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132-621: Koluszki was first mentioned in 1399, when it was part of the Jagiellonian -ruled Kingdom of Poland . In the 14th and 15th century, it prospered along the trade route between Gdańsk and Ruthenia . By 1790, there was a grist mill, sawmill, brewery, and inn. Under the Second Partition of Poland in 1793, the settlement was annexed by Prussia . It was regained by Poles and included in the short-lived Duchy of Warsaw in 1807, and afterwards it became part of Congress Poland following

264-707: A cot–caught merger , which is rapidly spreading throughout the whole country. However, the South, Inland North, and a Northeastern coastal corridor passing through Rhode Island, New York City, Philadelphia, and Baltimore typically preserve an older cot–caught distinction. For that Northeastern corridor, the realization of the THOUGHT vowel is particularly marked , as depicted in humorous spellings, like in tawk and cawfee ( talk and coffee ), which intend to represent it being tense and diphthongal : [oə] . A split of TRAP into two separate phonemes , using different

396-567: A levée en masse , called for a military campaign against Moldavia . However, the lesser and middle strata of the nobility called a rebellion, or semi-legal rebellion, to force the King to abandon his risky reforms. The nobles presented him with 36 demands, most notably: a cessation of further land acquisitions by Queen Bona , exemption of the nobility from the tithes, a clean-up of the Treasury rather than its expansion, confirmation and extension of

528-652: A Duke of Silesia by the authority of his brother Ladislaus II of Bohemia , but like other Jagiellon rulers before him, he had not pursued the Polish Crown's claim to Silesia. After the death of King Alexander I , Sigismund I arrived in Vilnius , where he was elected by the Lithuanian Ducal Council on 13 September 1506 as Grand Duke of Lithuania , contrary to the Union of Mielnik , which involved

660-520: A pronunciations for example in gap [æ] versus gas [eə] , further defines New York City as well as Philadelphia–Baltimore accents. Most Americans preserve all historical /r/ sounds, using what is known as a rhotic accent . The only traditional r -dropping (or non-rhoticity) in regional U.S. accents variably appears today in eastern New England , New York City , and some of the former plantation South primarily among older speakers (and, relatedly, some African-American Vernacular English across

792-690: A "free lord" ( pan – dominus ). When the news arrived in Poland concerning the proclamation of Casimir IV Jagiellon as the Grand Duke of Lithuania, it was met with hostility, even to the point of military threats against Lithuania. Since the young Lithuanian Grand Duke was underage, the supreme control over the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was in the hands of the Lithuanian Council of Lords, presided by Jonas Goštautas, while Casimir IV Jagiellon

924-632: A boy by Władysław III on a mission there in 1440, was surprisingly proclaimed by the Lithuanians as a Grand Duke of Lithuania , and he stayed in Lithuania. Oleśnicki gained the upper hand again and pursued his long-term objective of Poland's union with Hungary . At that time the Ottoman Empire embarked on a new round of European conquests and threatened Hungary, which needed the powerful Polish–Lithuanian ally. In 1440 Władysław III assumed

1056-631: A complex phenomenon of "both convergence and divergence": some accents are homogenizing and leveling , while others are diversifying and deviating further away from one another. Having been settled longer than the American West Coast, the East Coast has had more time to develop unique accents, and it currently comprises three or four linguistically significant regions, each of which possesses English varieties both different from each other as well as quite internally diverse: New England ,

1188-447: A consonant, such as in pearl , car and fort . Non-rhotic American accents, those that do not pronounce ⟨r⟩ except before a vowel, such as some accents of Eastern New England , New York City , and African-Americans , and a specific few (often older ones) spoken by Southerners , are often quickly noticed by General American listeners and perceived as sounding especially ethnic, regional, or antiquated. Rhoticity

1320-667: A few Jews hide, and three, the Krzyzanowski family, were recognized after the war as Righteous Among the Nations for hiding six Jews. The town was restored to Poland by the Red Army on January 18, 1945. Its town charter was established in 1949. Poczta Polska – the postal service of Poland maintains its Department of Undelivered Mail (Wydział Przesyłek Niedoręczalnych) in the Koluszki post office. The local football club

1452-657: A high degree the tenacity and patience that seem to have characterized all the Jagiellons, and he added to these qualities a dexterity and diplomatic finesse. No other Polish king seems to have so thoroughly understood the nature of the Polish sejm . Both the Austrian ambassadors and the papal legates testify to the care with which he controlled his nation. Everything went as he wished, they said, because he seemed to know everything in advance. He managed to get more money out of

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1584-464: A horse during hunting of a bear and gave a preterm birth to her second son who was born alive and baptized as Albert, but died a few hours after his birth and was buried in the Niepołomice Castle 's chapel. The Polish "Golden Age" , the period of the reigns of Sigismund I and Sigismund II , the last two Jagiellonian kings, or more generally the 16th century, is most often identified with

1716-637: A joint Polish-Lithuanian election of a monarch. On 8 December 1506 during the session of the Polish Senate in Piotrków , Sigismund I was elected King of Poland. He arrived in Kraków on 20 January 1507 and was crowned four days later in Wawel Cathedral by Primate Andrzej Boryszewski. In 1518 Sigismund I married Bona Sforza d'Aragona , a young, strong-minded Italian princess. Bona's sway over

1848-591: A merger with the THOUGHT ( caught ) set. Having taken place prior to the unrounding of the cot vowel, it results in lengthening and perhaps raising, merging the more recently separated vowel into the THOUGHT vowel in the following environments: before many instances of /f/ , /θ/ , and particularly /s/ (as in Austria, cloth, cost, loss, off, often, etc.), a few instances before /ŋ/ (as in strong, long, wrong ), and variably by region or speaker in gone , on , and certain other words. Unlike American accents,

1980-636: A nice day , for sure); many are now distinctly old-fashioned (swell, groovy). Some English words now in general use, such as hijacking, disc jockey , boost, bulldoze and jazz , originated as American slang. American English has always shown a marked tendency to use words in different parts of speech and nouns are often used as verbs . Examples of nouns that are now also verbs are interview, advocate, vacuum, lobby, pressure, rear-end, transition, feature, profile, hashtag, head, divorce, loan, estimate, X-ray, spearhead, skyrocket, showcase, bad-mouth, vacation , major, and many others. Compounds coined in

2112-480: A process of extensive dialect mixture and leveling in which English varieties across the colonies became more homogeneous compared with the varieties in Britain. English thus predominated in the colonies even by the end of the 17th century's first immigration of non-English speakers from Western Europe and Africa. Additionally, firsthand descriptions of a fairly uniform American English (particularly in contrast to

2244-655: A second expedition to subdue all of Hungary. Louis made a tactical error when he tried to stop the Ottoman army in an open field battle with a medieval army, insufficient firearms, and obsolete tactics. On 29 August 1526, Louis led his forces against Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire in the disastrous Battle of Mohács . In a pincer movement, the Hungarian army was surrounded by Ottoman cavalry, and in

2376-680: A series of other vowel shifts in the same region, known by linguists as the " Inland North ". The Inland North shares with the Eastern New England dialect (including Boston accents ) a backer tongue positioning of the GOOSE /u/ vowel (to [u] ) and the MOUTH /aʊ/ vowel (to [ɑʊ~äʊ] ) in comparison to the rest of the country. Ranging from northern New England across the Great Lakes to Minnesota, another Northern regional marker

2508-859: A son, Sigismund III Vasa ; as a result, the Polish branch of the Jagiellonians merged with the House of Vasa , which ruled Poland from 1587 until 1668. During the interval, among others, Stephen Báthory , the husband of the childless Anna, reigned. At one point, the Jagiellonians established dynastic control also over the kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary (from 1490 onwards), with Vladislaus Jagiello whom several history books call Vladisla(u)s II. After being elected and crowned King of Hungary, Vladislaus moved his court to Hungary from where he ruled both countries and his children were born and raised. By Louis' sudden death in Battle of Mohács in 1526, that royal line

2640-592: A stabilizing effect on Poland's politics. The Jagiellonian Era is often regarded as a period of maximum political power, great prosperity, and in its later stage, the Golden Age of Polish culture . The Great War of 1409–1411, precipitated by the Lithuanian uprising in the Order controlled Samogitia , included the Battle of Grunwald (Tannenberg), where the Polish and Lithuanian-Rus' armies completely defeated

2772-525: A survey, completed in 2003, polling English speakers across the United States about their specific everyday word choices, hoping to identify regionalisms. The study found that most Americans prefer the term sub for a long sandwich, soda (but pop in the Great Lakes region and generic coke in the South) for a sweet and bubbly soft drink , you or you guys for the plural of you (but y'all in

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2904-453: A variation of American English in these islands. In 2021, about 245 million Americans, aged 5 or above, spoke English at home: a majority of the United States total population of roughly 330 million people. The United States has never had an official language at the federal level, but English is commonly used at the federal level and in states without an official language. 32 of the 50 states, in some cases as part of what has been called

3036-476: Is KKS Koluszki. It competes in the lower leagues. Jagiellonian dynasty The Jagiellonian ( US : / ˌ j ɑː ɡ j ə ˈ l oʊ n i ə n / YAH -gyə- LOH -nee-ən ) or Jagellonian dynasty ( US : / ˌ j ɑː ɡ ə ˈ -/ YAH -gə- ; Lithuanian : Jogailaičių dinastija ; Polish : dynastia jagiellońska ), otherwise the Jagiellon dynasty (Polish: dynastia Jagiellonów ),

3168-654: Is also associated with the United States, perhaps mostly in the Midwest and the South. American accents that have not undergone the cot–caught merger (the lexical sets LOT and THOUGHT ) have instead retained a LOT – CLOTH split : a 17th-century distinction in which certain words (labeled as the CLOTH lexical set ) separated away from the LOT set. The split, which has now reversed in most British English, simultaneously shifts this relatively recent CLOTH set into

3300-664: Is also home to a creole language known commonly as Hawaiian Pidgin , and some Hawaii residents speak English with a Pidgin-influenced accent. American English also gave rise to some dialects outside the country, for example, Philippine English , beginning during the American occupation of the Philippines and subsequently the Insular Government of the Philippine Islands ; Thomasites first established

3432-538: Is common in most American accents despite being now rare in England because, during the 17th-century British colonization, nearly all dialects of English were rhotic, and most North American English simply remained that way. The preservation of rhoticity in North America was also supported by continuing waves of rhotic-accented Scotch-Irish immigrants, most intensely during the 18th century (and moderately during

3564-590: Is his mother's maiden name. The latter surname may refer to his occupation. "Lanthos" means "lutenist", or "bard". He received incomes from the Royal Treasury regularly. He had further offspring. The Jagiellonians were the primary inheritors of the title of the Grand Duke of Lithuania following the deaths of Vytautas the Great , Sigismund Kęstutaitis (children of Grand Duke Kęstutis ) as they remained as

3696-494: Is known in linguistics as General American ; it covers a fairly uniform accent continuum native to certain regions of the U.S. but especially associated with broadcast mass media and highly educated speech. However, historical and present linguistic evidence does not support the notion of there being one single mainstream American accent . The sound of American English continues to evolve, with some local accents disappearing, but several larger regional accents having emerged in

3828-420: Is often identified by Americans as a "country" accent, and is defined by the /aɪ/ vowel losing its gliding quality : [aː] , the initiation event for a complicated Southern vowel shift, including a " Southern drawl " that makes short front vowels into distinct-sounding gliding vowels . The fronting of the vowels of GOOSE , GOAT , MOUTH , and STRUT tends to also define Southern accents as well as

3960-469: Is the variable fronting of /ɑ/ before /r/ , for example, appearing four times in the stereotypical Boston shibboleth Park the car in Harvard Yard . Several other phenomena serve to distinguish regional U.S. accents. Boston , Pittsburgh , Upper Midwestern , and Western U.S. accents have fully completed a merger of the LOT vowel with the THOUGHT vowel ( /ɑ/ and /ɔ/ , respectively):

4092-746: The Catholic Church and the Protestants . Unsuccessful and debilitating beginning of the Livonian War for the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Lithuanian nobility 's desire for equal rights with the Polish nobility resulted in childless Sigismund II's possibly the most striking memorial—the Union of Lublin , which united Poland and Lithuania with equal rights into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth —the "Republic of

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4224-464: The Congress of Vienna in 1815, later forcibly integrated into Russia . On September 2, 1846, the settlement was first connected to the emerging Polish railways as part of the mainline between Warsaw and Kraków . Following the development of Łódź as an industrial center, Koluszki served as the junction for its rail. By 1900, about half of the settlement worked for the railway in some capacity and

4356-863: The Council of Constance . During the Hussite Wars (1420–1434), Jagiełło, Vytautas and Sigismund Korybut were involved in political and military maneuvering concerning the Czech crown , offered by the Hussites first to Jagiełło in 1420. Zbigniew Oleśnicki became known as the leading opponent of a union with the Hussite Czech state. The Jagiellonian dynasty was not entitled to automatic hereditary succession, as each new king had to be approved by nobility consensus. Władysław Jagiełło had two sons late in life from his last wife, Sophia of Halshany. In 1430

4488-777: The Duchy of Oświęcim and Duchy of Zator on Silesia 's border with Lesser Poland , and there was notable progress regarding the incorporation of the Piast Masovian duchies into the Crown . The influence of the Jagiellonian dynasty in Central Europe had been on the rise. In 1471 Casimir's son Władysław became a king of Bohemia , and in 1490 also of Hungary . The southern and eastern outskirts of Poland and Lithuania became threatened by Turkish invasions beginning in

4620-510: The Eastern or Byzantine worlds. The intention of the Union was to create a common state under Władysław II Jagiełło, but the Polish ruling oligarchy's idea of incorporation of Lithuania into Poland turned out to be unrealistic. There would be territorial disputes and warfare between Poland and Lithuania or Lithuanian factions; the Lithuanians at times had even found it expedient to conspire with

4752-482: The English-only movement , have adopted legislation granting official or co-official status to English. Typically only "English" is specified, not a particular variety like American English. (From 1923 to 1969, the state of Illinois recognized its official language as "American", meaning American English.) Puerto Rico is the largest example of a United States territory in which another language – Spanish –

4884-457: The House of Jagiellon (Polish: Dom Jagiellonów ), or simply the Jagiellons (Lithuanian: Jogailaičiai ; Polish: Jagiellonowie ; Latin : Iagellonidae ), was the name assumed by a cadet branch of the Lithuanian ducal dynasty of Gediminids upon reception by Jogaila , the Grand Duke of Lithuania , of baptism as Władysław in 1386, which paved the way to his ensuing marriage to

5016-622: The Mid-Atlantic states (including a New York accent as well as a unique Philadelphia–Baltimore accent ), and the South . As of the 20th century, the middle and eastern Great Lakes area , Chicago being the largest city with these speakers, also ushered in certain unique features, including the fronting of the LOT /ɑ/ vowel in the mouth toward [a] and tensing of the TRAP /æ/ vowel wholesale to [eə] . These sound changes have triggered

5148-551: The Native American languages . Examples of such names are opossum , raccoon , squash , moose (from Algonquian ), wigwam , and moccasin . American English speakers have integrated traditionally non-English terms and expressions into the mainstream cultural lexicon; for instance, en masse , from French ; cookie , from Dutch ; kindergarten from German , and rodeo from Spanish . Landscape features are often loanwords from French or Spanish, and

5280-527: The Polish resistance movement , and Polish partisans were active in the area. The occupiers operated a forced labour camp for Poles and Jews at a local sawmill . The Germans also established a Jewish ghetto in April 1941. Hundreds of Jews from around the area were sent to the Koluszki ghetto so that the pre-war Jewish population of about 500 swelled to over 3000. Living conditions were horrific with up to ten people living in each room and others living in

5412-626: The Queen Regnant Jadwiga of Poland , resulting in his ascension to the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland as Władysław II Jagiełło (initially ruling jure uxoris jointly with Jadwiga until her death), and the effective promotion of his branch to a royal dynasty. The Jagiellons were polyglots and per historical evidence Casimir IV Jagiellon and his son Saint Casimir possibly were the last Jagiellons who spoke in their patrilineal ancestors’ Lithuanian language ; however, even

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5544-626: The Renaissance style reconstruction of the Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania in Vilnius which was started by his father, Sigismund I. Sigismund II maintained two separate and equally lavish Lithuanian -speaking and Polish -speaking royal courts in Vilnius. From the outset of his reign, Sigismund II came into collision with the country's nobility, who had already begun curtailing

5676-688: The Teutonic Knights . The offensive that followed lost its impact with the ineffective siege of Malbork (Marienburg). The failure to take the fortress and eliminate the Teutonic (later Prussian) state had for Poland dire historic consequences in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. The Peace of Thorn (1411) had given Poland and Lithuania rather modest territorial adjustments, including Samogitia. Afterwards there were negotiations and peace deals that didn't hold, more military campaigns and arbitrations. One attempted, unresolved arbitration took place at

5808-568: The distaff line as a branch of the House of Habsburg . The Polish "Golden Age ", the period of the reigns of Sigismund I and Sigismund II , the last two Jagiellonian kings, or more generally the 16th century, is most often identified with the rise of the culture of Polish Renaissance . The cultural blossoming had its material base in the prosperity of the elites, both the landed nobility and urban patriciate at such centers as Kraków and Gdańsk . The name comes from Jogaila ( Jagiełło ),

5940-467: The eponymous first ruler of the Jagiellonian dynasty, started as the Grand Duke of Lithuania. As a result of the Union of Krewo he then converted to Christianity and married the 11-year-old Queen Jadwiga of Poland (daughter of King Louis I of Hungary from the Angevins Dynasty). Thereby he became jure uxoris King of Poland as her co-ruler and founded the dynasty. Angevin rulers were

6072-722: The francophile tastes of the 19th century Victorian era Britain (for example they preferred programme for program , manoeuvre for maneuver , cheque for check , etc.). AmE almost always uses -ize in words like realize . BrE prefers -ise , but also uses -ize on occasion (see: Oxford spelling ). There are a few differences in punctuation rules. British English is more tolerant of run-on sentences , called " comma splices " in American English, and American English prefers that periods and commas be placed inside closing quotation marks even in cases in which British rules would place them outside. American English also favors

6204-491: The sejm than his father ever could, and at one of his sejm s he won the hearts of the assembly by unexpectedly appearing before them in the simple grey coat of a Masovian lord. Like his father, a pro- Austrian by conviction, he contrived even in this respect to carry with him the nation, often distrustful of the Germans. He avoided serious complications with the powerful Turks. Sigismund II mediated for twenty years between

6336-709: The 18th century; apartment , shanty in the 19th century; project, condominium , townhouse , mobile home in the 20th century; and parts thereof ( driveway , breezeway, backyard ) . Industry and material innovations from the 19th century onwards provide distinctive new words, phrases, and idioms through railroading (see further at rail terminology ) and transportation terminology, ranging from types of roads ( dirt roads , freeways ) to infrastructure ( parking lot , overpass , rest area ), to automotive terminology often now standard in English internationally. Already existing English words—such as store , shop , lumber —underwent shifts in meaning; others remained in

6468-427: The 20th century. The use of English in the United States is a result of British colonization of the Americas . The first wave of English-speaking settlers arrived in North America during the early 17th century, followed by further migrations in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 17th and 18th centuries, dialects from many different regions of England and the British Isles existed in every American colony, allowing

6600-441: The 50 U.S. states . Since the late 20th century, American English has become the most influential form of English worldwide. Varieties of American English include many patterns of pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and particularly spelling that are unified nationwide but distinct from other English dialects around the world. Any American or Canadian accent perceived as lacking noticeably local, ethnic, or cultural markers

6732-572: The British form is a back-formation , such as AmE burglarize and BrE burgle (from burglar ). However, while individuals usually use one or the other, both forms will be widely understood and mostly used alongside each other within the two systems. While written American English is largely standardized across the country and spoken American English dialects are highly mutually intelligible, there are still several recognizable regional and ethnic accents and lexical distinctions. The regional sounds of present-day American English are reportedly engaged in

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6864-413: The East Coast (perhaps in imitation of 19th-century London speech), even the East Coast has gradually begun to restore rhoticity, due to it becoming nationally prestigious in the 20th century. The pronunciation of ⟨r⟩ is a postalveolar approximant [ ɹ̠ ] or retroflex approximant [ ɻ ] , but a unique "bunched tongue" variant of the approximant r sound

6996-412: The Germans entered Koluszki and the occupation began, Koluszki was annexed directly to Germany and its population was subjected to various repressions , including mass arrests, deportations to Nazi concentration camps and murder. Mass arrests of Polish intelligentsia , including teachers, were carried out on November 9, 1939 as part of the Intelligenzaktion . Nevertheless, it was a local center of

7128-421: The Habsburgs' advantage. The decisive factor that damaged or weakened the monarchies of the last Jagiellons was the Ottoman Empire 's Turkish expansion. Hungary's vulnerability greatly increased after Suleiman the Magnificent took the Belgrade fortress in 1521. To prevent Poland from extending military aid to Hungary, Suleiman had a Tatar-Turkish force raid southeastern Poland–Lithuania in 1524. The Hungarian army

7260-436: The Hungarian throne. Influenced by Julian Cesarini, the young king led the Hungarian army against the Ottomans in 1443 and again in 1444. Like Cesarini, Władysław III was killed at the Battle of Varna . Beginning toward the end of Jagiełło's life, Poland was practically governed by a magnate oligarchy led by Oleśnicki. The rule of the dignitaries was actively opposed by various szlachta groups. Their leader Spytek of Melsztyn

7392-510: The Inland North. Rather than one particular accent, General American is best defined as an umbrella covering an American accent that does not incorporate features associated with some particular region, ethnicity, or socioeconomic group. Typical General American features include rhoticity , the father–bother merger , Mary–marry–merry merger , pre-nasal "short a " tensing , and other particular vowel sounds . General American features are embraced most by Americans who are highly educated or in

7524-418: The Jagiellon brothers, Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary and Sigismund I of Poland and Lithuania. It was supposed to end the Emperor's support for Poland's enemies, the Teutonic and Russian states , but after the election of Charles V , Maximilian's successor in 1519, the relations with Sigismund had worsened. The Jagiellon rivalry with the House of Habsburg in central Europe was ultimately resolved to

7656-444: The King Matthias Corvinus died without heir in 1490. His illegitimate son John Corvinus was not recognized by the Hungarian nobility , and after being forced to retreat, they called Vladislaus to Hungary, as his mother was the sister of the long ago deceased King Ladislaus and granddaughter of King Sigismund. Vladislaus was then crowned King of Hungary on 18 September 1490. Vladislaus immediately moved to Hungary, and there he lived

7788-449: The Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (converted in 1569 with the Treaty of Lublin into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ) is the reason for the common appellation " Poland–Lithuania " in discussions about the area from the Late Middle Ages onward. One Jagiellon, Władysław III of Poland , briefly ruled both Poland and Hungary (1440–1444), and two others ruled both Bohemia and Hungary (1490–1526) and then continued in

7920-490: The Kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary, but the Hungarian throne was contested by John Zápolya , who ruled the areas of the kingdom conquered by the Turks as an Ottoman client. Although Louis II's marriage remained childless, he probably had an illegitimate child with his mother's former lady-in-waiting, Angelitha Wass , before his marriage. This son was called John (János in Hungarian). This name appears in sources in Vienna as either János Wass or János Lanthos. The former surname

8052-456: The Lithuanian words joti (to ride) and gailus (strong, powerful). The rule of Piasts , the earlier Polish ruling house (c. 962–1370) had ended with the death of King Casimir III the Great . Gediminids , the immediate predecessors of the first Jagiellonian, were rulers of medieval Lithuania with the title of Grand Duke . Their realm, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , was chiefly inhabited by Lithuanians and Ruthenians . Jogaila,

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8184-425: The Ottoman ambassador executed and sent the head to the Sultan. Louis believed that the Papal States and other Christian States including Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor would help him. This event hastened the fall of Hungary. The Ottoman Empire declared war on the Kingdom of Hungary , Suleiman postponed his plan to besiege Rhodes and made an expedition to Belgrade. Louis failed to coordinate and gather his forces. At

8316-420: The Polish Way) and for the couple's marriage and constituted the beginning of the Polish–Lithuanian union . The Union strengthened both nations in their shared opposition to the Teutonic Knights and the growing threat of the Grand Duchy of Moscow . Uniquely in Europe, the union connected two states geographically located on the opposite sides of the great civilizational divide between the Western or Latin, and

8448-556: The Polish throne only on a condition that Lithuania and Poland will be equivalent states. Casimir IV Jagiellon succeeded his brother Władysław III as King of Poland after a three-year interregnum on 25 June 1447. In 1454, Casimir IV Jagiellon married Elisabeth of Austria , daughter of the late King of the Romans Albert II of Habsburg by his late wife Elisabeth of Bohemia . Her distant relative Frederick of Austria became Holy Roman Emperor and reigned as Frederick III until after Casimir IV Jagiellon's own death. The marriage strengthened

8580-449: The South), sneakers for athletic shoes (but often tennis shoes outside the Northeast), and shopping cart for a cart used for carrying supermarket goods. American English and British English (BrE) often differ at the levels of phonology, phonetics, vocabulary, and, to a much lesser extent, grammar and orthography. The first large American dictionary, An American Dictionary of the English Language , known as Webster's Dictionary ,

8712-453: The Teutonic Knights against the Poles . Geographic consequences of the dynastic union and the preferences of the Jagiellonian kings accelerated the process of reorientation of Polish territorial priorities to the east. The political influence of the Jagiellonian kings was diminishing during this period, which was accompanied by the ever-increasing role in central government and national affairs of landed nobility. The royal dynasty, however, had

8844-421: The Two Nations" ( Polish : Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów , Lithuanian : Abiejų Tautų Respublika ). Also, German-speaking Royal Prussia and Prussian cities were included. This achievement might well have been impossible without Sigismund II. Bona Sforca was pregnant and expected to give birth to a legitimate brother of Sigismund II Augustus; however, in 1527, being pregnant for five-months, she fall from

8976-528: The U.S. Several verbs ending in -ize are of U.S. origin; for example, fetishize, prioritize, burglarize, accessorize, weatherize , etc.; and so are some back-formations (locate, fine-tune, curate, donate, emote, upholster and enthuse). Among syntactic constructions that arose are outside of, headed for, meet up with, back of, etc. Americanisms formed by alteration of some existing words include notably pesky, phony, rambunctious, buddy, sundae , skeeter, sashay and kitty-corner. Adjectives that arose in

9108-505: The U.S. are for instance foothill , landslide (in all senses), backdrop , teenager , brainstorm , bandwagon , hitchhike , smalltime, and a huge number of others. Other compound words have been founded based on industrialization and the wave of the automobile: five-passenger car, four-door sedan, two-door sedan, and station-wagon (called an estate car in British English). Some are euphemistic ( human resources , affirmative action , correctional facility ). Many compound nouns have

9240-551: The U.S. are, for example, lengthy, bossy, cute and cutesy, punk (in all senses), sticky (of the weather), through (as in "finished"), and many colloquial forms such as peppy or wacky . A number of words and meanings that originated in Middle English or Early Modern English and that have been in everyday use in the United States have since disappeared in most varieties of British English; some of these have cognates in Lowland Scots . Terms such as fall ("autumn"), faucet ("tap"), diaper ("nappy"; itself unused in

9372-530: The U.S. while changing in Britain. Science, urbanization, and democracy have been important factors in bringing about changes in the written and spoken language of the United States. From the world of business and finance came new terms ( merger , downsize , bottom line ), from sports and gambling terminology came, specific jargon aside, common everyday American idioms, including many idioms related to baseball . The names of some American inventions remained largely confined to North America ( elevator [except in

9504-427: The U.S.), candy ("sweets"), skillet , eyeglasses , and obligate are often regarded as Americanisms. Fall for example came to denote the season in 16th century England, a contraction of Middle English expressions like "fall of the leaf" and "fall of the year." Gotten ( past participle of get ) is often considered to be largely an Americanism. Other words and meanings were brought back to Britain from

9636-597: The U.S., especially in the second half of the 20th century; these include hire ("to employ"), I guess (famously criticized by H. W. Fowler ), baggage , hit (a place), and the adverbs overly and presently ("currently"). Some of these, for example, monkey wrench and wastebasket , originated in 19th century Britain. The adjectives mad meaning "angry", smart meaning "intelligent", and sick meaning "ill" are also more frequent in American (and Irish) English than British English. Linguist Bert Vaux created

9768-538: The United States and the United Kingdom suggest that, while spoken American English deviated away from period British English in many ways, it is conservative in a few other ways, preserving certain features 21st-century British English has since lost. Full rhoticity (or "R-fulness") is typical of American accents, pronouncing the phoneme /r/ (corresponding to the letter ⟨r⟩ ) in all environments, including in syllable-final position or before

9900-605: The West and Midwest, and New York Latino English , spoken in the New York metropolitan area . Additionally, ethnic varieties such as Yeshiva English and " Yinglish " are spoken by some American Orthodox Jews , Cajun Vernacular English by some Cajuns in southern Louisiana , and Pennsylvania Dutch English by some Pennsylvania Dutch people. American Indian Englishes have been documented among diverse Indian tribes. The island state of Hawaii , though primarily English-speaking,

10032-555: The accents spoken in the " Midland ": a vast band of the country that constitutes an intermediate dialect region between the traditional North and South. Western U.S. accents mostly fall under the General American spectrum. Below, ten major American English accents are defined by their particular combinations of certain vowel sounds: In 2010, William Labov noted that Great Lakes, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and West Coast accents have undergone "vigorous new sound changes" since

10164-505: The aeronautical sense ], gasoline ) as did certain automotive terms ( truck , trunk ). New foreign loanwords came with 19th and early 20th century European immigration to the U.S.; notably, from Yiddish ( chutzpah , schmooze, bupkis, glitch ) and German ( hamburger , wiener ). A large number of English colloquialisms from various periods are American in origin; some have lost their American flavor (from OK and cool to nerd and 24/7 ), while others have not ( have

10296-416: The center, the Hungarian heavy knights and infantry were repulsed and suffered heavy casualties, especially from the well-positioned Ottoman cannons and well-armed and trained Janissary musketeers. Nearly the entire Hungarian Royal army was destroyed on the battlefield. During the retreat, the twenty-year-old king died in a marsh. As Louis had no legitimate children, Ferdinand was elected as his successor in

10428-406: The country), though the vowel-consonant cluster found in "bird", "work", "hurt", "learn", etc. usually retains its r pronunciation, even in these non-rhotic American accents. Non-rhoticity among such speakers is presumed to have arisen from their upper classes' close historical contact with England, imitating London's r -dropping, a feature that has continued to gain prestige throughout England from

10560-572: The death of George of Poděbrady was a time of conflict for the Bohemian throne (see Bohemian–Hungarian War (1468–1478) ), and Vladislaus was unable to confront it. At the time of his arrival in Prague , he was only fifteen years old and significantly dominated by his advisers. The succession conflict was settled in 1479 in the Peace of Olomouc, which allowed both Vladislaus and Matthias Corvinus to use

10692-614: The diverse regional dialects of British English) became common after the mid-18th century, while at the same time speakers' identification with this new variety increased. Since the 18th century, American English has developed into some new varieties, including regional dialects that retain minor influences from waves of immigrant speakers of diverse languages, primarily European languages. Some racial and regional variation in American English reflects these groups' geographic settlement, their de jure or de facto segregation, and patterns in their resettlement. This can be seen, for example, in

10824-742: The double quotation mark ("like this") over the single ('as here'). Vocabulary differences vary by region. For example, autumn is used more commonly in the United Kingdom, whereas fall is more common in American English. Some other differences include: aerial (United Kingdom) vs. antenna, biscuit (United Kingdom) vs. cookie/cracker, car park (United Kingdom) vs. parking lot, caravan (United Kingdom) vs. trailer, city centre (United Kingdom) vs. downtown, flat (United Kingdom) vs. apartment, fringe (United Kingdom) vs. bangs, and holiday (United Kingdom) vs. vacation. AmE sometimes favors words that are morphologically more complex, whereas BrE uses clipped forms, such as AmE transportation and BrE transport or where

10956-522: The eastern territories in 1482 and 1487, until they were confronted by King Jan Olbracht (John Albert), Casimir's son and successor. Poland was attacked in 1487–1491 by remnants of the Golden Horde . They had invaded into Poland as far as Lublin before being beaten at Zaslavl. King John Albert in 1497 made an attempt to resolve the Turkish problem militarily, but his efforts were unsuccessful as he

11088-729: The first Grand Duke of Lithuania to become King of Poland. In Polish, the dynasty is known as Jagiellonowie and the patronymic form: Jagiellończyk ; in Lithuanian it is called Jogailaičiai , in Belarusian Яґайлавічы ( Jagajłavičy ), in Hungarian Jagelló , and in Czech Jagellonci , as well as Jagello or Jagellon in Latin . Etymologically, the name Jogaila means "strong rider", from

11220-517: The following two centuries) when this ethnic group eventually made up one-seventh of the colonial population. Scotch-Irish settlers spread from Delaware and Pennsylvania throughout the larger Mid-Atlantic region, the inland regions of both the South and North, and throughout the West: American dialect areas that were all uninfluenced by upper-class non-rhoticity and that consequently have remained consistently rhotic. While non-rhoticity spread on

11352-944: The hospital , BrE to hospital ; contrast, however, AmE actress Elizabeth Taylor , BrE the actress Elizabeth Taylor ). Often, these differences are a matter of relative preferences rather than absolute rules; and most are not stable since the two varieties are constantly influencing each other, and American English is not a standardized set of dialects. Differences in orthography are also minor. The main differences are that American English usually uses spellings such as flavor for British flavour , fiber for fibre , defense for defence , analyze for analyse , license for licence , catalog for catalogue and traveling for travelling . Noah Webster popularized such spellings in America, but he did not invent most of them. Rather, "he chose already existing options on such grounds as simplicity, analogy or etymology." Other differences are due to

11484-674: The influence of 18th-century Protestant Ulster Scots immigrants (known in the U.S. as the Scotch-Irish ) in Appalachia developing Appalachian English and the 20th-century Great Migration bringing African-American Vernacular English to the Great Lakes urban centers. Any phonologically unmarked North American accent falls under an umbrella known as General American. This section mostly refers to such General American features. Studies on historical usage of English in both

11616-421: The king and the magnates , her efforts to strengthen the monarch's political position, financial situation, and especially the measures she took to advance her personal and dynastic interests, including the forced royal election of the minor Sigismund Augustus in 1529 and his premature coronation in 1530, increased the discontent among szlachta activists. The rebellion of Lwów (the so-called Chicken War )

11748-491: The king's death in 1503, resulting in a territorial compromise and an unstable truce. The Grand Duke Alexander was elected King of Poland in 1501, after the death of John Albert. In 1506 he was succeeded by Sigismund I the Old ( Polish : Zygmunt I Stary , Lithuanian : Žygimantas Senasis ) in both Poland and Lithuania, as the political realities were drawing the two states closer together. Prior to that Sigismund I had been

11880-547: The last patrilineal Jagiellonian monarch Sigismund II Augustus maintained two separate and equally lavish Lithuanian-speaking and Polish -speaking royal courts in Lithuania's capital Vilnius . The Jagiellons reigned in several European countries between the 14th and 16th centuries. Members of the dynasty were Kings of Poland (1386–1572), Grand Dukes of Lithuania (1377–1392 and 1440–1572), Kings of Hungary (1440–1444 and 1490–1526), and Kings of Bohemia and imperial electors (1471–1526). The personal union between

12012-635: The late 15th century. Moldavia 's involvement with Poland goes back to 1387, when Petru I , Hospodar of Moldavia , seeking protection against the Hungarians, paid Jagiełło homage in Lviv , which gave Poland access to the Black Sea ports. In 1485 King Casimir undertook an expedition into Moldavia, after its seaports were overtaken by the Ottoman Turks. The Turkish controlled Crimean Tatars raided

12144-438: The late 18th century onwards, but which has conversely lost prestige in the U.S. since at least the early 20th century. Non-rhoticity makes a word like car sound like cah or source like sauce . New York City and Southern accents are the most prominent regional accents of the country, as well as the most stigmatized and socially disfavored. Southern speech, strongest in southern Appalachia and certain areas of Texas,

12276-427: The mid-nineteenth century onwards, so they "are now more different from each other than they were 50 or 100 years ago", while other accents, like of New York City and Boston, have remained stable in that same time-frame. However, a General American sound system also has some debated degree of influence nationwide, for example, gradually beginning to oust the regional accent in urban areas of the South and at least some in

12408-617: The most formal contexts, and regional accents with the most General American native features include North Midland, Western New England, and Western accents. Although no longer region-specific, African-American Vernacular English , which remains the native variety of most working- and middle-class African Americans , has a close relationship to Southern dialects and has greatly influenced everyday speech of many Americans, including hip hop culture . Hispanic and Latino Americans have also developed native-speaker varieties of English. The best-studied Latino Englishes are Chicano English , spoken in

12540-491: The most powerful branch of the Lithuanian Gediminids dynasty and were direct ancestors of Grand Duke Gediminas by the man's line. After Sigismund II Augustus, the dynasty underwent further changes. Sigismund II's heirs were his sisters Anna Jagiellon and Catherine Jagiellon . The latter had married Duke John (a son of King Gustav I ), who thereby from 1569 became King John III of Sweden , and they had

12672-797: The nobility agreed to the succession of the future Władysław III , only after the King gave in and guaranteed the satisfaction of their new demands. In 1434 the old monarch died and his minor son Władysław was crowned; the Royal Council led by Bishop Oleśnicki undertook the regency duties. In 1438 the Czech anti- Habsburg opposition, mainly Hussite factions, offered the Czech crown to Jagiełło's younger son Casimir IV . The idea, accepted in Poland over Oleśnicki's objections, resulted in two unsuccessful Polish military expeditions to Bohemia . After Vytautas ' death in 1430 Lithuania became embroiled in internal wars and conflicts with Poland. Casimir IV, sent as

12804-402: The past forms of a few verbs (for example, AmE/BrE: learned / learnt , burned / burnt , snuck/sneaked , dove/dived ) although the purportedly "British" forms can occasionally be seen in American English writing as well; different prepositions and adverbs in certain contexts (for example, AmE in school, BrE at school ); and whether or not a definite article is used, in very few cases (AmE to

12936-459: The power of the great families. The ostensible cause of the nobility's animosity to the King was his second marriage, secretly contracted before his accession to the throne, with (said to be beautiful) Lithuanian Calvinist, Barbara Radziwiłł , daughter of Hetman Jerzy Radziwiłł . The secret marriage was strongly opposed by his mother Bona and by the magnates of the Crown. Sigismund II, who took over

13068-405: The privileges of the nobility, lifting of the toll or exemption of the nobility from it, adoption of a law concerning incompatibilitas —the incompatibility of certain offices that were not to be joined in the same hand, the carrying out of a law requiring the appointment of only the local nobles to most important local offices and the creation of a body of permanent advisors to the king. Finally,

13200-506: The process of national integration. The Academy of Kraków and Sigismund II possessed well-stocked libraries; smaller collections were increasingly common at noble courts, schools and the households of townspeople. Illiteracy levels were falling, as by the end of the 16th century almost every parish ran a school. In 1515, during a congress in Vienna , a dynastic succession arrangement was agreed to between Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and

13332-410: The protesters criticised the role of Queen Bona, whom they blamed for the "bad education" of young Prince Sigismund Augustus (the future King Sigismund II Augustus), as well as for seeking to increase her power and influence in the state. Following an agreement between Sigismund I, Bona Sforza and Lithuanian Council of Lords , Sigismund II Augustus was proclaimed as Grand Duke of Lithuania when he

13464-480: The reign of the Kingdom of Poland after his father's Sigismund I death in 1548, overcame the resistance and had Barbara crowned in 1550; a few months later the new queen died. Sigismund II accompanied the funeral procession of Barbara from Kraków to Vilnius by personally going on foot through cities. Bona, estranged from her son returned to Italy in 1556, where she died soon afterwards. Sigismund II possessed to

13596-447: The rest of his life, having his court and all his children born in the palace of Buda. The Hungarian nobility reigned and took many important decisions in his name, and his role as monarch soon passed to be in a second plan. Stephen Zápolya , the archbishop Tamás Bakócz and George Szatmári continued with the Turkish war plans and tried then to maintain the Kingdom that fell in a severe economical crisis after Matthias's death. Vladislaus

13728-620: The ringing of church bells and the singing of the Te Deum laudamus . The Bishop of Vilnius put a Gediminas' Cap in the Vilnius Cathedral on Casimir IV Jagiellon's head, despite the Polish nobility 's opposition. This was breaching the agreements of the Union of Grodno (1432) and terminating the Polish–Lithuanian union . It manifested Lithuania as a sovereign state and its ruler Casimir IV Jagiellon stressed himself as

13860-601: The rise of the culture of Polish Renaissance . The cultural flowering had its material base in the prosperity of the elites, both the landed nobility and urban patriciate at such centers as Kraków and Gdańsk . As was the case with other European nations, the Renaissance inspiration came in the first place from Italy , a process accelerated to some degree by the marriage of Sigismund I to Bona Sforza . Many Poles traveled to Italy to study and to learn its culture. As imitating Italian ways became very trendy (the royal courts of

13992-518: The same time, Hungary was unable to get assistance from other European states, which Louis had hoped for. Belgrade and many strategic castles in Serbia were captured by the Ottomans. This was disastrous for Louis' kingdom; without the strategically important cities of Belgrade and Šabac, Hungary, including Buda, was open to further Turkish conquests. After the siege of Rhodes , in 1526 Suleiman made

14124-650: The seceded western Prussian regions, Royal Prussia , and the Polish crown's overlordship over the remaining Teutonic Monastic State , transformed in 1525 into a duchy, Ducal Prussia . Poland regained Pomerelia and with it the all-important access to the Baltic Sea , as well as Warmia . In addition to land warfare, naval battles had taken place, where ships provided by the City of Danzig (Gdańsk) successfully fought Danish and Teutonic fleets. Other 15th-century Polish territorial gains, or rather revindications, included

14256-452: The second and Jagiellonian third dynasty of Polish Kings. In 1385 the Union of Krewo was signed between Queen Jadwiga of Poland and Jogaila , the Grand Duke of Lithuania, the last pagan state in Europe. The act arranged for Jogaila's baptism (after which Jogaila was known in Poland by his baptismal name, Władysław, and the Polish version of his Lithuanian name, Jagiełło) (Zamoyski,

14388-749: The separatist Prussian regions a protectorate of the Polish Kingdom . However, when the insurgent cities rebelled against the Order, it resisted and the Thirteen Years' War (1454–1466) ensued. Casimir IV Jagiellon and the Prussian Confederation defeated the Teutonic Order, taking over its capital at Marienburg ( Malbork Castle ). In the Second Peace of Thorn (1466), the Order recognized Polish sovereignty over

14520-613: The settlement developed around the railway and bus stations. After World War I Poland regained independence, and Koluszki was reintegrated with the reborn state. The town suffered during both world wars. On 1–5 September 1939, in the first days of the German invasion of Poland , which started World War II , the German Luftwaffe raided Koluszki multiple times. On September 1–3, many inhabitants fled, and Polish anti-aircraft artillery shot down six German planes. On September 6,

14652-479: The streets or in attics. Hunger and typhus epidemics killed many. In October 1942, the Gestapo and German and Polish police rounded up the ghetto population. A few dozen escaped, as many as 500 were murdered in Koluszki, and the rest were loaded on a train for Treblinka . There they were immediately gassed. There were a few survivors of unknown numbers among Koluszki's Jewish population. Several Christian Poles helped

14784-596: The thirteen-year-old boy would become a Vice-regent for the Polish King in Lithuania. Casimir IV Jagiellon was invited by the Lithuanian magnates to Lithuania and was sent by his older brother Władysław III , King of Poland and Hungary, Supreme Duke of Lithuania, to Lithuania to rule in his name. But instead he was elected by the Lithuanian Council of Lords as the Grand Duke of Lithuania upon his arrival to Lithuania's capital Vilnius on June 29, 1440, with

14916-588: The ties between the house of Jagiellon and the sovereigns of Hungary-Bohemia and put Casimir IV Jagiellon at odds with the Holy Roman Emperor through internal Habsburg rivalry. Becoming a King of Poland Casimir IV Jagiellon also freed himself from the control the Lithuanian oligarchy had imposed on him; in the Vilnius Privilege of 1447 he declared the Lithuanian nobility having equal rights with Polish szlachta . In time Casimir IV Jagiellon

15048-466: The title "King of Bohemia". Vladislaus would reign in Bohemia proper, while Matthias gained Moravia , Silesia , and the two Lusatias. The deal also stipulated that in case of Matthias' death, Vladislaus would pay 400,000 gulden for the entirety of the Bohemian lands. However, this payment was not made once Vladislaus became King of Hungary after the death of Matthias. Great chaos overcame Hungary when

15180-570: The traditional standard accent of (southern) England, Received Pronunciation (RP), has evolved a trap–bath split . Moreover, American accents preserve /h/ at the start of syllables, while perhaps a majority of the regional dialects of England participate in /h/ dropping , particularly in informal contexts. However, General American is also innovative in a number of its own ways: The process of coining new lexical items started as soon as English-speaking British-American colonists began borrowing names for unfamiliar flora, fauna, and topography from

15312-475: The two kings provided the leadership and example for everybody else), many Italian artists and thinkers were coming to Poland, some settling and working there for many years. While the pioneering Polish humanists, greatly influenced by Erasmus of Rotterdam, accomplished the preliminary assimilation of the antiquity culture, the generation that followed was able to put greater emphasis on the development of native elements, and because of its social diversity, advanced

15444-417: The verb-and-preposition combination: stopover, lineup, tryout, spin-off, shootout , holdup, hideout, comeback, makeover , and many more. Some prepositional and phrasal verbs are in fact of American origin ( win out, hold up, back up/off/down/out, face up to and many others). Noun endings such as -ee (retiree), -ery (bakery), -ster (gangster) and -cian (beautician) are also particularly productive in

15576-775: The word corn , used in England to refer to wheat (or any cereal), came to denote the maize plant, the most important crop in the U.S. Most Mexican Spanish contributions came after the War of 1812 , with the opening of the West, like ranch (now a common house style ). Due to Mexican culinary influence, many Spanish words are incorporated in general use when talking about certain popular dishes: cilantro (instead of coriander), queso, tacos, quesadillas, enchiladas, tostadas, fajitas, burritos, and guacamole. These words usually lack an English equivalent and are found in popular restaurants. New forms of dwelling created new terms ( lot , waterfront) and types of homes like log cabin , adobe in

15708-442: Was 9 years old in Vilnius in 1529. Initially, Sigismund II opposed the Polish–Lithuanian union as he sought to leave the Lithuanian throne to his heirs as Jagiellonian patrimony . In 1544 Sigismund II began to independently rule the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1547 Sigismund II moved his royal court from Kraków to Vilnius and it had a great influence on the intellectual life of the region. In 1548 Sigismund II finished

15840-453: Was a cheerful man, but after the death of his third wife, he fell into a severe depression and almost retired from all official issues. Then he gained the nickname of "Vladislaus Bene" (Polish: Władysław Dobrze , Hungarian: Dobzse László , Czech: král Dobře ) because to almost any request he answered, "Bene" (Latin for "(It is) well"). Louis II was the son of Ladislaus II Jagiellon and his third wife, Anne of Foix-Candale . In 1515 Louis II

15972-498: Was able to remove from power Cardinal Oleśnicki and his group, basing his own power on the younger middle nobility camp instead. A conflict with the pope and the local Church hierarchy over the right to fill vacant bishop positions Casimir IV Jagiellon also resolved in his favor. That same year, Casimir IV Jagiellon was approached by the Prussian Confederation for aid against the Teutonic Order , which he promised, by making

16104-474: Was an anti-royalist and anti-absolutist rokosz (rebellion) by the Polish nobility that occurred in 1537. The derisive name was coined by the magnates, who for the most part supported the King and claimed that the "war's" only effect was the near-extinction of the local chickens, eaten by the nobles gathered for the rebellion at Lwów, in Lesser Poland . The nobility, gathered near the city to meet with

16236-470: Was christened as the namesake of his grandfather, King Władysław Jagiełło of Poland and Lithuania, his maternal uncle King Ladislaus the Posthumous of Bohemia and his paternal uncle Władysław III of Poland, an earlier king of Hungary. He was proposed for the Bohemian throne by the widow of the previous king, George of Poděbrady , and was crowned King of Bohemia on 22 August 1471. The period after

16368-631: Was defeated in 1526 at the Battle of Mohács, where the young Louis II Jagiellon , son of Vladislas II, was killed. Subsequently, after a period of internal strife and external intervention, Hungary was partitioned between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans. Vladislaus was born on 1 March 1456, the oldest son of King Casimir IV of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, then the head of the ruling Jagiellon dynasty of Poland, and Elizabeth of Austria , daughter of Albert , King of Germany , Hungary and Bohemia. He

16500-463: Was expected to become king before his majority. Strangely, little was done for his education; he was never taught Latin, nor was he trained for the responsibilities of office, despite the fact he was the only brother of the rightful sovereign. He often relied on his instinct and feelings and had little political knowledge, but shared a great interest in the diplomacy and economic affairs of the country. Throughout Casimir's youth, Bishop Zbigniew Oleśnicki

16632-466: Was extinguished in male line. Notes: American English American English , sometimes called United States English or U.S. English , is the set of varieties of the English language native to the United States. English is the most widely spoken language in the United States ; the de facto common language used in government, education, and commerce; and an official language in 32 of

16764-505: Was his mentor and tutor; however, the cleric felt a strong reluctance towards him, believing that he would be an unsuccessful monarch following Władysław's death. The sudden death of Sigismund Kęstutaitis left the office of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania empty. The Voivode of Trakai , Jonas Goštautas , and other magnates of Lithuania, supported Casimir IV Jagiellon as a candidate to the throne. However, many Polish noblemen hoped that

16896-435: Was killed during an armed confrontation in 1439 , which allowed Oleśnicki to purge Poland of the remaining Hussite sympathizers and pursue his other objectives without significant opposition. Casimir IV Jagiellon was the third and youngest son of King Władysław II Jagiełło and his fourth wife, Sophia of Halshany . His father was already 65 at the time of Casimir's birth, and his brother Władysław III, three years his senior,

17028-553: Was married to Mary of Austria , granddaughter of Emperor Maximilian I , as stipulated by the First Congress of Vienna in 1515. His sister Anne was married to Archduke Ferdinand of Austria , then a governor on behalf of his brother Charles V , and later Emperor Ferdinand I. Following the accession to the throne of Suleiman I , the sultan sent an ambassador to Louis II to collect the annual tribute that Hungary had been subjected to. Louis refused to pay annual tribute and had

17160-439: Was taught Lithuanian language and the customs of Lithuania by appointed court officials. In 1445, Casimir IV Jagiellon, already being the Grand Duke of Lithuania, was asked to also assume the Polish throne vacated by the death of his brother Władysław III (killed at the Battle of Varna in 1444). Casimir IV Jagiellon was a tough negotiator and did not accept the Polish nobility's conditions for his election, thus he assumed

17292-414: Was unable to secure effective participation in the war by his brothers, King Ladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary and Alexander, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, and because of the resistance on the part of Stephen the Great , the ruler of Moldavia. More Ottoman Empire-instigated destructive Tatar raids took place in 1498, 1499 and 1500. John Albert 's diplomatic peace efforts that followed were finalized after

17424-469: Was written by Noah Webster in 1828, codifying several of these spellings. Differences in grammar are relatively minor, and do not normally affect mutual intelligibility; these include: typically a lack of differentiation between adjectives and adverbs, employing the equivalent adjectives as adverbs he ran quick / he ran quickly ; different use of some auxiliary verbs ; formal (rather than notional) agreement with collective nouns ; different preferences for

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