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113-593: Koh Ker is the modern name for an important city of the Khmer empire. In inscriptions the town is mentioned as Lingapura (city of lingams ) or Chok Gargyar (translated as city of glance , or as iron tree forest ). Under the reign of the kings Jayavarman IV and Harshavarman II Koh Ker was briefly the capital of the whole empire (928–944 AD). Jayavarman IV enforced an ambitious building program. An enormous water-tank and about forty temples were constructed under his rule. The most significant temple‑complex,

226-462: A "mark, sign, emblem, characteristic," the "evidence, proof, symptom" of God and God's power. The lingam of the Shaivism tradition is a short cylindrical pillar-like symbol of Shiva, made of stone, metal, gem, wood, clay or precious stones. It is often represented within a disc-shaped platform, the yoni – its feminine counterpart, consisting of a flat element, horizontal compared to

339-522: A chaussée (i.e. highway) with a breadth of more than 8 m (26 ft). They supposed that a road once connected Koh Ker with Wat Phu (today in southern Laos). Around 1880, members of a French expedition arrived at Koh Ker and looted numerous statues and reliefs. These pieces are now in the Musée Guimet in Paris. At the beginning of the 20th century, art historians realised that a full-fledged style

452-401: A colossal statue of Ganesha (Ganesha is a Hindu god, son of Shiva and Uma. He is depicted with a human body and an elephant's head). It is known, that the sculpture with the sitting Ganesha now is in a collection outside of Cambodia. This sanctuary is the most north of this group and lies too on the west side of the street. It has two enclosures. The main entrance door (now collapsed) was itself

565-579: A culture that had become too feminine and dissolute. To the Hindus, particularly the Shaivites , these icons and ideas were the abstract, a symbol of the entirety of creation and spirituality. The colonial disparagement in part triggered the opposite reaction from Bengali nationalists, who more explicitly valorised the feminine. Swami Vivekananda called for the revival of the Mother Goddess as

678-510: A disposable material ( kshanika ). The construction method, proportions and design is described in Shaiva Agama texts. The lingam is typically set in the center of a pindika (also called yoni or pithas, symbolizing Shakti). A pindika may be circular, square, octagonal, hexagonal, duodecagonal, sixteen sided, elliptical, triangular or another shape. Some lingams are miniaturized and they are carried on one's person, such as by Lingayats in

791-405: A double sanctuary (Prasat Thom/Prang), follows a linear plan and not a concentric one like most of the temples of the Khmer kings. Unparalleled is the 36-metre (118 ft)-high seven‑tiered pyramid, which most probably served as state temple of Jayavarman IV. Also impressive are the shrines with the two‑meter 6 ft 7 in high lingas. Under Jayavarman IV, the style of Koh Ker

904-416: A feminine force, inviting his countrymen to "proclaim her to all the world with the voice of peace and benediction". According to Doniger, the terms lingam and yoni became explicitly associated with human sexual organs in the western imagination after the widely popular first Kamasutra translation by Sir Richard Burton in 1883. In his translation, even though the original Sanskrit text does not use

1017-420: A figure of Lakulisha , the ascetic manifestation of Shiva , carved on the front, holding an antelope and axe in his hands. He stands on top of a Apasmara (demon) dwarf , who symbolizes spiritual ignorance, greed, sensual desires or Kama and nonsensical speech on the spiritual path, hence must be subdued in spiritual pursuits. In this earliest representation, the phallic representation illustrates

1130-529: A height of 3.50 metres (11 ft 6 in), but is now broken completely. A fragment of a hand of 0.5 metres (20 in) can be seen in the National Museum in Phnom Penh. The outer enclosure has a length of 328 metres (1,076 ft) and a breadth of 151 metres (495 ft) An additional wall divides the inner area in two. In the eastern court are a moat and the temple-complex Prasat Thom ; in

1243-515: A linga. Another Indus stamp seal often called the Pashupati seal , states Doniger, has an image with a general resemblance with Shiva and "the Indus people may well have created the symbolism of the divine phallus", but given the available evidence we cannot be certain, nor do we know that it had the same meaning as some currently project them to might have meant. The word lingam is not found in

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1356-575: A lingam, is still in worship in the Parashurameshwara temple, Gudimallam , in a hilly forest about 20 kilometres (12 mi) east of Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh . It has been dated to the 3rd-century BCE, or to the 2nd   century BCE, and is mostly accepted to be from the 3rd- to 1st-century BCE, though some later dates have been proposed. The stone lingam is clearly a representation of an anatomically accurate phallus , with

1469-485: A lot of problems". A Sanskrit inscription at Prasat Thom gives evidence of the consecration of a Shiva-lingam 921 AD which was worshipped under the name of Tribhuvaneshvara ("Lord of the Threefold World"). The center of the ancient city was in the north-east corner of the baray (water-tank). Inscriptions say at least ten thousand inhabitants lived there during the rule of Jayavarman IV. Past researchers believed

1582-544: A monk who subsequently fell in love with her and gave up being a monk to live with the princess in the temple since which it has been known as Neang Khmao Temple. More north than the Prasat Neang Khmau and on the west side of the road is the Prasat Bak, a small square sanctuary built of laterite; one side measures only 5 m (16 ft). The temple which is in a very bad condition today housed till 1960

1695-418: A necklace. These are called chala-lingams . The Hindu temple design manuals recommend geometric ratios for the linga, the sanctum and the various architectural features of the temple according to certain mathematical rules it considers perfect and sacred. Anthropologist Christopher John Fuller states that although most sculpted images ( murtis ) are anthropomorphic or theriomorphic, the aniconic Shiva Linga

1808-478: A sanctuary with a square central room (one side measured 4 m (13 ft)). Three laterite towers (partially collapsed) stand on the same platform. In front of them are the remains of two brick libraries. The statue of the two fighting monkey kings Sugriva and Valin (figures of the Hindu epic Ramayana) was found at this site and is now in the National Museum in Phnom Penh. A fragment of a multi-armed statue of Vishnu

1921-487: A square wall with a side length of 1.2 km (1,312 yd) protected the town. But new research indicates that the linear structures found in this part of Koh Ker were dykes of ancient canals. Concerning the wooden buildings of the Khmer time no artefacts are found. Laterite, sandstone and brick were used as construction materials in Koh Ker. Laterite and sandstone of excellent quality were quarried in great quantities in

2034-461: A temple, but it could have been a royal bath, because near this place was once the wooden palace of the king. (carvings) The complex of the main monument in Koh Ker has a linear plan and is about 800 metres (875 yd) long. Its orientation is E15°N, that is parallel to the Baray. The parking area cuts the complex in two parts. On the east side of the parking are two structures, called palaces . On

2147-402: Is a staircase with about ten steps. Eight stone lions once flanked the stairs but only one remains in its original place. A beautiful elephant sculpture once stood at each of the four corners of the platform but only two remain. The sanctuary is built of brick and is in good condition. A Sanskrit inscription found at the temple offers evidence that an erstwhile lingam was once erected on the top of

2260-419: Is about 2 m (7 ft) high, has a diameter of nearly 1 m (39 in) and a weight of several tons. Together with the yoni it was carved out of the bedrock at this place. The lingam is in a good condition. The yoni is about 1 m (39 in) high and looks like an altar. On all four sides once were carved reliefs. In each of the four corners stood a beautiful chiselled Garudu with raised arms giving

2373-554: Is about two and half hours away from Siem Reap , and guests can stay in the nearby village of Seyiong, 10 km from the temples where there are a number of guests houses. Travellers can also stay in Koh Ker Jungle Lodge Homestay, a sustainable tourism project built in the village of Koh Ker in 2009. The Koh Ker community in May 2019 open a basic wooden community rest house in the village. The site of Koh Ker

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2486-529: Is an artificial hill of exact circle form covered with trees. It is named Tomb of the White elephant . "The white Elephant" is a very well-known legend in southeast Asia. There are different theories about the hill. Some say that this structure could be the foundation of a second pyramid. Others say that it could be the grave of Jayavarman IV. The steep path leading to the top of the hill is closed now because of security reasons. The most south sanctuary of this group

2599-411: Is an important exception. The lingam is conceptualized both as an emblem of generative and destructive power, particularly in the esoteric Kaula and Tantra practices, as well as the Shaivism and Shaktism traditions of Hinduism. The lingam and yoni together symbolize the merging of microcosmos and macrocosmos , the divine eternal process of creation and regeneration, and the union of

2712-475: Is formless. According to Sivananda Saraswati , the lingam speaks unmistakable language of silence: "I am one without a second, I am formless". It is only the outward symbol of formless being, Shiva, who is eternal , ever-pure, immortal essence of this vast universe, who is your innermost Self or Atman , and who is identical with the Supreme Brahman , states Sivananda Saraswati. To some Shaivites

2825-637: Is part of the Nalanda - Sriwijaya Centre (NSC) Field School led by Dr. D. Kyle Latinis (NSC) and Dr. Ea Darith (APSARA National Authority) with further support from the National Authority for Preah Vihear (NAPV). None of the immense, expressive and beautiful sculptures are left at the site. Numerous of them were stolen and are standing now in museums and also in private collections. Some statues were put away by government organizations to protect them from looters. Many masterpieces of Koh Ker are now in

2938-465: Is persuasive evidence in later Sanskrit literature that the early Indians associated the lingam icon with the male sexual organ; the 11th-century Kashmir text Narmamala by Kshemendra on satire and fiction writing explains his ideas on parallelism with divine lingam and human lingam in a sexual context. Various Shaiva texts, such as the Skanda Purana in section 1.8 states that all creatures have

3051-690: Is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman . Just as the Yajna (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the Soma plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to

3164-476: Is the gross body (sthūla śarīra), or concrete reality as it appears to the sense organs. In between the Ultimate and concrete reality is Prakṛti , also called Pradhana which is the imperceptible substratum of the manifest world or pre-matter. Out of this imperceptible cosmic substance, all things have come out, and to which they will return ultimately. The Gudimallam Lingam , one of the oldest examples of

3277-554: Is the liūga of the thing. The insight of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad conveyed through the word liūga is formulated explicitly in Samkhya and schools of Yoga or ways of looking at things , that is, looking at their appearance and at Ultimate Reality. Liriga here denotes the subtle body , (liṇga śarīra) underlying and ontologically preceding anything perceptible. The perceptible state, in this context,

3390-495: Is the Prasat Pram on the west side of the road. A small (300 metres (328 yd)) long path leads to the monument. It has five towers or prasats ( pram = five). Three brick towers stand in a row on the same platform. They face east. The central one is a bit taller than the others. In each of these prasats, once stood a lingam. These and the beautifully carved lintels were looted. Two prasats (faced west) are standing in front of

3503-489: Is the smoke. It is a religious symbol in Hinduism representing Shiva as the generative power, all of existence, all creativity and fertility at every cosmic level. In early Sanskrit medical texts, linga means "symptom, signs" and plays a key role in the diagnosis of a sickness, the disease. The author of classical Sanskrit grammar treatise, Panini, states that the verbal root ling which means "paint, variegate", has

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3616-538: Is used in Shvetashvatara Upanishad , which says "Shiva, the Supreme Lord, has no liūga", liuga ( Sanskrit : लि‌ऊग IAST : liūga ) meaning he is transcendental, beyond any characteristic and, specifically, the sign of gender. The term also appears in early Indian texts on logic, where an inference is based on a sign (linga), such as "if there is smoke, there is fire" where the linga

3729-462: Is wrong; the lingam is only the external symbol of Shiva's formless being. He further states that it is the light or power of consciousness, manifesting from Sadashiva . The popular belief is that the Siva Lingam represents the phallus or the virile organ, the emblem of the generative power or principle in nature. This is not only a serious mistake but a grave blunder. In the post-Vedic period,

3842-659: The Rigveda , or the other Vedas. However, Rudra (proto-Shiva) is found in the Vedic literature. Worship of the lingam was not a part of the Vedic religion . The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva Veda Samhita sung in praise of the Yupa-Stambha , the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambha , and it

3955-611: The Harappan sites , objects that resemble "lingam" have been found. That includes "a seated trident-headed ithyphallic figure", which was found on Indus seals, "has been compared to Shiva as meditating ascetic ", states Srinivasan. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, while Harappan discoveries include "short cylindrical pillars with rounded tops", there is no evidence that the people of Indus Valley Civilization worshipped these artifacts as lingams. Scholars such as Arthur Llewellyn Basham dispute whether such artifacts discovered at

4068-587: The Indus Valley civilisation . According to Chakravarti, "some of the stones found in Mohenjodaro are unmistakably phallic stones". These are dated to some time before 2300 BCE. Similarly, states Chakravarti, the Kalibangan site of Harappa has a small terracotta representation that "would undoubtedly be considered the replica of a modern Shivlinga [a tubular stone]." According to Srinivasan, in

4181-592: The Norton Simon Museum in Pasadena, California. Before Koh Ker became capital of the Khmer empire (928 AD), numerous sanctuaries with Shiva-lingas existed already. Koh Ker was a cult site where Shiva had been worshipped a long time. Also Jayavarman IV was an ardent worshipper of this Hindu god. As later kings (whose residence was not in Koh Ker) changed from Hinduism to Buddhism they gave orders to make

4294-711: The Purva Mimamsa Sutra and the Vedanta sutra , as well as the commentaries on them, the term linga appears quite often, particularly in the form of "lingadarsanacca" as a form of citing or referencing prior Hindu literature. This phrase connotes "[we have found an] indicative sign", such as the "indicative sign is in a Vedic passage". The term linga also appears in Buddhist and Jaina literature, where it means "sign, evidence" in one context, or "subtle body" with sexual connotations in another. The lingam of

4407-492: The Shaivism tradition is a short cylindrical pillar-like symbol of Shiva, made of stone, metal, gem, wood, clay or precious stones. Various styles of lingam iconography are found on the Indian subcontinent and southeast Asia. The historic lingam iconography has included: A lingam may be made of clay ( mrinmaya ), metal ( lohaja ), precious stone ( ratnaja ), wood ( daruja ), stone ( sailaja , most common), or

4520-601: The Shiva-Linga . In the text Linga Purana , the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva. There is a hymn in the Atharvaveda that praises a pillar ( stambha ), and this is one possible origin of linga worship. According to Swami Vivekananda, the Shiva-linga had origins in the idea of Yupa-Stambha or Skambha of

4633-579: The Upanishads and epic literature , where it means a "mark, sign, emblem, characteristic". Other contextual meanings of the term include "evidence, proof, symptom" of God and God's power. The word lingam is found in Sanskrit texts , such as Shvetashvatara Upanishad , Samkhya , Vaisheshika and others texts with the meaning of "evidence" of God and God's existence, or existence of formless Brahman . The original meaning of lingam as "sign"

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4746-448: The lingam symbolizes the axis of the universe . According to Shaiva Siddhanta , the linga is the ideal substrate in which the worshipper should install and worship the five-faced and ten-armed Sadāśiva, the form of Shiva who is the focal divinity of that school of Shaivism. Scholars, such as Wendy Doniger and Rohit Dasgupta , view linga as extrapolations of what was originally a phallic symbol. According to Doniger, there

4859-437: The Baray are dried out and covered by grass. Some puddles can be seen in the corner next to the double-sanctuary. 200 m (219 yd) south of the double-sanctuary Prasat Thom/Prang is a basin dug into the earth with a length of 40 m (44 yd). It has steps of laterite on all sides. During the rainy season the water is standing to a depth of 7 m (23 ft 0 in). The Trapeang Andong Preng does not belong to

4972-646: The Christian missionaries and the British era, states Doniger, stripped all spiritual meanings and insisted on the Victorian vulgar interpretation only, which had "a negative effect on the self-perception that Hindus had of their own bodies" and they became "ashamed of the more sensual aspects of their own religious literature". Some contemporary Hindus, states Doniger, in their passion to spiritualize Hinduism and for their Hindutva campaign have sought to sanitize

5085-483: The Harappan sites. The "finely polished circular stand" found by Mackay may be yoni although it was found without the linga. The absence of linga, states Parpola, maybe because it was made from wood which did not survive. Indologist Wendy Doniger rejects Srinivasan's interpretation, and states that this relatively rare artifact can be interpreted in many ways and has unduly been used for wild speculations such as being

5198-579: The Indian subcontinent, the most significant being one in Kashi ( Varanasi ) followed by Prayaga, Naimisha and Gaya. The colonial-era archaeologists John Marshall and Ernest Mackay proposed that certain artifacts found at Harappan sites may be evidence of yoni-linga worship in Indus Valley Civilization. Jones and Ryan state that lingam/yoni shapes have been recovered from the archaeological sites at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro , part of

5311-751: The Khmer empire. Excavations in December 2015 by Cambodian and international teams near Prasat Thom and the Rahal in the ancient urban core area of Koh Ker have yielded radiocarbon dates that clearly place significant habitation and activity beginning as early as the 7th-8th centuries CE - often noted as the Chenla period by historians. Some pottery types may date to the earlier Funan period. Over 24,000 artifacts and ecofacts were recovered from three test sites. Artifacts are mostly pottery fragments with local and exotic types representing over 1000 years of site use throughout

5424-455: The Linga has become symbolic of the generative power of Lord Siva. Linga is the differentiating mark. It is certainly not the sex mark. The traditional lingam rituals in major Shiva temples includes offerings of flowers, grass, dried rice, fruits, leaves, water and a milk bath. Priests chant hymns, while the devotees go to the sanctum for a darshana followed by a clockwise circumambulation of

5537-508: The Rahal is not from east to west like the huge water-reservoirs in Angkor; it follows an orientation of North 15° West. Because the most important monuments at Koh Ker have the same orientation it is thought that the Baray was constructed first and the rest of the structures were laid out around it. The Rahal was carved out partly of the stone ground but it is not clear if a natural hollow was the reason for its orientation. These days most parts of

5650-521: The Shaiva philosophical texts and spiritual interpretations, "deny that the linga is a phallus." To the Shaivites, a linga is neither a phallus nor do they practice the worship of erotic penis-vulva, rather the linga-yoni is a symbol of cosmic mysteries, the creative powers and the metaphor for the spiritual truths of their faith. According to Swami Sivananda , the correlation of the linga and phallus

5763-421: The Vedic rituals, where the term meant the sacrificial post which was then idealized as the eternal Brahman . The Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga , quite possibly with influence from Buddhism's stupa shaped like the top of a stone linga, according to Vivekananda. Shvetashvatara Upanishad states that, of the three significations of Lingam , the primary one is " the imperishable Purusha ",

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5876-549: The absolute reality , whereby the linga is "sign", a mark that provides the existence of Brahman , which is itself formless. Furthermore, it mentioned that Shiva is transcendent, beyond any characteristic or liūga , specifically the sign of gender. Linga, "sign", not only signifies the existence of perceptible "things" but also denotes the imperceptible essence of "a thing" or pieces of Brahman called Atma even before that thing has come to exist in any concrete form. The imperceptible essence of "a thing", in its potentiality,

5989-540: The archaeological sites of Indus Valley sites are yoni. According to the Indologist Asko Parpola , "it is true that Marshall's and Mackay's hypotheses of linga and yoni worship by the Harappans has rested on rather slender grounds, and that for instance, the interpretation of the so-called ring-stones as yonis seems untenable". He quotes Dales 1984 paper, which states "with the single exception of

6102-506: The area may have been significantly repurposed during the 10th century construction-boom heyday of Jayavarman IV, site use and activity continued well beyond the 10th century. Intensity of activities and density of occupation may have oscillated over time in relation to political and socio-economic factors. Natural and human resource management variables as well as environmental phenomena may have also played significant roles related to changes in popularity, population and productivity. The project

6215-463: The bust of a male with his left hand holding a vase and the right hand in the abhaya (no-fear) mudra. The pillar itself is, once again, a realistic depiction of phallus but neither symbolizes fertility nor sexuality, but the refined energetic principles of Urdhva Retas during Sannyasa or Asceticism . The Mathura archaeological site has revealed similar lingams, with a standing Shiva in front (2nd century CE) and with one or four faces around

6328-407: The capital (928 – 944 AD). The inscriptions explain how manpower was organised: taxes in form of rice were raised in the whole country and served to provide for the workers who came from different provinces. An inscription at Prasat Damrei says that the shrine on the top of the state temple (Prang) houses a lingam of about 4.5 m (14 ft 9 in) and that the erection of this Shiva-symbol gave

6441-637: The capital of the Khmer Empire had changed back to the plains north of the Tonle Sap-lake, more temples were built at the site of Koh Ker. An inscription mentions the reign of Udayadityavarman I in 1001. At the beginning of the 13th century the last sanctuary was realised there. Under Jayavarman VII , the Prasat Andong Kuk, a so-called hospital-chapel, was built, one of more than 100 of hospital-sanctuaries built under this ruler. In

6554-406: The center court is the sanctuary and opposite it are two so‑called libraries. Behind the sanctuary on a rectangular platform stand nine towers in two rows (one of five, one four towers). Twelve smaller prasats in groups of three surround the platform. All 21 towers once housed lingas. The seven‑tiered pyramid called Prang was probably the state temple of Jayavarman IV. Construction of

6667-587: The centrality of the energetic principle of Urdhva Retas ( Sanskrit : ऊर्ध्वरेतस् IAST : Ūrdhvaretas , lit. "ascent of vital energies or fluid") the upward flow of energy in spiritual pursuits and practice of celibacy ( Brahmacarya ), contrary to fertility or release of vital energies. Lakulisa as an ascetic manifestation of Shiva is seen in later peninsular Indian scriptures whose ithyphallic aspects connotes asceticism and conserved procreative potentialities ( Brahmacarya or celibacy ), rather than mere eroticism . According to Stella Kramrisch,

6780-459: The collection of the National Museum in Phnom Penh. In late 2011, the remote location drew media attention worldwide when Sotheby's attempted to sell a statue of a mythical Khmer Empire warrior. In March 2012, the US and Cambodian governments filed court documents to seize the statue that they purport was illegally removed from the site. A twin statue, also linked to the Koh Ker site, is on display at

6893-492: The cross-bar are two halls. Directly behind the entrance-pavilion are the ruins of two huge laterite towers. Behind the ruins of the entrance-pavilion and the laterite towers is a red brick tower, called Prasat Krahom ( krahom = red), which gives entrance to the enclosed monuments. It has a cruciform plan, is in a good condition and once housed a statue of the Dancing Shiva with five heads and ten arms. The sculpture had

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7006-430: The death of Jayavarman IV, the designated prince did not take his place. Harshavarman II (another son of Jayavarman IV) claimed the throne. Like his father, he ruled at Koh Ker (941 – 944) but after three years he died; likely not due to natural causes. None of the temples at Koh Ker can be ascribed to him. His follower on the throne, a cousin of his, returned Roluos (Hariharalaya) to the seat of power. Even after 944, as

7119-402: The feminine and the masculine that recreates all of existence. The lingam is regarded as the "outward symbol" of the "formless Reality", the symbolization of merging of the 'primordial matter' ( Prakṛti ) with the 'pure consciousness' ( Purusha ) in transcendental context . Sivaya Subramuniyaswami elaborates that the lingam signifies three perfections of Shiva . The upper oval part of

7232-542: The ground within the moat. The dams are flanked by Naga-balustrades. On the eastern dam between the Nagas was additionally a colonnade with pillars. Behind each Naga of the east side was standing a huge Garuda. Probably some parts of the Prasat Thom including the moat and the 1. (inner) enclosure were built before 921 AD. The sanctuary was expanded under the reign of Jayavarman IV and has now two surrounding walls inside of

7345-463: The historic earthly sexual meanings, and insist on the abstract spiritual meaning only. The sexualization is criticized by Stella Kramrisch and Moriz Winternitz who opines that the lingam in the Shiva tradition is "only a symbol of the productive and creative principle of nature as embodied in Shiva", and it has no historical trace in any obscene phallic cult. According to Alex Wayman, various works on Shaivism by some Indian authors, following

7458-511: The impression these mythical figures would bear the yoni. The reliefs and the Garudas were looted. Around the Yoni there is just a small space giving room for some priests to perform the prescribed rituals. The water they put on the lingam became holy by touching the symbol of Shiva, run down and was collected in a ditch of the yoni. Then via a spout (which is still intact) it flowed to the outside of

7571-463: The interiors with fire damage and the west facades destroyed suggesting damage was deliberate or due to a common design flaw. There are no surviving inscriptions to date the temple nor to identify which gods it was dedicated to. A small path leads from the ring-road to the Prasat Damrei (damrei = elephant). This sanctuary has an enclosure and stands on a high platform. On each of its four sides

7684-424: The king or nobles. Between the palaces and the closest monument is a distance of 185 metres (607 ft). On the left side of the parking area (behind the restaurants) is the entrance pavilion made of sandstone. It stands 45 metres (148 ft) away from the double sanctuary and has a cruciform ground-plan. The crossbar is 60 metres (197 ft) long; the stringer has a length of 30 metres (98 ft). Parallel to

7797-408: The kings before him. Some historians think that Jayavarman IV was a usurper; but, the majority of them believe that he was a legitimate ruler who could ascend to the throne because he married a half-sister of king Yasovarman I (889 – 900). What is certain is that the two sons of Yasovarman I (Harshavarman I, who ruled from 900 to 922 and Isanavarman II , who ruled from 922 to 925?) had no children. In

7910-445: The lingam represents Parashiva and the lower part of the lingam, called the pitha, represents Parashakti . In the representation of Parashiva, Shiva is regarded to be the absolute reality, the timeless, formless, and spaceless. In the representation of Parashakti, Shiva is regarded to be all-pervasive, pure consciousness , the power and primal substance of all that exists. Parashakti is regarded to possess form, unlike Parashiva, which

8023-534: The lingam symbolizes Shiva in Hinduism, and it is also a phallic symbol. Some extant ancient ligams, such as the Gudimallam Lingam , unambiguously depict a male sexual organ. Since the 19th century, states Dasgupta, the popular literature has represented the lingam as the male sex organ. This view contrasts with the traditional abstract values they represent in Shaivism wherein the lingam-yoni connote

8136-525: The masculine and feminine principles in the entirety of creation and all existence. The colonial era Orientalists and Christian missionaries , raised in the Victorian mold where sex and sexual imagery were a taboo subject, were shocked by and were hostile to the lingam-yoni iconography and reverence they witnessed. The 19th and early 20th-century colonial and missionary literature described lingam-yoni , and related theology as obscene, corrupt, licentious, hyper-sexualized, puerile, impure, demonic and

8249-476: The merging of microcosmos and macrocosmos , the divine eternal process of creation and regeneration, and the union of the feminine and the masculine that recreates all of existence. The lingam is typically the primary murti or devotional image in Hindu temples dedicated to Shiva, also found in smaller shrines, or as self-manifested natural objects. Lingam, states Monier Monier-Williams , appears in

8362-476: The moat. The first wall (inner wall) is made of brick; the second wall (outer wall) with a length of 66 m (217 ft) and a breath of 55 m (180 ft) is made of laterite. Two doors are in the east and in the west. The doors of the second wall have a cruciform plan. The doors of the first wall are smaller and not of cruciform layout. The plane between the first and second wall is completely overbuilt with rectangular structures, possibly later additions. In

8475-458: The necessary adjustments at their temples. Because of its remoteness, the sanctuaries at Koh Ker were spared from these interventions. Several inscriptions were found which mention Koh Ker as capital of the empire in Siem Reap , Battambang , Takeo and Kampong Cham (city) . From inscriptions discovered at Koh Ker, it is estimated that more than ten thousand people lived at Koh Ker when it was

8588-401: The north side of the pyramid is a steep staircase leading to the top. The original stairs are in a very bad condition as is the bamboo-ladder which was constructed in the 20th century, so it is forbidden to climb to the top of the pyramid via this route. There is however a new staircase which can be used to ascend to the top tit of the pyramid. Concerning the seventh tier some scientists say, this

8701-470: The occupational sequence. Exotic pottery types include Chinese stoneware and glazed ware from the Song Yuan periods. Other exotic pottery include Thai and Vietnamese stoneware that generally date to the late Angkor and post-Angkor periods. Possible Persian pottery dating to the 9th century has been noted as well. Thus, Koh Ker has been linked to long distance value chains for considerable time spans. Although

8814-476: The other group, it is an abstract symbol of nirguna Shiva (he in the universal Absolute Reality, formless, without attributes). In Tamil Shaiva tradition, for example, the common term for lingam is kuRi or "sign, mark" which is asexual. Similarly, in Lingayatism tradition, the lingam is a spiritual symbol and "was never said to have any sexual connotations", according to Doniger. According to Dasgupta,

8927-576: The pictorial symbol of the Gudimallam lingam should not be mistaken for fertility or eroticism, due to incomplete or impure understanding of the underlying refined principles. The Bhita linga – now at the Lucknow museum – is also dated to about the 2nd century BCE, and has four directional faces on the pillar and a Brahmi script inscription at the bottom. Above the four faces, the Bhita linga has

9040-479: The pillar (1st to 3rd century CE). Numerous stone and cave temples from the mid to late 1st millennium feature lingams. The Bhumara Temple near Satna Madhya Pradesh , for example, is generally dated to late 5th-century Gupta Empire era, and it features an Ekamukha Lingam. Udayadityavarman I Udayadityavarman I was the king of Angkor who reigned from 1001 to 1002 AD. Maternal nephew of his predecessor Jayavarman V (968 – 1001), he reigned only for

9153-454: The platform. One is built of brick and has diamond‑shaped holes in the upper part. This fact indicates that this tower once served as a fire sanctuary (fire cults were very important during the era of the Khmer kings). The other building is small, made of laterite and (in comparison with the brick towers) in bad condition. The bricks of small regular size are held together with an organic mortar of unknown composition (plant sap?). Originally

9266-413: The protected area was extended to 81 square kilometres (31 sq mi; 20,016 acres). For five years, Japanese researchers explored and described 184 monuments, including documenting their exact locations. The Australian researcher Damian Evans and his team were able to verify Lajonquière's theory that there once was a Khmer route between Koh Ker and Wat Phu, probably the most important strategic road of

9379-415: The pursuit of spirituality through householder lifestyle and the pursuit of renunciate sannyasi lifestyle is historic, reflects the different interpretations of the lingam and what lingam worship means to its devotees. It remains a continuing debate within Hinduism to this day, states Doniger. To one group, it is a part of Shiva's body and symbolically saguna Shiva (he in a physical form with attributes). To

9492-439: The pyramid (Prang). Lingam This is an accepted version of this page Saiddhantika Non - Saiddhantika A lingam ( Sanskrit : लिङ्ग IAST : liṅga , lit. "sign, symbol or mark"), sometimes referred to as linga or Shiva linga , is an abstract or aniconic representation of the Hindu god Shiva in Shaivism . The word lingam is found in the Upanishads and epic literature , where it means

9605-467: The region of Koh Ker, so the transport of the stones to the site was no problem. The bricks produced were small, regular and very solid. A thin layer of organic mortar of unknown formula was used, possibly some form of plant sap. After more than a millennium the brick sanctuaries in Koh Ker are in a much better condition than the laterite ones. The roofs of some temples in Koh Ker had a wood construction and were covered with tiles. In these monuments, holes for

9718-516: The reign of Jayavarman VII, it was one of more than 100 of hospital-sanctuaries he built. The modern name Sralau refers to a species of tree Sometimes written Prasat Kra Chap, today the site has well preserved entrance gate and the ruins of 5 towers arranged in a quincunx. From inscriptions around the doors it has been established that the temple was dedicated in 928 to Tribhuvanadeva, a linga representation of Shiva. A temple comprising 3 towers built of laterite. Today all towers are badly damaged;

9831-402: The reign of terror of the Khmer rouge, research at Koh Ker continued by APSARA, French, Japanese and Australian scientists. At the beginning of the 21st century, scientists concluded that not all of the monuments could have been built in the short time when Koh Ker was capital of the Khmer empire (928 – 944 AD). A new era started at Koh Ker as photographs made by satellites were analysed. In 2004

9944-487: The sanctuary was started in 928 AD. At ground level one, side of the square building measures 62 m (203 ft). The height is 36 m (118 ft). Originally on the top platform stood a huge lingam probably more than 4 m (13 ft) high and having a weight of several tons. Inscriptions say that it was the tallest and most beautiful Shiva-ling-am. The ling-am probably stood in a shrine which some researchers say could have been about 15 m (49 ft) high. On

10057-427: The sanctum. On the sanctum walls, typically are reliefs of Dakshinamurti, Brahma and Vishnu. Often, near the sanctum are other shrines, particularly for Shakti (Durga), Ganesha and Murugan (Kartikeya). In the Hindu tradition, special pilgrimage sites include those where natural lingams are found in the form of cylindrical rocks or ice or rocky hill. These are called Svayambhuva lingam, and about 70 of these are known on

10170-403: The second part of the 19th century, French adventurers ranged the forests around the site of Koh Ker while hunting game. They brought word of the structures in the area back to France. The French researchers Lunet de Lajonquière and Étienne Aymonier came to Koh Ker. They saw the main temple-complex Prasat Thom/Prang, the Baray and a group of linga-shrines. They also discovered a few subsections of

10283-540: The sense "that which paints, variegates, characterizes". Panini as well as Patanjali additionally mention lingam with the contextual meaning of the "gender". In the Vaisheshika Sutras , it means "proof or evidence", as a conditionally sufficient mark or sign. This Vaisheshika theory is adopted in the early Sanskrit medical literature. Like the Upanishads, where linga means "mark, sign, characteristic",

10396-478: The short time that Jayavarman IV reigned in Koh Ker, an ambitious building program was realised. That was only possible because of a restrictive system of raising taxes as seen on inscriptions found at the site. About 40 temples, the unique seven-tiered pyramid and a huge baray (water-reservoir) were built. Under Jayavarman IV, the Koh Ker-style was developed and the art of sculpture reached a pinnacle. After

10509-548: The shrine where believers could touch the blessed water. The Prasat Thneng is very similar to the Prasat Balang. Looters tried to hack away the impressive lingam but were not successful. A notch of about a depth of half a meter (20 in) is left but the Shicva-symbol is still standing unshakeable at its place on the damaged yoni. Prasat Leung Bon A Buddhist temple built late 12th century/early 13th century in

10622-438: The signs of Shiva or Shakti through their lingam (male sexual organ) or pindi (female sexual organ). According to Doniger, a part of the literature corpus regards lingam to be the phallus of Shiva, while another group of texts does not. Sexuality in the former is inherently sacred and spiritual, while the latter emphasizes the ascetic nature of Shiva and renunciation to be spiritual symbolism of lingam . This tension between

10735-552: The so‑called Tomb of the White Elephant . With the exception of Prasat Krahom and the Prang (pyramid), this temple-complex is in bad condition. At the east side of the parking area are two structures the so-called palaces. Each consists of four rectangular buildings surrounding a court. All eight buildings have three rooms, some have a patio with pillars. Possibly these palaces served as meditation- or prayer-rooms for

10848-540: The south of the main Koh Ker pyramid and built of sandstone and brick. An early 10th century temple dedicated to the Hindu deity Shiva. The temple's fire damaged (black) outer surface probably gave it its name (Neang Khmau means the "Black Lady" in Khmer). The name of the temple is also said mean "Black Virgin" and legend says it might once have been heaven to Kali, the Dark Goddess of Destruction. Another legend about

10961-486: The temple says that many years ago a powerful king Preah Bat Sorya Teyong lived at the Chiso mountain. One day his daughter Neang Khmao, went to Tonle Protron and met a handsome man, Bandit Srey, who instantly fell in love with her and who used magic to make her fall in love with him. When the king heard about this he ordered his daughter be exiled and he built two temples for her to live in. Whilst in exile she fell in love with

11074-559: The texts of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy use linga in the same sense. In the Samkhya sutras , and in Gaudapada 's commentary on Samkhyakarika , the term linga has many contextual meanings such as in verses 1.124.136, 3.9.16 and 5.21.61, as it develops its theory of the nature of Atman (Self) and Sarira (body, prakriti ) and its proposed mechanism of rebirth. In

11187-483: The towers were covered by white stucco; remains of it can still be seen. Two of the towers are pictorially covered by roots. The five towers are surrounded by an enclosure. The collapsed entrance door (gopuram) is at the east side. Two artefacts of the Prasat Pram can be seen in the National Museum in Phnom Penh: A damaged lion statue and fragments of a standing four-armed Vishnu. Located 12.5 km (7.8 mi) to

11300-408: The translation. This conscious and incorrect word substitution, states Doniger, thus served as an Orientalist means to "anthropologize sex, distance it, make it safe for English readers by assuring them, or pretending to assure them, that the text was not about real sexual organs, their sexual organs, but merely about the appendages of weird, dark people far away." Similar Orientalist literature of

11413-511: The trees shed their leaves seasonally. The city of Koh Ker was on the most important strategic route of the Khmer empire. Coming from Angkor and Beng Mealea to Koh Ker this road led to Prasat Preah Vihear and from there to Phimai in Thailand and Wat Phu in Laos . The region of Koh Ker is relatively dry. Numerous water-tanks and canals were built during the 9th and the 10th century to ensure

11526-581: The unidentified photography of a realistic phallic object in Marshall's report, there is no archaeological evidence to support claims of special sexually-oriented aspects of Harappan religion". However, adds Parpola, a re-examination at Indus Valley sites suggest that the Mackay's hypothesis cannot be ruled out because erotic and sexual scenes such as ithyphallic males, naked females, a human couple having intercourse and trefoil imprints have now been identified at

11639-475: The vertical lingam, and designed to allow liquid offerings to drain away for collection. The lingam is an emblem of generative and destructive power. While rooted in representations of the male sexual organ, the lingam is regarded as the "outward symbol" of the "formless Reality", the symbolization of merging of the 'primordial matter' ( Prakṛti ) with the 'pure consciousness' ( Purusha ) in transcendental context . The lingam-yoni iconography symbolizes

11752-410: The water supply. These days water is pumped up from a depth of 30 to 40 metres (98 to 131 ft). Jayavarman IV ruled from 928 to 941 at Koh Ker. He was believed to have been the local king at this remote site, possibly his homeland, before he became king of the whole empire. That could explain why he had his residence at Koh Ker and not at Roluos (Hariharalaya) or at Yashodharapura (Angkor) like

11865-412: The west side are the other monuments. They are standing behind the restaurants and are from east to west: an immense entrance pavilion, two towers, a red brick entrance-tower ( Prasat Krahom ), a surrounding wall with two courts (in the eastern court is the temple-complex Prasat Thom with a moat, in the western court stands the seven tiered pyramid, named Prang ). Behind the enclosure is an artificial hill,

11978-463: The western court is the pyramid, called Prang . The eastern court with a length of 153 metres (502 ft) is nearly square, the western court has a length of 171 metres (561 ft). The moat in the eastern court is about 47 metres (154 ft) wide. It borders the Prasat Thom . Lined by trees it looks very picturesque. Two dams, one at the east side, the other at the west side are leading to

12091-427: The wooden girders are found. The main sanctuary (the temple-complex Prasat Thom/Prang) was not standing in the middle of the ancient city. The huge Baray (water-tank) called Rahal is the largest object at the site of the ancient capital Koh Ker. Its length is about 1,200 m (1,312 yd) and its breath about 560 m (612 yd). The water-tank has three dams covered by steps of laterite. The orientation of

12204-411: The words lingam or yoni for sexual organs, and almost always uses other terms, Burton adroitly avoided being viewed as obscene to the Victorian mindset by avoiding the use of words such as penis, vulva, vagina and other direct or indirect sexual terms in the Sanskrit text to discuss sex, sexual relationships and human sexual positions. Burton used the terms lingam and yoni instead throughout

12317-415: Was developed and the art of sculpture reached a pinnacle. A great variety of statues were chiseled. Because of its remoteness, the site of Koh Ker was plundered many times by looters. Sculptures of Koh Ker can be found not only in different museums, but also in private collections. Masterpieces of Koh Ker are offered occasionally at auctions. These pieces, in present times, are considered stolen art. The site

12430-496: Was developed at Koh Ker. George Cœdès concluded from inscriptions that Koh Ker was capital of the Khmer empire (928 – 944 AD) under the reign of Jayavarman IV and his follower Harshavarman II. In the 1930s, again French researchers came to Koh Ker. They discovered numerous monuments and counted fifty sanctuaries in an area of 35 square kilometres (8,649 acres). Henry Parmentier made a number of drawings. After an interruption because of

12543-444: Was found in front of the tower in the middle. In this temple are five inscriptions. They mention the names of all the numerous peoples connected to the temple site and their function. The Prasat Balang is the first of three Linga-Shrines standing along the ring-road. It is a square laterite building standing on a platform and has one doorway and an open roof. In the sanctuary is an impressive lingam standing on yoni . The phallus-symbol

12656-794: Was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List on 17 September 2023 during the 45th session of the World Heritage Committee in Riyadh , Saudi Arabia . Koh Ker is situated between the southern slopes of the Dangrek mountains, the Kulen mountains ( Phnom Kulen ) in the south-west, and the Tbeng mountain (Phnom Tbeng, near Tbeng Meanchey ) in the east. Most parts of the hilly ground are covered by jungle, but most of

12769-489: Was the platform of the shrine because on its sides beautiful reliefs of Garudas were made. There is just one Khmer temple which resembles the temple Baksei Chamkrong in Angkor. But the four‑tiered monument there is much smaller and has a staircase on each of the four sides. On the platform on the top of the Baksei Chamkrong is a prasat in a good condition. Behind the court with the seven‑tiered pyramid

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