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70-397: The kowari ( Dasyuroides byrnei ), also known by its Diyari name kariri , is a small carnivorous marsupial native to the gibber deserts of central Australia. It is the sole member of the genus Dasyuroides. Other names for the species include brush-tailed marsupial rat , bushy-tailed marsupial rat , kawiri , Kayer rat , and Byrne's crest-tailed marsupial rat . The kowari

140-483: A consistent orthography . During this period Diyari became a lingua franca , widely used by the missionaries and helpers as well as by Aboriginal people. After the mission closed in 1914, most of the Diyari people relocated to towns and stations, outside traditional territory, leading to loss of the language as they lived amongst people speaking English and other Aboriginal languages, although it continued to be used as

210-483: A diminution in value for their land after finding an endangered animal on it. They have allegedly opted to kill and bury the animals or destroy habitat silently. Thus removing the problem from their land, but at the same time further reducing the population of an endangered species. The effectiveness of the ESA– which coined the term "endangered species"– has been questioned by business advocacy groups and their publications but

280-517: A large extent in the future. Endangered species are addressed through Canada's Species at Risk Act . A species is deemed threatened or endangered when it is on the verge of extinction or extirpation . Once a species is deemed threatened or endangered, the Act requires that a recovery plan to be developed that indicates how to stop or reverse the species' population decline. As of 2021, the Committee on

350-459: A large group of young people who identify themselves as Dieri and are keen to learn about the language and their culture, history and heritage. In its latest (22nd) edition in 2019, Ethnologue shows the population of speakers as 5 (2016 census), ethnic population 600, and status as "8b (Nearly extinct)". It further notes that the DAC started preparing Dieri language material for schools in 2009 and that

420-527: A last resort effort. SSP Programs regularly participate in species recovery, veterinary care for wildlife disease outbreaks, and some other wildlife conservation efforts. The AZA's Species Survival Plan also has breeding and transfer programs, both within and outside of AZA – certified zoos and aquariums. Some animals that are part of SSP programs are giant pandas , lowland gorillas, and California condors . Whereas poaching substantially reduces endangered animal populations, legal, for-profit, private farming does

490-408: A profit. So many owners are keeping them secure. The private sector has been key to helping our work." Conservation experts view the effect of China's turtle farming on the wild turtle populations of China and South-Eastern Asia – many of which are endangered– as "poorly understood". Although they commend the gradual replacement of turtles caught wild with farm-raised turtles in the marketplace–

560-601: A reduced gene pool and reduce resistance . In 1981, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) created a Species Survival Plan (SSP) to help preserve specific endangered and threatened species through captive breeding. With over 450 SSP Plans, some endangered species are covered by the AZA with plans to cover population management goals and recommendations for breeding for a diverse and healthy population, created by Taxon Advisory Groups. These programs are commonly created as

630-783: A reduction in whaling and increase population sizes. The actions include prohibiting all whaling in United States waters, the formation of the CITES treaty which protects all whales, along with the formation of the International Whaling Commission (IWC). But even though all of these movements have been put in place, countries such as Japan continue to hunt and harvest whales under the claim of "scientific purposes". Over-hunting, climatic change and habitat loss leads in landing species in endangered species list. It could mean that extinction rates could increase to

700-481: A revised version was published as a grammar of the language in 1981. Reuther's manuscript was translated from German into English by Rev. P. Scherer in 1981. Austin continued his research on Diyari based on fieldwork he had done in the 1970s, publishing translated texts, notes on literacy, language classification and vocabulary. By 1980, the language was still in use among a small number of families, but most people under 50 had learnt English as their first language. By

770-474: A species more desirable for collectors and poachers. This effect is potentially reducible, such as in China where commercially farmed turtles may be reducing some of the pressure to poach endangered species. Another problem with the listing species is its effect of inciting the use of the "shoot, shovel, and shut-up" method of clearing endangered species from an area of land. Some landowners currently may perceive

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840-435: A species on the endangered species list and rules for removing a species from the list once its population has recovered. Whether restrictions on land development constitute a "taking" of land by the government; the related question of whether private landowners should be compensated for the loss of uses of their areas; and obtaining reasonable exceptions to protection laws. Also lobbying from hunters and various industries like

910-565: A written language. The first research by professional linguists started with American linguist Kenneth L. Hale 's recording of a short text in 1960 from a native speaker called Johannes, who was living at the time in Alice Springs . Research on the language started in earnest in the 1970s, using tape recordings and notes, by Luise Hercus , phonetician David Trefry and in particular Peter K. Austin. Austin wrote his PhD thesis on Diyari in 1978, using tapes recorded by Hercus, of which

980-534: Is 14–18 cm (5.5–7.1 in) for males and 13.5–16 cm (5.3–6.3 in) for females, with both sexes having tails 11–16 cm (4.3–6.3 in) long. The kowari is found in stony desert areas of the Lake Eyre drainage basin , including the Sturt Stony Desert in north-eastern South Australia and south-western Queensland's Channel Country . Its range is declining, and it is now extinct in

1050-540: Is a critical habitat for many endangered and watched species, as well as many migratory birds. Due to environmental shifts from climate change and the addition of agriculture in the surrounding plains, the system has become almost irreparably damaged. The warming temperatures has caused mass evaporation, leaving the Sea much more saline and with much more exposed playa. This not only damages air quality but also has caused fish kills to accumulate as shown pictured below. This has made

1120-413: Is a member of the family Dasyuridae , and the sole member of genus Dasyuroides. For some time it was included in the genus Dasycercus with the mulgaras , however recent genetic work has confidently separated the kowari as their sister-taxon . It was once thought that there were two subspecies, however these were based on minor morphological differences and they are no longer recognised: The kowari

1190-438: Is a significant cause in causing some species to become endangered. The conservation status of a species indicates the likelihood that it will become extinct . Multiple factors are considered when assessing the status of a species; e.g., such statistics as the number remaining, the overall increase or decrease in the population over time, breeding success rates, or known threats. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

1260-586: Is an example of an endangered subspecies protected under the ESA. The US Fish and Wildlife Service , as well as the National Marine Fisheries Service are held responsible for classifying and protecting endangered species. They are also responsible for adding a particular species to the list, which can be a long, controversial process. Some endangered species laws are controversial. Typical areas of controversy include criteria for placing

1330-416: Is an opportunistic and voracious hunter, with its regular diet including the long-haired rat ( Rattus villosissimus ), house mouse ( Mus musculus ), geckoes, insects and other arthropods, including centipedes . Most animals of equal or smaller size to the kowari may be considered prey if the opportunity arises, including birds. Kowaris kill with strong bites to the head, although they do not always strike

1400-529: Is asserted to be one of the leading causes of animal endangerment. According to the US National Park Service : If we can sufficiently reduce greenhouse gas emissions, many of them will still have a chance to survive and recover. NASA scientist James Hanson has warned that in order to maintain a climate similar to that under which human civilization developed and similar to that which so many organisms are adapted, we need to quickly reduce

1470-517: Is at risk of extinction due to climate change if no action is taken. The phenomenon of species shifting their ranges in response to changing climates, finding new or shrinking habitats, illustrates the direct impact of global warming on biodiversity. Another major concern is rising ocean acidity caused from excess CO 2 in the atmosphere. This creates acidic conditions in the ocean which creates an inhospitable environment for fish, plants, and other keystone species such as coral reefs For example

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1540-591: Is currently run as pastoral land for the production of beef . In Queensland, it is protected in both the Astrebla Downs and Diamantina National Parks, although it has not been seen in Diamantina National Park since 2012. In South Australia, none of its current range falls under conservation tenement, though a predator free reserve of 12,000 hectares has been set up near Andamooka Station where 12 kowaris were transferred to from around

1610-763: Is data from the United States that shows a correlation between human populations and threatened and endangered species. Using species data from the Database on the Economics and Management of Endangered Species database and the period that the Endangered Species Act (ESA) has been in existence, 1970 to 1997, a table was created that suggests a positive relationship between human activity and species endangerment. Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

1680-417: Is in complementary distribution with both the trill [r] and the flap [ɾ] . Austin (1981) analysed the trill [r] as being the intervocalic allophone of /d/~/dʳ/ , with the flap /ɾ/ being a separate phoneme . R. M. W. Dixon (2002) suggests that [ɾ] could be considered the intervocalic allophone of /d/~/dʳ/ , so then /r/ would be a separate phoneme. Having /d/ realized as [ɾ] would parallel

1750-601: Is most readily distinguished from its closest relatives, the mulgaras , by having a thick, bushy brush of black hairs fully encircling the end of its tail. Other distinguishing features include having four toes on each hindfoot (as opposed to five), and the fact that the base of its tail is never fattened (tail base is often fattened in the brush-tailed mulgara , and occasionally fattened in the crest-tailed mulgara ). Male kowaris are slightly larger than females, with males weighing 85–175 g (3.0–6.2 oz), and females weighing 70–140 g (2.5–4.9 oz). Head-body length

1820-405: Is nevertheless widely recognized by wildlife scientists who work with the species as an effective recovery tool. Nineteen species have been delisted and recovered and 93% of listed species in the northeastern United States have a recovering or stable population. Currently, 1,556 endangered species are under protection by government law. This approximation, however, does not take into consideration

1890-588: Is one of the biggest endangerment drivers in Brazil, has become a challenge. Brazil has a broad legal system meant to protect the environment, including its Constitution , as well as several federal, state and local government agencies tasked with protecting the fauna and flora , fining individuals or companies linked to environmental crimes and confiscating illegally taken wildlife. Though such agencies can collect their data, each system operates relatively on its own when it comes to wildlife trafficking. However, both

1960-608: Is the best-known worldwide conservation status listing and ranking system. Over 50% of the world's species are estimated to be at risk of extinction, but the frontier between categories such as 'endangered', 'rare', or 'locally extinct' species is often difficult to draw given the general paucity of data on most of these species. This is notably the case in the world Ocean where endangered species not seen for decades may go extinct unnoticed. Internationally, 195 countries have signed an accord to create Biodiversity Action Plans that will protect endangered and other threatened species. In

2030-494: The Birdsville Track in 2022. The kowari's primary threat is habitat degradation, particularly by livestock, but also rabbits . Other threats include being preyed upon by (and being in competition for prey with) feral cats , foxes , and dingoes , as well as climate change , possible poisoning by insecticides and baits, and the loss of habitat for road construction material. Overstocked cattle are known to degrade

2100-654: The Emperor Penguins , which rely on Antarctic sea ice for breeding, shelter, and food. The melting of ice sheets poses a direct threat to their survival. Similarly, the Mount Rainier white-tailed ptarmigan , adapted to alpine mountaintops, faces habitat loss due to climate changes in snowfall patterns and rising temperatures. Another example is in the case of the Salton Sea in California. This area

2170-828: The Marree area. In 2012 the Federal Court of Australia officially awarded an area of land centred on the Cooper Creek region to the DAC, and another claim was recognised soon afterwards. In 2008 Greg Wilson began work with the Dieri Resources Development Group, based in Port Augusta , to prepare materials for teaching the language in school, with the support of the ILS (Indigenous Language Support program). A series of workshops resulted in

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2240-683: The Melbourne -based Network for Linguistic Diversity (RNLD). In 2015, Austin wrote that Ethnologue ' s assertion in its 16th edition that Diyari was extinct was incorrect, and on the contrary, ... there are today a number of people living today in South Australia and western New South Wales who grew up speaking Diyari as their first language and whose knowledge and linguistic ability ranges from fluent native speaker to semi-speaker to partial speaker. There are hundreds of people who know at least some words and expressions in Diyari... and

2310-516: The Mobile Language Team (MLT) worked with the DAC to complete a Dieri language learner's guide in 2017. Several of the nasals and laterals are allophonically prestopped . The voiced alveolar stop [d] may have trilled release [dʳ] depending on dialect. Peter Austin (1988) suggests that this is due to Yandruwanhdha influence. The voiced retroflex stop /ɖ/ often becomes a tap [ɽ] between vowels. The stop [d]~[dʳ]

2380-466: The New Testament into Diyari, as well as compiling a lengthy manuscript on the language, culture, mythology and history of the Diyari people, including a 4-volume dictionary. The Diyari people were taught to read and write at the mission school, and written records show that the language was used in letters from about 1900 until about 1960. Dieri is therefore a relatively "literate" language, with

2450-491: The petroleum industry , construction industry, and logging , has been an obstacle in establishing endangered species laws. The Bush administration lifted a policy that required federal officials to consult a wildlife expert before taking actions that could damage endangered species. Under the Obama administration , this policy was reinstated. Being listed as an endangered species can have negative effect since it could make

2520-591: The 1990s, most of his consultants on the language had died, and Austin assumed that the language was close to extinction. However, social and political activities among Aboriginal people in the 1990s relating to claims under the Native Title Act 1993 had a big impact on the language. The incorporation of a group of Diyari people who lodged a land claim, the Dieri Aboriginal Corporation (DAC), in 2001 had 600 identified members, many in

2590-596: The DAC Group. In the same year, he published a draft dictionary in 2013, and revised his 1981 grammar, making it free online. Willsden Primary School in Port Augusta introduced a Diyari language programme, with members of the Warren family (who had long been collaborators with Austin) involved. An online blog was started and has proven a popular resource. Language revitalisation projects continue, with some input from

2660-583: The IUCN Red List listed 3,079 animal and 2,655 plant species as endangered (EN) worldwide. Brazil is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world, if not the most. It houses not only the Amazon forest but the Atlantic forest , the savanna-like Cerrado among other biomes . Due to the high density of some of its well-preserved rainforests, wildlife trafficking , which along with deforestation

2730-546: The Northern Territory. Kowaris inhabit open gibber plains between braided river channels and sand dunes. They prefer areas where rocks are flat, even-sized and smaller than 5 cm, and there are few shrubs. They burrow in small sand mounds, which form in depressions on the gibber plain, and hunt nocturnally between the sand mounds and on the gibber plain. During the day, they generally remain inside their burrows, but may emerge to bask at its entrance. The kowari

2800-1074: The Status of Endangered Wildlife In Canada has assessed 369 species as being endangered in Canada. The World Wide Fund-India raises concern in the longevity of the following animal species: the Red Panda , the Bengal Tiger , the Ganges River Dolphin , the Asian Elephant . India signed the Wildlife Protection Act and the also joined the Convention on the International Trade in 1976, to prevent poaching from harming its wildlife. The introduction of non-indigenous species to an area can disrupt

2870-569: The United States' known animals, fungi and plants are near extinction. This total is substantially more than the number of species protected in the United States under the Endangered Species Act. Ever since humankind began hunting to preserve itself, over-hunting and fishing have been a large and dangerous problem. Of all the species who became extinct due to interference from humankind, the dodo , passenger pigeon , great auk , Tasmanian tiger and Steller's sea cow are some of

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2940-560: The United States, such plans are usually called Species Recovery Plans . Though labeled a list, the IUCN Red List is a system of assessing the global conservation status of species that includes "Data Deficient" (DD) species – species for which more data and assessment is required before their situation may be determined – as well species comprehensively assessed by the IUCN's species assessment process. The species under

3010-638: The agencies and the NGO 's working in Brazil agree that the birds account for about 80% of trafficked species in the country. The relation between wildlife smuggling, other environment crimes under the Brazilian law such as deforestation , and endangered species is particularly intricate and troubling since the rarer the animal or plant gets the most targeted and valuable they become in the black market , which leads to more endangered species in its turn. Additionally, some environment experts and scientists point to

3080-457: The body. Diyari language The Diyari had a highly developed sign language . This was first noticed by Alfred William Howitt in 1891, who first mistook them for defiant or command gestures until he then realised that they formed part of an integral system of hand signs, of which he registered 65. One of their functions was to allow women to communicate during mourning, when a speech taboo prevailed. Dhirari (extinct late 20th century)

3150-403: The carbon dioxide in our atmosphere to 350 parts per million (ppm). Before the industrial revolution, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rarely rose above 280 ppm; during the 2014 calendar year, carbon dioxide levels fluctuated between 395 and 402 ppm. Under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 in the United States, species may be listed as "endangered" or "threatened". "The Salt Creek tiger beetle"

3220-410: The current condition of species, their genetic variation, and how changes in their environment may affect their survival. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reports that the approximately 1°C rise in mean global temperature due to human activities is causing serious impacts on species, including changes in abundance, genetic composition, behavior, and survival. The IUCN stresses

3290-422: The disbanding of environment agencies and the repeal of laws in Brazil under the presidency of Jair Bolsonaro as one of the reasons behind a surge in the number of endangered species. In one occasion during his presidency some fines totaling US$ 3.1 billion on environment criminals were revoked and at least one fine (related to illegal fishing ) imposed on Bolsonaro himself was cancelled and the agent who fined him

3360-401: The ecosystem to such an extent that native species become endangered. Such introductions may be termed alien or invasive species. In some cases, the invasive species compete with the native species for food or prey on the natives. In other cases, a stable ecological balance may be upset by predation or other causes leading to unexpected species decline. New species may also carry diseases to which

3430-439: The global conservation status of many species, and various other agencies assess the status of species within particular areas. Many nations have laws that protect conservation-reliant species which, for example, forbid hunting , restrict land development , or create protected areas . Some endangered species are the target of extensive conservation efforts such as captive breeding and habitat restoration . Human activity

3500-531: The importance of environmental policies aimed at reducing CO 2 emissions to lessen the impact of climate change on species. Tools like the IUCN Red List and guidelines for assessing species' vulnerability to climate change are vital for conservation efforts. In addition, climate change can lead to species decreasing in areas where they once thrived, by being forced to migrate or even going extinct from inhospitable conditions, invasive species, and fragmentation. A study cited by WWF found that one in six species

3570-578: The index include: mammals, birds, amphibians, cycads, and corals. Those species of " Near Threatened " (NT) and " Least Concern " (LC) status have been assessed and found to have relatively robust and healthy populations, though these may be in decline. Unlike their more general use elsewhere, the List uses the terms "endangered species" and "threatened species" with particular meanings: "Endangered" (EN) species lie between " Vulnerable " (VU) and " Critically Endangered " (CR) species. In 2012,

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3640-466: The language and used it, including preaching in Dieri and teaching it in the mission school from 1868. The earliest written records of the language date from 1870, by early missionaries Koch and Homann. Johann Georg Reuther and Carl Strehlow created dictionaries and other teaching aids in Diyari between 1895 and 1906, and translated a large number of Christian works into the language. Reuther translated

3710-403: The more well known examples; with the bald eagle , grizzly bear , American bison , Eastern timber wolf and sea turtle having been poached to near-extinction. Many began as food sources seen as necessary for survival but became the target of sport. However, due to major efforts to prevent extinction, the bald eagle, or Haliaeetus leucocephalus is now under the category of Least Concern on

3780-525: The native species have no exposure or resistance. The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) emphasizes that our planet is warming at a rate faster than any time in the past 10,000 years, necessitating species to adapt to new climate patterns, such as variations in rainfall and longer, warmer summers. For example, the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service highlighted efforts to understand and mitigate the impact of climate change on species through scientific research, modeling, and conservation actions. This includes evaluating

3850-474: The oldest known such instances of captive mating being attributed to menageries of European and Asian rulers, an example being the Père David's deer . However, captive breeding techniques are usually difficult to implement for such highly mobile species as some migratory birds (e.g. cranes) and fishes (e.g. hilsa ). Additionally, if the captive breeding population is too small, then inbreeding may occur due to

3920-528: The opposite. It has substantially increased the populations of the southern black rhinoceros and southern white rhinoceros . Richard Emslie, a scientific officer at the IUCN, said of such programs, "Effective law enforcement has become much easier now that the animals are largely privately owned... We have been able to bring local communities into conservation programs. There are increasingly strong economic incentives attached to looking after rhinos rather than simply poaching: from Eco-tourism or selling them on for

3990-549: The optimal location. Kowaris reach sexual maturity at 10–11 months old, and will commence breeding in their first year of life. Breeding occurs in May-December, with each female producing up to six pouch young. They have a gestation period of 35 days, after which the young are firmly attached to the teat for about 56 days. Other development milestones include eyes opening at 74 days, play-fighting beginning at 86 days and switching to solid food at around 95 days. Once weaned,

4060-627: The percentage of farm-raised individuals in the "visible" trade grew from around 30% in 2000 to around 70% in 2007 – they worry that many wild animals are caught to provide farmers with breeding stock. The conservation expert Peter Paul van Dijk noted that turtle farmers often believe that animals caught wild are superior breeding stock. Turtle farmers may, therefore, seek and catch the last remaining wild specimens of some endangered turtle species. In 2015, researchers in Australia managed to coax southern bluefin tuna to breed in landlocked tanks, raising

4130-542: The production of a CD-ROM called Dieri Yawarra and a print resource, "for community and school language revitalisation and second language learning". This was followed by a second, more ambitious, project in 2009, called Ngayana Dieri Yawarra Yathayilha! ("Let us all speak the Dieri language now!") to develop language lessons for schools at all levels (still a work in progress as of 2015 ). In early 2013, Austin spent some months in Australia and travelled to Port Augusta to run language revitalisation workshops with Wilson and

4200-579: The realization of /ɖ/ as [ɽ] , and having /r/ rather than /ɾ/ as a phoneme matches most other Australian languages. Diyari has three different morphosyntactic alignments : Endangered species An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss , poaching , invasive species , and climate change . The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List lists

4270-482: The red list. A present-day example of the over-hunting of a species can be seen in the oceans as populations of certain whales have been greatly reduced. Large whales like the blue whale , bowhead whale , finback whale , gray whale , sperm whale , and humpback whale are some of the eight whales which are currently still included on the Endangered Species List. Actions have been taken to attempt

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4340-399: The sand mounds which kowaris burrow in for shelter, and by eating the sparse vegetation associated with the mounds, they also reduce the shelter available for kowari prey. There is strong evidence that overstocking of cattle has reduced kowari abundances at some sites, and possibly led to their extirpation at others. Kowaris now have a highly fragmented population, with a high proportion of

4410-409: The species threatened with endangerment that are not included under the protection of laws like the Endangered Species Act. According to NatureServe's global conservation status , approximately thirteen percent of vertebrates (excluding marine fish), seventeen percent of vascular plants, and six to eighteen percent of fungi are considered imperiled. Thus, in total, between seven and eighteen percent of

4480-437: The subpopulations likely to be un-viable in the face of current threats. Captive kowari are known to be associated with oral squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs). The SCCs cause tumours to invade the oral cavity of the kowari and begin to cause swelling in the gums . Prior to tumour formation, periodontal diseases are heavily present in the oral cavity. Captive kowaris are not expected to survive if SCCs spread into other regions of

4550-486: The system inhospitable to the birds and endangered species relying upon it Captive breeding is the process of breeding rare or endangered species in human controlled environments with restricted settings, such as wildlife reserves, zoos, and other conservation facilities. Captive breeding is meant to save species from extinction and so stabilise the population of the species that it will not disappear. This technique has worked for many species for some time, with probably

4620-588: The young will live independently. Wild kowari lifespans average little more than a year, although some have been known to live and breed for two years in the wild, or longer in captivity. The kowari is listed as a Vulnerable species under both the Australian Federal EPBC Act and IUCN Red List , as well as Vulnerable in Queensland, Endangered in South Australia, and Extinct in the Northern Territory. Much of its remaining range

4690-410: Was demoted . In the past, Brazil has successfully saved the endemic golden lion tamarin from extinction . Massive campaigns to raise awareness among people by NGO's and governments, which included printing depictions of the golden lion tamarin in the 20 reais Brazilian banknotes (still in circulation), are credited with getting the species out of the critically endangered animals list. There

4760-444: Was a dialect of Diyari. Austin identified two variants of Dhirari, Southern and Northern, differing only in vocabulary. Pilatapa (extinct by the 1960s) may also have been a dialect; data is poor. Diyari was traditionally spoken by the Diyari (or Dieri) people in the far north of South Australia , to the east of Lake Eyre. The mostly dry Cooper Creek and the Birdsville Track run through this very arid region. The whole area

4830-693: Was first described by Sir Walter Baldwin Spencer in 1896, based on a type specimen collected near Charlotte Waters in the Northern Territory . The species was named in honour of Patrick Michael Byrne, the telegraph operator at the Charlotte Waters Telegraph Station who handed the specimen to Spencer. However, it is likely that the specimen was first collected by a person from the Arrernte nation. The kowari

4900-517: Was occupied by the Diyari and many place names and mythological sites still exist. Current Dieri speakers live in Marree , Port Augusta , Broken Hill , and Adelaide . In 1867 German Lutheran pastors established a Christian mission station and sheep station at Lake Killalpaninna on Cooper Creek, known as Killalpaninna Mission or Bethesda Mission, which was closed by the South Australian government in 1914. The missionaries studied

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