Misplaced Pages

#779220

43-631: Following the First Partition of Poland (1772), the Commonwealth lost land connection with its major Baltic Sea port, Gdańsk . Polish goods, transported northwards along the Vistula , were subject to high Prussian duties, with tax offices located at Fordon and Kwidzyn . As a result, Polish merchants and magnates were forced to find another trade route. Main Polish export at that time

86-664: A cautionary tale for the writers of the US Constitution . In 1772, Jean-Jacques Rousseau was invited to present recommendations for a new constitution for the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the Considerations on the Government of Poland (1782), which was to be his last major political work. a The picture shows the rulers of the three countries that participated in

129-704: A counter-proposal for Prussia to take lands held by Poland in return for relinquishing Glatz and parts of Silesia to Austria, but his plan was rejected by Frederick. Although for a few decades, since Poland's Silent Sejm , Russia had seen the weak Poland as its own protectorate, Poland had also been devastated by a civil war in which the forces of the Bar Confederation , formed in Bar , attempted to disrupt Russian control over Poland. The recent Koliyivschyna peasant and Cossack uprising in Ukraine also weakened

172-626: A country under major influence of, and almost becoming the protectorate (or vassal ) of, the Russian Empire, with the Russian tsar effectively choosing Polish–Lithuanian monarchs during the free elections and deciding the outcome of much of Poland's internal politics. For example, the Repnin Sejm of 1767–68 was named after the Russian ambassador who had unofficially presided over its proceedings. The First Partition occurred after

215-571: A modified Russian Navy Ensign , with a blue St. Andrew's Cross and a Polish eagle on a red rectangle in upper left corner. This banner was a compromise: according to international treaties, only ships equipped with Habsburg and Russian banners were allowed to pass through the Turkish Straits. Polish historian Antoni Rolle argues however that ships of the Company Fleet used a traditional Polish banner (white eagle on red field), which

258-582: A number of magnates and merchants, urging them to abandon the Vistula river trade, and move southwards, to Polish Ukraine. He was supported by Michał Ossowski , a merchant from Pomerelia , Potocki's friend and adviser. Ossowski was chief agent of Prot Potocki 's bank, also operating company's office in Kherson. At first the company transported its goods only to Kherson, where they were loaded on Russian ships, and transported to Western European ports. Later on,

301-735: A series of territorial adjustments in which the Ottoman Empire would not suffer from Austria and Russia. In return, Austria would be compensated with parts of Prussian Silesia , and Prussia would regain Ermland (Warmia) from the that part of Prussia which Poland had annexed in the Second Treaty of Thorn , plus the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia , already under Baltic German hegemony. King Frederick II of Prussia had no intention of giving up Silesia , having recently gained it in

344-464: Is the beleaguered Polish king, Stanisław August Poniatowski , who is experiencing difficulty keeping his crown on his head. Above the scene the angel of peace trumpets the news that civilized eighteenth-century sovereigns have accomplished their mission while avoiding war. The drawing gained notoriety in contemporary Europe, with bans on its distribution in several European countries. Piotr Fergusson Tepper Piotr Fergusson Tepper (1713–1794)

387-459: The Austrian share an ample compensation. Although Austria was the least interested in the partition, it received the largest share of the former Polish population and the second-largest land share: 83,000 square kilometres (32,000 sq mi) and 2,650,000 people. Austria gained Zator , Auschwitz , part of Little Poland (which constituted the counties of Kraków and Sandomierz ), including

430-520: The Partition Sejm . To prevent the disruption of the Sejm via liberum veto and the defeat of the purpose of the invaders, Poniński undertook to turn the regular Sejm into a confederated sejm in which majority rule prevailed. In spite of the efforts of individuals like Tadeusz Rejtan , Samuel Korsak  [ pl ] , and Stanisław Bohuszewicz  [ pl ] to prevent it,

473-575: The Silesian Wars , but was also interested in finding a peaceful solution. The Russo-Prussian alliance would draw him into a potential war against Austria, and the Seven Years' War had left Prussia's treasury and army weakened. Like France, he was interested in protecting the weakening Ottoman Empire, which could be advantageously used in the event of a Prussian war either against Russia or Austria. Frederick's brother, Prince Henry , spent

SECTION 10

#1732772146780

516-640: The balance of power in Europe shifted, with Russian victories against the Ottomans in the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) strengthening Russia and endangering Habsburg interests in the region (particularly in Moldavia and Wallachia ). Habsburg Austria then started considering waging war against Russia. France was friendly towards the Ottoman Empire but also both Prussia and Austria and suggested

559-518: The 1629 Truce of Altmark (i.e. Inflanty Voivodeship , excluding the former western exclaves around Piltene /Piltyń, which had been transferred to Courland in 1717), and of Belarus embracing the counties of Vitebsk , Polotsk and Mstislavl . Russia gained 92,000 square kilometres (36,000 sq mi) and 1,300,000 people, and reorganized its newly acquired lands into Pskov Governorate , which also included two provinces of Novgorod Governorate , and Mogilev Governorate . Zakhar Chernyshyov

602-717: The Austrian border. An attempt of the Bar Confederacy to kidnap King Stanisław on 3 November 1771 gave the three courts another pretext to showcase the "Polish anarchy" and the need for its neighbours to step in and "save" the country and its citizens. Already by 1769–1771, both Austria and Prussia had taken over some border territories of the Commonwealth, with Austria taking the Eldership of Spisz , Czorsztyn , Stary Sącz and Nowy Targ in 1769–1770 and Prussia incorporating Lauenburg and Bütow . On February 19, 1772,

645-594: The Bar Confederation provided a convenient excuse although all three were interested in territorial gains. After Russia had occupied the Danubian Principalities , Henry convinced Frederick and Empress Maria Theresa that the balance of power would be maintained by a tripartite division of the so-called Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth instead of Russia taking land from the Ottomans. Under pressure from Prussia, which had long wanted to recover

688-544: The Bar Confederation, whose executive board had been forced to leave Austria, which had supported them, after Austria joined the Prusso–Russian alliance, did not lay down their arms. Many fortresses in their command held out as long as possible. Wawel Castle in Kraków fell only at the end of April; Tyniec Fortress held until the end of July 1772; Częstochowa , commanded by Casimir Pulaski , held until late August. In

731-506: The Great allowed Poles to use the port of Kherson , built in 1775. Soon afterwards, a Polish consulate was opened there, together with a department store. No Russian duties were imposed on Polish goods at Kherson. In 1785, Antoni Protazy («Prot») Potocki purchased land in the town of Jampol , and built there the Dniester river port, together with warehouses. Potocki personally talked to

774-535: The Great soon introduced German colonists in territories he conquered, and enforced the Germanization of Polish territories. Frederick II settled 26,000 Germans in Polish Pomerania, who influenced the ethnic situation in the region, which had around 300,000 inhabitants. According to Christopher Clark , in certain areas annexed by Prussia like Notec and Royal Prussia, 54% of the population (75% in

817-480: The Polish position. Besides, the Russian-supported Polish king, Stanisław August Poniatowski , was seen as both weak and too independent-minded. Eventually, the Russian court decided that the usefulness of Poland as a protectorate had diminished. The three powers officially justified their actions as compensation for dealing with a troublesome neighbour and restoring order to Polish anarchy, and

860-507: The Russians and exiled to Siberia. The local land assemblies ( Sejmiks ) refused to elect deputies to the Sejm, and after great difficulties, less than half of the regular number of representatives came to attend the session led by Marshals of the Sejm , Michał Hieronim Radziwiłł and Adam Poniński . The latter in particular was one of many Polish nobles who were bribed by the Russians into following their orders. The Sejm became known as

903-431: The Russians to transport their troops. By 1793, it virtually ceased to exist, also because of financial problems of Potocki and loss of agricultural lands in the second partition of Poland. Furthermore, one of its major investors, Warsaw bank of Tepper-Ferguson declared bankruptcy. First Partition of Poland The First Partition of Poland took place in 1772 as the first of three partitions that eventually ended

SECTION 20

#1732772146780

946-550: The agreement of partition was signed in Vienna . A previous agreement between Prussia and Russia had been made in Saint Petersburg on February 6, 1772. In early August, Russian, Prussian and Austrian troops simultaneously entered the Commonwealth and occupied the provinces that had been agreed upon among themselves. On August 5, the three parties signed the treaty on their respective territorial gains. The regiments of

989-587: The combined nations occupied Warsaw , the capital, to compel by force of arms the calling of the assembly, no alternative could be chosen but passive submission to their will. The senators who advised against that step were threatened by the Russians, represented by the ambassador, Otto von Stackelberg , who declared that in the face of refusal, the whole of Warsaw would be destroyed by them. Other threats included execution, confiscation of estates, and further increases of partitioned territory. According to Edward Henry Lewinski Corwin , some senators were even arrested by

1032-408: The company bought several ships, with mostly international crews. First ship of Trade Company Poland was Św. Michał ; in 1784, Polska , Ukraina , Podole , Jampol and Św. Prot were bought. As a result of these purchases, first regular Polish merchant fleet was created. Its ships sailed mostly from Kherson to Marseilles , but also to Barcelona , and Alexandria . Ships of the Company Fleet used

1075-446: The company was personally supported by King Stanisław August Poniatowski , who himself negotiated with Catherine the Great the conditions of usage of the port of Kherson. Furthermore, it enjoyed the support of Primate Michał Jerzy Poniatowski . The development of Black Sea trade was slow, due to several factors, such as: The company began to decline after the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War (1787–92) , when most ships were seized by

1118-482: The deed was accomplished with the aid of Poniński, Radziwiłł, and the bishops Andrzej Młodziejowski , Ignacy Jakub Massalski , and Antoni Kazimierz Ostrowski ( primate of Poland ), who occupied high positions in the Senate of Poland . The Sejm elected a committee of thirty to deal with the various matters presented. On September 18, 1773, the committee signed the treaty of cession, renouncing all Commonwealth claims to

1161-547: The end, the Bar Confederation was defeated, with its members either fleeing abroad or being deported to Siberia by the Russians. The partition treaty was ratified by its signatories on September 22, 1772. It was a major success for Frederick II of Prussia: Prussia's share might have been the smallest, but it was also significantly developed and strategically important. Prussia took most of Polish Royal Prussia , including Ermland , which allowed Frederick to link East Prussia and Brandenburg . The annexation thereby reunited

1204-1010: The existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by 1795. The growth of power in the Russian Empire threatened the Kingdom of Prussia and the Habsburg monarchy and was the primary motive behind the First Partition. Frederick the Great , King in Prussia , engineered the partition to prevent Austria, which was envious of Russian successes against the Ottoman Empire , from going to war. Territories in Poland–Lithuania were divided by its more powerful neighbours (Austria, Russia and Prussia) to restore

1247-764: The lands of the Teutonic State under a German state, after parts of these lands had fallen under rule of the Polish king in 1411 and 1466. Prussia also annexed northern areas of Greater Poland along the Noteć River (the Netze District ), and northern Kuyavia , but not the cities of Danzig (Gdańsk) and Thorn (Toruń) . In 1773, the territories annexed by Prussia became the new province of West Prussia . Overall, Prussia gained 36,000 square kilometres (14,000 sq mi) and about 600,000 people. According to Jerzy Surdykowski  [ PL ] , Frederick

1290-714: The lost territories. The only two countries that refused to accept the partitions were the Ottoman and Persian Empires . Il Canto degli Italiani , the Italian national anthem , contains a reference to the partition. The ongoing partitions of Poland were a major topic of discourse in the Federalist Papers in which the structure of the government of Poland and the foreign influence over it were used in several papers ( Federalist No. 14 , Federalist No. 19 , Federalist No. 22 , Federalist No. 39 for examples) as

1333-520: The northern province of so-called Royal Prussia , the three powers agreed on the First Partition of Poland. That was in light of the possible Austrian-Ottoman alliance with only token objections from Austria although it would have preferred to receive more Ottoman territories in the Balkans , a region that had long been coveted by the Habsburgs. The Russians also withdrew from Moldavia , away from

Polish Trade Company - Misplaced Pages Continue

1376-481: The partition tearing a map of Poland apart. The outer figures demanding their share are Catherine II of Russia and Frederick II of Prussia . The inner figure on the right is the Habsburg Emperor Joseph II , who appears ashamed of his action (although in reality, he was more of an advocate of the partition, and it was his mother, Maria Theresa , who was critical of the partition). On his right

1419-410: The proposal, Frederick suggested a partition of the Polish borderlands by Austria, Prussia and Russia, with the largest share going to Austria, the party most weakened by the recent changes in the balance of power. Thus, Frederick attempted to encourage Russia to direct its expansion towards a weak and dysfunctional Poland instead of the Ottomans. The Austrian statesman Wenzel Anton Graf Kaunitz made

1462-545: The regional balance of power in Central Europe among those three countries. With Poland unable to defend itself effectively and foreign troops already inside the country, the Polish Sejm ratified the partition in 1773 during the Partition Sejm , which was convened by the three powers. By the late 18th century, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had been reduced from the status of a European power to that of

1505-506: The rich salt mines of Bochnia and Wieliczka but not the city of Kraków itself, and the whole of Galicia . The Russian share , on the northeast, was the largest, but the least-important area economically. By the "diplomatic document", Russia came into possession of the commonwealth territories east of the line formed roughly by the Dvina , Drut , and Dnieper rivers, the section of Livonia that had remained in Commonwealth control after

1548-532: The sea and gained control of over 80% of the Commonwealth's total foreign trade. Through levying enormous customs duties, Prussia accelerated the inevitable collapse of the Commonwealth. The acquisition of Polish Royal Prussia also permitted Frederick to change his title from King in Prussia to King of Prussia. Despite token criticism of the partition from the Empress Maria Theresa, the Austrian statesman Wenzel Anton Graf Kaunitz considered

1591-462: The three partitioning powers demanded that King Stanisław August Poniatowski and the Sejm approve their action. The king appealed to the nations of Western Europe for help and tarried with the convocation of the Sejm. The European powers reacted to the partition with utmost indifference; only a few voices like Edmund Burke were raised in objection. When no help was forthcoming and the armies of

1634-558: The urban areas) were German-speaking Protestants. That condition in the next century would be used by nationalistic German historians to justify the partition, but it was irrelevant to contemporary calculations. Frederick was dismissive of German culture; he pursued an imperialist policy, acting on the security interests of his state with dynastic rather than national identity. The newly gained territories connected Prussia with Germany proper and had major economic importance. By seizing northwestern Poland, Prussia instantly cut off Poland from

1677-583: The winter of 1770–71 as a representative of the Prussian court at Saint Petersburg . As Austria had annexed the 13 Polish-held towns in the Hungarian Szepes region in 1769 in violation of the Treaty of Lubowla , Catherine II of Russia and her advisor General Ivan Chernyshyov suggested to Henry that Prussia claim some land currently held by Poland, such as Ermland. After Henry had informed him of

1720-619: Was a Polish banker of German burgher origin, merchant and industrial entrepreneur . Piotr Fergusson Tepper of Warsaw was the wealthiest banker in the second half of 18th century Poland. Tepper was the owner of a trading house and of landed estates in Mazovia and Volhynia . The principal lender of King Stanisław August Poniatowski and of the Treasury of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , in 1793 Tepper became bankrupt, along with several other Polish banks. Piotr Fergusson Tepper

1763-629: Was agricultural produce from fertile lands of Polish Ukraine (see chernozem ). From 1768 Poland was a de facto Russian Empire protectorate. Furthermore, as a result of the Russo-Turkish War (1768–74) , the Russians seized Black Sea coast together with the Crimea , and gained free pass of their ships through the Turkish Straits . Polish magnates decided to take advantage of this, and approached Russian government, asking for permission to use their Black Sea ports. In early 1783, Empress Catherine

Polish Trade Company - Misplaced Pages Continue

1806-536: Was appointed the Governor General of the new territories on May 28, 1772. By the first partition, the Commonwealth lost about 211,000 square kilometres (81,000 sq mi) (30% of its territory, amounting to about 733,000 square kilometres (283,000 sq mi)), with a population of over four to five million people, about a third of its population of fourteen million before the partitions. After they had occupied their respective territories,

1849-424: Was changed only for the passage through the straits. The development of Black Sea trade resulted in decrease in Polish exports through Baltic Sea ports of Gdańsk and Königsberg (Królewiec). Furthermore, prices of Ukrainian grains went up. The price of shares of the company was estimated at 1000 red zlotys , with maximum number of ten shares per a shareholder. Its statute allowed foreigners to purchase shares, and

#779220