cord lashings. Animal glue came to be used only in

3472-635: The Linear Pottery culture wells at Kückhofen and Eythra. Examples of Bronze Age wood-carving include tree trunks worked into coffins from northern Germany and Denmark and wooden folding-chairs . The site of Fellbach-Schmieden in Germany has provided fine examples of wooden animal statues from the Iron Age . Wooden idols from the La Tène period known from a sanctuary at the source of

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3584-551: The New Kingdom period . Ancient Egyptians invented the art of veneering and used varnishes for finishing , though the composition of these varnishes is unknown. Although different native acacias were used, as was the wood from the local sycamore and tamarisk trees, deforestation in the Nile valley resulted in the need for the importation of wood, notably cedar , but also Aleppo pine , boxwood and oak , starting from

3696-591: The Second Dynasty . Woodworking was essential to the Romans. It provided, material for buildings, transportation, tools, and household items. Wood also provided pipes, dye, waterproofing materials, and energy for heat. Although most examples of Roman woodworking have been lost, the literary record preserved much of the contemporary knowledge. Vitruvius dedicates an entire chapter of his De architectura to timber, preserving many details. Pliny , while not

3808-543: The Seine in France . There is significant evidence of advanced woodworking in ancient Egypt . Woodworking is depicted in many extant ancient Egyptian drawings, and a considerable amount of ancient Egyptian furniture (such as stools, chairs , tables , beds , chests ) have been preserved. Tombs represent a large collection of these artifacts and the inner coffins found in the tombs were also made of wood. The metal used by

3920-638: The Wolof Empire allowed Mali to reassert authority over some of its former subjects on the north bank of the Gambia, such as Wuli , by 1576. The swan song of the Mali Empire came in 1599, under the reign of Mansa Mahmud IV . The Songhai Empire had fallen to the Saadi Sultanate of Morocco eight years earlier, and Mahmud sought to take advantage of their defeat by trying to capture Jenne . Mahmud sought support from several other rulers, including

4032-517: The experience and the added character to the work, while some choose to use only hand tools simply for their own enjoyment. Hand tools are classified as tools that receive power only from the hands that are holding them. Edged hand woodworking tools need to be sharpened which is done using the sharpening jig and sharpening stone . A more novel method involves the use of sandpaper . The more common modern hand tools are: Power tools are tools that are powered by an external energy such as

4144-482: The "seat of government" in general rather than being the name of a specific city. Such impermanent capitals are a historically widespread phenomenon, having occurred in other parts of Africa such as Ethiopia , as well as outside Africa, such as in the Holy Roman Empire . The Mansas of Mali used several symbols to demonstrate their power and influence. A red banner struck with a golden disc, referred to as

4256-510: The 'Mali djondjon' or the 'Sun Banner' of Sundiata, appears in oral histories of his coronation. Written sources have Mansa Musa using a similar banner, 'with yellow symbols ( shi’ār ) on a red background', during his visit to Cairo, as well as a parasol. Ibn Battuta records the Mansa using golden and silver lances as imperial regalia. Other royal items included a ruler's cap, slippers, arrows, and bow. The material of which they were made indicated

4368-595: The Abubakrids, the lineage of Mansa Musa. Al-Umari, who wrote down a description of Mali based on information given to him by Abu Sa’id 'Otman ed Dukkali (who had lived 35 years in the capital), reported the realm as being square and an eight-month journey from its coast at Tura (at the mouth of the Senegal River) to Muli. Umari also describes the empire as being south of Marrakesh and almost entirely inhabited except for few places. Mali's domain also extended into

4480-553: The Mali Empire before the 13th century is unclear, as there are conflicting and imprecise accounts by both Arab chroniclers and oral traditionalists . The first ruler for which there is accurate written information is Sundiata Keita, a warrior-prince of the Keita dynasty who was called upon to free the local people from the rule of the king of the Sosso Empire , Soumaoro Kanté . The conquest of Sosso in c.  1235 marked

4592-408: The Mali Empire, and the identification of the listed provinces is controversial. Several of the names are spelled in a variety of ways in different manuscripts. Al-ʿUmari's list, which is quoted with slight differences by al-Qalqashandi, is as follows: Al-ʿUmari also indicates that four Amazigh tribes were subjects of Mali: Gomez instead suggests that these tribes would have inhabited territory in

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4704-540: The Mali Empire, some in competition with the Niani hypothesis and others addressing different time periods. A city called Dieriba or Dioliba is sometimes mentioned as the capital or main urban center of the province of Mande in the years before Sundiata, that was later abandoned. Many oral histories point to a town called Dakajalan as the original home of the Keita clan and Sundiata's childhood home and base of operations during

4816-399: The Mansa's ultimate authority and paid tribute. At the local level (village, town and city), kun-tiguis (heads of family) elected a dougou-tigui (village-master) from a bloodline descended from that locality's founder. The county level administrators called kafo-tigui were appointed by the governor of the province. Only at the state or province level was there any real interference from

4928-588: The Songhai Empire, sacked the capital of Mali and purportedly used the royal palace as a latrine. However, the Songhai did not maintain their hold on the Malian capital. Mali's fortunes seem to have improved in the second half of the 16th century. Around 1550, Mali attacked Bighu in an effort to regain access to its gold. Songhai authority over Bendugu and Kala declined by 1571, and Mali may have been able to reassert some authority over them. The breakup of

5040-557: The Sosso army at the Battle of Kirina in approximately 1235. Maghan Sundiata was declared mansa over all the 12 kingdoms in an alliance that became the Mali Empire. During his reign, Sundiata's generals continued to expand the empire's frontiers, reaching from Kaabu in the west, Takrur , Oualata and Audaghost in the north, and the Soninke Wangara goldfields in the south. The transfer of power following Sunjata's death

5152-455: The Tuareg in 1468 under Sunni Ali Ber . In 1477, the Mossi emperor Nasséré made yet another raid into Macina, this time conquering it and the old province of BaGhana (Wagadou). In an attempt to stem the tide, Mansa Mahmud Keita II opened diplomatic relations with Portugal , receiving the envoys Pêro d'Évora and Gonçalo Enes in 1487. In 1493 he sent another envoy proposing an alliance against

5264-562: The United States and, as a result, are more expensive. Typically furniture such as tables and chairs is made using solid stock from hardwoods due to its strength and resistance to warping. Additionally, they also have a greater variety of grain patterns and color and take a finish better which allows the woodworker to exercise a great deal of artistic liberty. Hardwoods can be cut more cleanly and leave less residue on sawblades and other woodworking tools. Cabinet/fixture makers employ

5376-544: The United States, softwoods are typically cheaper and more readily available and accessible. Most softwoods are suitable for general construction, especially framing, trim, and finish work, and carcassing. Hardwoods are separated into two categories, temperate and tropical hardwoods, depending on their origin. Temperate hardwoods are found in the regions between the tropics and poles, and are of particular interest to wood workers for their cost-effective aesthetic appeal and sustainable sources. Tropical hardwoods are found within

5488-567: The apparent cognate status of Mali and Mandé . The first Mande people entered the Manding region during the period of the Ghana Empire . The Manden city-state of Ka-ba (present-day Kangaba ) served as the capital and name of the province. From at least the beginning of the 11th century, Mandinka kings ruled Manden from Ka-ba in the name of the Ghanas. The ruler was elected from among

5600-471: The area for defence or putting down rebellions. This system tended to promote assimilation into the empire. The mansa's second in command was a general, thought to have been chief of the armed forces. The santigui was the chief of the treasury and managed the royal granaries and valuable goods such as gold and gems. The griot played a very important role in the royal court. He was the tutor of princes and master of ceremonies, and served as an advisor to

5712-471: The area was an important trade and manufacturing center in the 15th century, but no firm evidence of royal residence has come to light. Niani's reputation as an imperial capital may derive from its importance in the late imperial period, when the Songhai Empire to the northeast pushed Mali back to the Manding heartland. Several 21st century historians have firmly rejected Niani as a capital candidate based on

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5824-454: The book Lu Ban Jing (魯班經, "Manuscript of Lu Ban"). Despite this, it is believed that the text was written some 1500 years after his death. This book is filled largely with descriptions of dimensions for use in building various items such as flower pots , tables, altars , etc., and also contains extensive instructions concerning Feng Shui . It mentions almost nothing of the intricate glue-less and nail-less joinery for which Chinese furniture

5936-473: The capital Dakadjalan. The Malian government soon began promoting the historicity and importance of this oath, an entirely different document from the Kouroukan Fouga charter, and submitted it to UNESCO for inclusion on its list of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity . In 2009 UNESCO duly listed the "Manden Charter, proclaimed in Kurukan Fuga", but the description of the charter clearly referred to

6048-545: The capital city itself. Whether Mali originated as the name of a town or region, the name was subsequently applied to the entire empire ruled from Mali. Another hypothesis suggests that the name Mali is derived from Mandé mali " hippopotamus ", an animal that had special significance to the Keitas, and that Mandé means "little manatee". A legend claims that Sunjata transformed into a hippopotamus. However, these hypotheses have been rejected by locals and are inconsistent with

6160-545: The capital in 1670. The Mali Empire rapidly disintegrated, being replaced by independent chiefdoms. The Keitas retreated to the town of Kangaba , where they became provincial chiefs. Much of the recorded information about the Mali Empire comes from 14th century Tunisian historian Ibn Khaldun , 14th century Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta and 16th century Andalusian traveller Leo Africanus . The other major source of information comes from Mandinka oral tradition , as recorded by storytellers known as griots . Imperial Mali

6272-432: The central authority. Provinces picked their own governors via their own custom (election, inheritance, etc.) and, regardless of their title in the province, were recognised as dyamani-tigui (province-master) by the mansa . Dyamani-tiguis had to be approved by the mansa and were subject to his oversight. If the mansa didn't believe the dyamani-tigui was capable or trustworthy, a farba might be installed to oversee

6384-439: The city of Gao . The area around it became independent of Malian control around this time. Still, by the time of Mansa Musa Keita II's death in 1387, Mali was financially solvent and in control of all of its previous conquests except Gao and Dyolof. Forty years after the reign of Mansa Musa Keita I, the Mali Empire still controlled some 1,100,000 square kilometres (420,000 sq mi) of land. The late 14th century again saw

6496-409: The core of the Mali Empire. Kouyaté judged his reconstruction as being "a relatively faithful reproduction of a charter created in the fourteenth century". Djibril Tamsir Niane in an interview went as far as claiming the reconstruction was a "declaration on the rights of man" drafted "in 1236". The English version of the charter was re-published by Mangoné Niang, Director of CELTHO/UA (Niamey), with

6608-484: The craftsman. Woods are typically sorted into three basic types: hardwoods typified by tight grain and derived from broadleaf trees , softwoods from coniferous trees, and man-made materials such as plywood and MDF . Hardwoods , botanically known as angiosperms, are deciduous and shed their leaves annually with temperature changes. Softwoods come from trees botanically known as gymnosperms , which are coniferous, cone-bearing, and stay green year round. Although

6720-619: The desert. He describes it as being north of Mali but under its domination implying some sort of vassalage for the Antasar, Yantar'ras, Medussa and Lemtuna Berber tribes, with garrisons kept at Oualata , Timbuktu , Koumbi , and Gao , and responsibility of governing the Sahara given to the military commander ( sura farin ). The empire's total area included nearly all the land between the Sahara Desert and coastal forests. It spanned

6832-534: The documents as potentially alienating to non-Mande citizens of both Mali and Guinea. Mali Empire The Mali Empire ( Manding : Mandé or Manden Duguba ; Arabic : مالي , romanized :  Mālī ) was an empire in West Africa from c. 1226 to 1670. The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita ( c.  1214  – c.  1255 ) and became renowned for the wealth of its rulers, especially Mansa Musa (Musa Keita). At its peak, Mali

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6944-478: The emergence of Mali as a major power, with the Kouroukan Fouga as its constitution. Following the death of Sundiata Keita, in c.  1255 , the kings of Mali were referred to by the title mansa . In c.  1285 Sakoura , a former royal court slave, became emperor and was one of Mali's most powerful rulers, greatly expanding the empire's territory. He made a pilgrimage to Mecca during

7056-544: The end of Mali's Golden Age and the beginning of a slow decline. The Tarikh al-Sudan records that Mali was still a sizeable state in the 15th century. At that time, the Venetian explorer Alvise Cadamosto and Portuguese traders confirmed that the peoples who settled within Gambia River were still subject to the mansa of Mali. Upon Leo Africanus 's visit at the beginning of the 16th century, his descriptions of

7168-515: The end of the Mali Empire. As founded by Mari Djata, it was composed of the "three freely allied states" of Mali, Mema and Wagadou plus the Twelve Doors of Mali . The Twelve Doors of Mali were a coalition of conquered or allied territories, mostly within Manden, with sworn allegiance to Sundiata and his descendants. Upon stabbing their spears into the ground before Sundiata's throne, each of

7280-506: The entirely separate "Hunter's Oath". In October 2009 the Malian government newspaper celebrated the listing as a victory for the country over neighbors coveting Mali's cultural heritage. According to Nick Nesbitt (2014) of Princeton University , the Mande Charter is a non-tribal, modern , universalist human rights charter created in 1222. As a universal human rights charter of African modernity, Nesbitt indicates that it predates

7392-447: The equatorial belt, including Africa, Asia, and South America. Hardwoods flaunt a higher density, around 1041 kg/m as a result of slower growing rates and is more stable when drying. As a result of its high density, hardwoods are typically heavier than softwoods but can also be more brittle. While there are an abundant number of hardwood species, only 200 are common enough and pliable enough to be used for woodworking. Hardwoods have

7504-560: The event at nearby Dakajalan . The "Manden Charter, proclaimed in Kurukan Fuga", was inscribed in 2009 (4.COM) on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity kept by UNESCO . The earliest extant versions of the Epic of Sundiata were collected in the 1890s, and the first close transcription dates to 1967. As an instance of oral history , the epic does not exist in

7616-431: The first account of a West African kingdom made directly by an eyewitness; the others are usually second-hand. The third great account is that of Ibn Khaldun , who wrote in the early 15th century. While the accounts are of limited length, they provide a fairly good picture of the empire at its height. After Ibn Khaldun's death in 1406, there are no further Arab primary sources except for Leo Africanus , who wrote more than

7728-597: The gold dinar fell by six dirhams ." In addition to his famous hajj, Musa built mosques and palaces in Timbuktu and Gao , and took control of the valuable salt mine of Taghazza . Mansa Musa's son Maghan I ruled for only a few years before being succeeded (or overthrown) by his uncle Sulayman . Sulayman's reign continued Mali's golden age, as attested by the writer Ibn Battuta who arrived in Mali in July 1352, and he made

7840-591: The governor of Kala, Bukar. Bukar professed his support, but believing Mahmud's situation to be hopeless, secretly went over to the Moroccans. The Malian and Moroccan armies fought at Jenne on 26 April , the last day of Ramadan, and the Moroccans were victorious thanks to their firearms and Bukar's support, but Mahmud was able to escape. Around 1610, Mahmud Keita IV died. Oral tradition states that he had three sons who fought over Manden's remains. No single Keita ever ruled Manden after Mahmud Keita IV's death, resulting in

7952-567: The heads of the major clans, and at this time had little real power. Wagadou's control over Manden ended in the 12th century. The Kangaba province, free of Soninké influence, splintered into twelve kingdoms with their own faama . In approximately 1140 the Sosso kingdom of Kaniaga , another former vassal of Wagadou, began conquering the lands of its old rulers. In 1203, the Sosso king and sorcerer Soumaoro Kanté came to power and reportedly terrorised much of Manden. Sundiata Keita , born during

8064-532: The help of Guinea linguists and under the supervision of Mr. Siriman Kouyaté – Magistrate and traditionist (his family is guardian of the Sosobala, in Niagasole, Guinea). Afterwards S. Kouyaté structured The Charter, without falsifying the essential point, talking here about the modern juridical texts with a view to make it readable for contemporaries". Niang lists ten "traditional communicators" on whose authority

8176-454: The humane treatment of slaves , which states: Paragraph 20 states: "Do not ill treat the slaves. You should allow them to rest one day per week and to end their working day at a reasonable time. You are the master of the slaves but not of the bag they carry." Prompted by the publication of the Kouroukan Fouga, in 2003 Malian historian Youssouf Tata Cisse published the "Hunter's Oath", supposedly sworn by Sundiata's troops upon his coronation in

8288-422: The kind needed, oak can probably be found at a local home center or a lumberyard for a bit pricier than other hardwoods. With strength, sturdiness, and durability, maple is a common material for furniture for the bedroom and even china cabinets. Maple is moisture-resistant and frequently displays stand-out swirls in the wood grain, an aesthetically pleasing differentiator from other hardwoods. While most commonly

8400-439: The king. The mansa often liked to play the role "father of his people", dispensing justice himself in solemn sessions, and he listened personally to a subject's grievances against a farin . The post of farin was very prestigious, and his descendants could inherit it with the mansa' s approval. The mansa could also replace a farin swiftly. Most of the empire consisted of autonomous kingdoms of communities who recognized

8512-404: The latter may have begun as a suburb of the former. According to Jules Vidal and Levtzion, citing oral histories from Kangaba and Keyla, another onetime capital was Manikoro or Mali-Kura, founded after the destruction of Niani. Parallel to this debate, many scholars have argued that the Mali Empire may not have had a permanent "capital" in the sense that the word is used today, and historically

8624-433: The laws by which the people would live. The name Kurukan Fuga is a toponym , translating to "clearing on granite/lateritic rock", referring to the plain near where the narrative has Sundiata Keita present the charter. This is often claimed to have been near the town of Ka-ba (present day Kangaba ), following the interpretation of Djibril Tamsir Niane , but other scholars have argued that oral histories more commonly place

8736-514: The legacy of the Mali Empire. The resulting text, not coincidentally, emphasizes the importance of the Kouyate family, who organized the meeting. Jan Jansen takes this one step further, labeling both the Kouroukan Fouga and the Hunters' Oath acts of historical "bricolage" (essentially ' DIY ') rather than credible documents. Simonis and Jansen also see the widespread acceptance and historicization of

8848-479: The maltreatment of prisoners and slaves, installing documents between clans which clearly stated who could say what about whom. Also, Sundiata divided the lands amongst the people assuring everyone had a place in the empire and fixed exchange rates for common products. The final incarnation of the Gbara, according to the surviving traditions of northern Guinea , held 32 positions occupied by 28 clans. It functioned as

8960-447: The mansa's djeli called the belen-tigui (master of ceremonies), or may have been reserved for a female monitor since the constitution states women are to be represented at all levels of government (edict 16). Article 7 institutes the sanankuya (a type of cousinage or joking relationship that is a longstanding West African social tradition) as a civic duty. Kouyaté in his commentary draws attention to paragraph 20, dealing with

9072-461: The modern-day countries of Senegal, southern Mauritania , Mali, northern Burkina Faso , western Niger , the Gambia , Guinea-Bissau , Guinea, the Ivory Coast and northern Ghana. By 1350, the empire covered approximately 478,819 square miles (1,240,140 km ). Al-ʿUmari reported that Mali had fourteen provinces. His list does not necessarily accurately reflect the actual organization of

9184-485: The modernity found in the Mande Charter, as a universal human rights charter that is also deductive and systematic , is its positive formulation , which expresses intent to establish an ideal realm rooted in fraternity , equality , freedom , and justice . Nesbitt indicates that its principles of universal human rights are drawn from a foundational concept of human dignity . Amid an enslavement system that

9296-442: The monarch were governed by strict protocol. Conquered areas were ruled directly by the state through a farin (also called farin-ba or farba ), essentially a military governor, chosen by the Mansa. Duties of the farin included managing the garrison, collecting taxes and customs duties, and controlling the local administration of justice. He could also take power away from the native administration if required and raise an army in

9408-401: The monopoly on certain trades, which included but was not limited to smelting , woodworking , and tanners . Lastly, there were 4 clans of djeli (masters of speech) who recorded the history of the empire through song. Combined these would make up the 29 seat Gbara at the plain of Kouroukan Fougan (named after the event where Sundiata "divided the world"). The 30th seat was likely occupied by

9520-489: The more common styles are listed below. Traditional furniture styles usually include styles that have been around for long periods of time and have shown a mark of wealth and luxury for centuries. More modern furniture styles are commonly used over the past few hundred years. See also Wood: Properties and Tonewood: Properties . Historically, woodworkers relied upon the woods native to their region, until transportation and trade innovations made more exotic woods available to

9632-610: The new empire into ruling clans (lineages) that were represented at a great assembly called the Gbara . There were 16 clans known as the Djon-Tan-Nor-Woro (quiver carriers) responsible for leading and defending the empire. There were also 4 clans known as the Mori-Kanda-Lolou (guardians of the faith) who guided the ruling clans in matters of Islamic law . There were 4 nyamakala clans (people of caste ) who had

9744-532: The past, for example when boring multiple holes. Skilled fine woodworking, however, remains a craft pursued by many. There remains demand for hand crafted work such as furniture and arts, however with rate and cost of production, the cost for consumers is much higher. Modern woodcarving usually refers to works of wood art produced by woodcarvers in the form of contemporary art. This type of wood carving often combines traditional techniques with more modern artistic styles and concepts. Modern woodcarving can be produced in

9856-462: The province or administer it outright. Conquered territories that had proven quiescent could receive this level of autonomy rather than remain under direct rule, but territories that were crucial to trade or subject to revolt could and did lose this privilege as well and have a farin installed to rule over them. Mali was densely populated with the Tarikh al-Sudan stating: "The territory of Jenne

9968-413: The rank of the holder: gold was the highest, and reserved for the Mansa, followed in descending order by silver, brass, iron, and wood. The rulers of Kaabu held a silver lance, for example, while the king of Guinala , one of their subordinates, held a bow and arrows of iron. The majority of the population were farmers, with this being the base of the economy, and food was abundant. Whilst cattle-rearing

10080-482: The reign of Mamluk Sultan An-Nasir Muhammad (r. 1298–1308), but died on his voyage home. Mansa Musa took the throne in c.  1312 . He made a famous pilgrimage to Mecca from 1324 to 1326, where his generous gifts and his expenditure of gold caused significant inflation in Egypt. Maghan I succeeded him as mansa in 1337, but was deposed by his uncle Suleyman in 1341. It was during Suleyman's 19-year reign that Ibn Battuta visited Mali. Suleyman's death marked

10192-557: The rise of Kaniaga, was the son of Niani's faama , Nare Fa (also known as Maghan Kon Fatta, meaning the handsome prince). Upon his father's death, he was forced into exile along with his mother and two sisters. After many years in exile, Sundiata led the combined armies of Mema , Wagadou and the Mandinka city-states in a revolt against the Kaniaga Kingdom around 1234. The combined forces of northern and southern Manden defeated

10304-399: The ruler's cabinet, with different dignitaries given different portfolios (war, justice, economy, foreign relations, religion, etc.), and all major social groups of Mande society were represented. The Mali Empire covered a larger area for a longer period of time than any other West African state before or since. What made this possible was the decentralised nature of administration throughout

10416-513: The same word across different languages and dialects. The version recorded by medieval Arab geographers is Mali ( Arabic : مالي , romanized :  Mālī ). Mali is the Fula form of the word. In the Manding languages , the modern descendants of the language spoken at the core of the Mali Empire, Manden or Manding is the name of the region corresponding to the heartland of the Mali Empire. Medieval sources are divided over whether Mali

10528-571: The state. According to Burkinabé writer Joseph Ki-Zerbo , the farther a person travelled from the capital, the more decentralised the mansa 's power became. Nevertheless, the mansa managed to keep tax money and nominal control over the area without agitating his subjects into revolt. The Malian state balanced centralization and decentralization by dividing the empire into a series of provinces and vassal states that had been either conquered or annexed, respectively. These were administered in different ways. The Mali Empire reached its largest area under

10640-399: The tendency of felled softwood to shrink and swell as it dries. Softwoods usually have a lower density, around 432–592 kg/m , which can compromise its strength. Density, however, does vary within both softwoods and hardwoods depending on the wood's geographical origin and growth rate. However, the lower density of softwoods also allows it to have a greater strength with lighter weight. In

10752-565: The territorial domains of Mali showed that it was still a kingdom of considerable size. However, from 1507 onwards neighboring states such as Diarra , Great Fulo , Yatenga , and the Songhai Empire chipped away at Mali's borders. In 1542, the Songhai invaded the capital but were unsuccessful in conquering the empire. During the 17th century, the Mali Empire faced incursions from the Bamana Empire , who ultimately sacked and burned

10864-623: The text was reconstructed. Siriman Kouyaté, the author of the reconstruction, is listed as one of the ten authorities. Niang adds that "the original text in Malinke is available on the digital data bank ARTO". The ten sources are listed as follows: The reconstructed Kouroukan Fouga, as published by Kouyaté, contains 44 edicts. They are divided into four sections concerned with Social Organization (edicts 1-30), Property Rights (edicts 31-36), Environmental Protection (edicts 37-39) and Personal Responsibilities (edicts 40-44). The Kouroukan Fouga divided

10976-595: The threat of Tenguella , but this came to nothing. Songhai forces under the command of Askia Muhammad I defeated the Mali general Fati Quali Keita in 1502 and seized the province of Diafunu. In 1514, the Denianke dynasty was established in Tekrour and it was not long before the new kingdom of Great Fulo was warring against Mali's remaining provinces. In 1544 or 1545, a Songhai force led by kanfari Dawud , who later succeeded his brother Askia Ishaq as ruler of

11088-452: The twelve kings relinquished their kingdom to the Keita dynasty. In return for their submission, they became "farbas", a combination of the Mandinka words "farin" and "ba" (great farin). Farin was a general term for northern commander at the time. These farbas would rule their old kingdoms in the name of the mansa with most of the authority they held prior to joining the empire. The Mansa held ultimate, unquestioned authority. Audiences with

11200-693: The universal human rights charters of European modernity (e.g., Spinoza , Kant , French Revolution , Age of Enlightenment , Declaration of the Rights of the Man and of the Citizen of 1793 ) by hundreds of years. In comparison to the Magna Carta , Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae , and Code Noir , Nesbitt indicates that the Mande Charter is an axiom, without grounding , universalist , vitalist (e.g., soul, spirit), and egalitarian , which states: “Every life

11312-478: The use of plywood and other man made panel products. Some furniture, such as the Windsor chair involve green woodworking , shaping with wood while it contains its natural moisture prior to drying. Cedars are strong, aromatic softwoods that are capable of enduring outdoor elements, the most common of which is the western red cedar. Western red cedar can sustain wet environments without succumbing to rot, and as

11424-481: The vicinity of Mema, Ghana, and Diafunu. The identity of the capital city of the Mali Empire is a matter of dispute among historians. Scholars have located the capital in Niani, or somewhere on the Niger, or proposed that it changed several times, that there was no true capital, or even that it lay as far afield as the upper Gambia River in modern-day Senegal . Seemingly contradictory reports written by Arab visitors,

11536-628: The war against the Soso. It may have been located close to modern Kangaba . Mande bards in the region speak of the Dakajalan site, containing Sundiata's grave, as sacrosanct. Kangaba became the last refuge of the Keita royal family after the collapse of the Mali Empire, and so has for centuries been associated with Sundiata in the cultural imagination of Mande peoples. If Dakajalan was, in fact, situated near Kangaba, this may also have contributed to their conflation, beginning with Delafosse's speculation that

11648-556: The words and the message arrives almost immediately at its destination and the man in question goes to the meeting place" The Gbara or Great Assembly would serve as the Mandinka deliberative body and council of state until the collapse of the empire in 1645. Its first meeting, at the famous Kouroukan Fouga (Division of the World), had 29 clan delegates presided over by a belen-tigui (master of ceremony). The Kouroukan Fouga put in place social and economic reforms including prohibitions on

11760-633: Was a speciality of the Fulani , peoples of the Niger were raising sheep, goats, and cattle by the 14th century. The Bozo , Somono , and Sorko people specialised in fishing. Woodworking Along with stone , clay and animal parts, wood was one of the first materials worked by early humans . Microwear analysis of the Mousterian stone tools used by the Neanderthals show that many were used to work wood. The development of civilization

11872-663: Was able to stabilize the political situation in Mali. Under his leadership, Mali conquered new territories and trade with North Africa increased. After Sakura's death, power returned to the line of Sunjata, with Qu taking the throne. He was succeeded by his son Muhammad , who launched two voyages to explore the Atlantic Ocean . After the loss of the first expedition, Muhammad led the second expedition himself. He left his cousin Kanku Musa in charge during his absence. Eventually, due to Muhammad's failure to return, Musa

11984-437: Was closely tied to the development of increasingly greater degrees of skill in working these materials. Among early finds of wooden tools are the worked sticks from Kalambo Falls , Clacton-on-Sea and Lehringen. The spears from Schöningen ( Germany ) provide some of the first examples of wooden hunting implements. Flint tools were used for carving. Since Neolithic times , carved wooden vessels are known, for example, from

12096-501: Was introduced along with Islam, and predating the declarations of 1776 and 1789 , Nesbitt indicates that the Mande Charter was the earliest declaration to seek abolition of enslavement , beyond moral assertion, through the establishment of an emancipatory government. Historian Francis Simonis has observed that the Kankan workshop did not invite any Malian griots, perhaps due to a perceived rivalry between Mali and Guinea over claims to

12208-529: Was recognized as mansa in approximately 1312. The reign of Kankan Musa, better known as Mansa Musa , is considered the golden age of Mali. A devout and well-educated Muslim, he took an interest in the scholarly city of Timbuktu , which he peaceably annexed in 1324, and transformed Sankore from an informal madrasah into an Islamic university. Mansa Musa Keita's crowning achievement was his famous 1324 pilgrimage to Mecca . Accounts of how many people and how much gold he spent vary. All of them agree that he took

12320-549: Was so famous. With the advances in modern technology and the demands of industry, woodwork as a field has changed. The development of Computer Numeric Controlled ( CNC ) Machines, for example, has made it possible to mass-produce and reproduce products faster, with less waste, and often with more complex design than ever before. CNC wood routers can carve complicated and highly detailed shapes into flat stock, to create signs or art. Rechargeable power tools speed up creation of many projects and require much less body strength than in

12432-486: Was the largest empire in West Africa, widely influencing the culture of the region through the spread of its language , laws, and customs. The empire began as a small Mandinka kingdom at the upper reaches of the Niger River , centered around the Manding region . It began to develop during the 11th and 12th centuries as the Ghana Empire , or Wagadu, declined and trade epicentres shifted southward. The history of

12544-493: Was used in the Mediterranean world. Rather, authority would rest with the mansa and his court, wherever he went. Therefore, Arabic visitors may have assigned the "capital" label merely to whatever major city the mansa was based out of at the time of their visit. It has been suggested that the name given in the Arabic sources for the capital of Mali is derived the Manding word "bambi", meaning " dais ", and as such refers to

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