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91-789: Historically, they were called the 'Ngone' below the Songwe River in British Nyasaland , and 'Nyakyusa' above the river in German territory. The two groups were identical in language and culture, so much so that the Germans referred to the Nyakyusa region above the Songwe River and people as ' Kone ', at least until 1935. According to their oral history, they traced their roots to an Ancient Nubian Queen called Nyanseba, She

182-452: A 'frivolous' attitude towards marriage, for few women of thirty were still married to their first husband and were very often on their fifth or sixth. Women spent thirty hours a week fetching wood, and only when co-wives were sisters, or an aunt or niece, were they expected to work together regularly. Intense competition for the position of favorite among a man's various wives was thought by the missionaries to be at least partly responsible for

273-470: A German expedition at Lugalo on 17 August 1891 and maintaining their resistance for seven years thereafter under the leadership of their chief Mkwawa . The use of Wahehe as the group's designator can be traced to their war cry, and was originally employed by their adversaries. The Wahehe themselves adopted it only after the Germans and British applied it consistently, but by then the term had acquired connotations of prestige (keeping in mind, of course,

364-542: A central plateau of Brachystegia woodland and, below the escarpment in the north-east, north and west beside the Great Ruaha River and its tributaries, dry plains covered with thorn scrub. With their armed opposition to German East Africa in mind, colonial descriptions would romanticise the Hehe as "these coarse, reserved mountain people […] a true warrior tribe who live only for war." Their power depended on

455-523: A ceremony of great pomp. All fires were now extinguished and new fires, kindled by friction, were lit. Since the sons were now new owners of a chiefdom, other princedoms were raided for cattle and food; they also raided their own father's land for milk, cattle, and bananas. Swaggering parades provided feasts, dances, the exhibition of beautiful bodies, and the physical strength of both men and women. Parading ornaments, fine clothes, or splendid cattle were all part of it. A father would say 'swagger first', if

546-564: A copper ring on his head for taunting them for their nakedness, wishing to have the kone working, buying cloth, earning money, and probably paying taxes, the Kone were defeated by superior firepower. Missionary Maaß reported seeing roughly 30 dead Kone in just one area. The entire revolt seems to have been blamed on Lt. Alpons and Missionary Cristoph Bunk of the Lutheran Missionary Gesellschaft for not having notified

637-610: A highland in southwestern Tanzania, northeast of Lake Nyasa (Lake Malawi), and had few ancestors who had been in Uhehe for more than four generations. With the exception of some pastoralists on the plains and some keeping a limited number of cattle and goats , the Wahehe were primarily an agricultural people. In the beginning they seemed to have lived in relative peace, although the various chiefs did quarrel with one another, raided each other for cattle and broke alliances. The population

728-426: A lively fear of witchcraft, lasting a lifetime. When a man was convicted of witchcraft he could be forced to move from a village and sometimes from the chiefdom. A woman was generally divorced, but soon remarried. Rarely was a supposed witch killed, for a witch was too useful in war to be lost to the chiefdom. If there were doubts regarding accusations of witchcraft, 'Umwafi' was resorted to. If, in drinking Umwafi,

819-523: A military kingdom. They just raided for their neighbor's cattle, leaving the missionaries confused. The Nyakyusa were primarily herders and banana cultivators, with cattle and milk being most important. Small cattle, being their greatest pride, were tied up at night and milked only by the men. Women were not allowed to have anything to do with cattle, and played no part in public life. They were expect to show obedience, respect, and use 'yes, my lord' when addressed, and were reported to be totally dominated by

910-431: A number of immense shady sycamores with branches almost as large as a separate tree. Every few spaces are charmingly neat circucular huts, with conical roofs, and walls hanging out all round with the clay worked prettily into rounded bricks, and daubed symmetrically with spots. (These have always been considered normal and typical, but due to the German 'hut tax' the rectangular huts began to dominate) The grass thatching

1001-551: A person did not vomit, he or she was thought to be guilty. Doubters claimed that each family chose members who vomited easily. At times entire groups of people were tested with the 'Umwafi Ordeal' in order to see where the trouble was coming from. According to Monica Wilson the last case seems to have been in 1932. Songwe River The Songwe River is a river that forms the international boundary between Malawi and Songwe Region , Tanzania . The songwe region in Tanzania

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1092-632: A praise-name of the madness of the year ". It was Mkwawa who, by 1880 or 1881, became the sole ruler of Uhehe through war and intimidation. Mkwawa continued expanding Hehe power northwards toward the central caravan routes and afflicting the Wagogo , the Wakaguru , the Germans , etc., and in the south and east, anyone in their way, not least of all their old enemies the Wasangu, who then began turning to

1183-463: A son wished to marry young. Since a bachelor was thought to be a fiercer warrior than a married man, marriages were often delayed, for while urbanity and good temper were praised, readiness to fight was a valuable quality useful in war. 'We did not drive away violent men in the old days; they will fight with us in the future.' Swagger display was felt to be appropriate, particularly in bachelors, but married men also fought with skill, and none developed

1274-503: A station to protect the trading town of Kondoa. He erected his fort a little west of the town early in November 1891 and called it Kilosa . In May 1892 he established another station at Kisaki . From these strongpoints he began raiding into territory which Mkwawa had conquered on both sides of the Great Ruaha River. Mkwawa was not intimidated, and his forces destroyed a German detachment near Kilosa on 6 October 1892. Governor Soden left

1365-442: A wife. Although judges (headmen) were subject to bribery (and at times quite willing to accept it), there was a recognized system of courts and law enforcement. Punishment remained fairly simple but had at least some variety. There were penalties of varied types, such as fines or penance , the death sentence, beatings, and the seldom used expulsion from the chiefdom. (excepting the death penalty, crippling or anything attacking

1456-558: A young man often came home alone to eat, his father could beat him, or even take a spear and wound him. Isolates were not easily tolerated. The following is from M. Wilson, 'This great fool comes alone to my place, again and again, it is good to eat with friends or go around in groups of four or five.' Eating with age-mates was considered right, proper, and moral. It was considered improper, unseemly, and somewhat immoral to eat with juniors or women. Women ate alone with their young children and unmarried daughters. Sexual morality depended on

1547-632: Is a Bantu ethnolinguistic group based in Iringa Region in south-central Tanzania , speaking the Bantu Hehe language . In 2006, the Hehe population was estimated at 805,000, up from the just over 250,000 recorded in the 1957 census when they were the eighth largest tribe in Tanganyika. There were an additional 4,023 of them in Uganda in 2014. Historically, they are famous for vanquishing

1638-514: Is also very neat. The 'tout ensemble' renders these huts a place in any nobleman's garden." Merensky, in Deutsch Arbeit am Nyaßa , quotes a missionary: "We wandered through magnificent banana groves and elegant, cleanly built huts of our Nyakyusa. When one contemplates the people it appears as though they celebrated a festival every day. They look as clean as though they knew no work. One sees women and children picking fallen fruit from

1729-484: Is cultivated intensively with rice and other crops. 9°43′07″S 33°56′18″E  /  9.7186°S 33.9383°E  / -9.7186; 33.9383 This article related to a river in Malawi is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article related to a river in Tanzania is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Hehe people The Hehe ( Swahili collective: Wahehe )

1820-691: Is named after the river. The Songwe's headwaters are where the borders of Malawi, Tanzania, and Zambia meet. It flows southeast to empty into Lake Nyasa . The middle course separates Malawi's Misuku Hills from the Umalila Mountains in Songwe Region Tanzania. The lower course flows through the Kyela Plain , a fertile lowland lying northwest of Lake Malawi the valley of the East African Rift . The Kyela Plain

1911-480: Is said to be in the process of returning them. Muambeneke refuses to return his stolen cattle etc. saying he does not even know the 'White' (Elz) in Rumbira (Langenburg), maybe you wish the cattle etc. etc.... May I point out that the protectorate forces have not yet introduced themselves as the higher judiciary to the black population, there is no present concept of the difference between the protectorate forces and

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2002-597: Is set among the Hehe and Nyakyusa people of Africa, and claims to be based on the funereal rituals of these tribes. At his father's death, the protagonist, Danny, is required by custom to have sex with all seven of his widowed stepmothers in one night. By 1897 the Germans were no longer happy with their status in East Africa and we have what can be called the Kone Revolt of 1897 , the three cornered dispute between

2093-445: The spear and on the disciplined force of their armed citizens. Even after firearms became more important the spear remained their chief weapon, for on the open plains the use of spears still had the advantage. The defense of a boma behind palisades or walls with rifles was not their strong point, tactics and a sudden mass spear attack was. Military organization remained the most important part of Wahehe life and every adult male

2184-557: The 'Power of the Python', the 'Breath of Man', the 'curse', or general public opinion. No-one admitted to having python power: it would have been boastful, proud, and ill-mannered. It was not just the lack of hospitality that shocked people and could bring on the 'Breath of Man'. Bad behavior towards parents or in-laws, swearing at or hitting a husband, having children after a daughter-in law has reached puberty, and indications of pride, could all bring on lingering illness. Still, in general

2275-896: The Europeans. Henceforth they should employ deceit to murder their opponents." The Hehe took Mpangile at his word, and Uhehe was soon in rebellion. Mkwawa conducted a very effective guerrilla operation, making use of the rugged terrain to avoid pitched battles with the large German force arrayed against him. Eduard von Liebert , who had recently taken up the post of governor, was a military man with no experience of African warfare. In July and August 1897 he personally led an expedition to Uhehe, which proved inconclusive. As Liebert later conceded, I have had practical experience of warfare in Bohemia and France, and for thirty years I have never ceased to occupy myself with military science, and especially with military history, but what I encountered here in Uhehe

2366-416: The Germans for support. By 1890, the Hehe were the strongest most dominant power in the southeast and began conflicting with that other raiding power, the Germans. 'The Hehe' had no elaborate organization but did have the flexibility to make difficulties for their enemies. Sub Chief Motomkali Mukini ″Mkini″ was assigned to rule and during his reign had established a military base used to recruit and train at

2457-483: The Germans in a pitched battle. In September Prince established a new station at Iringa , about twelve kilometres east of Mkwawa's destroyed fortress at Kalenga. To permanently weaken the Hehe kingdom, Prince divided it into two parts. In the western half, the Sangu chief, Merere, was installed as ruler on 10 December 1896. In the eastern half, Mkwawa's brother, Mpangile, was installed as ruler on 24 December. Although Mkwawa

2548-542: The Germans. —Conclusions of a Meeting of the Cabinet , 20 May 1925 "Of scientific literature on British East Africa", remarked John Walter Gregory in 1896, "there is unfortunately little to record. There is nothing which can compare with the magnificent series of works issued in description of German East Africa […] The history of the exploration of Equatorial Africa is one to which Englishmen can look back with feelings of such just pride, that we may ungrudgingly admit

2639-405: The Great Ruaha River and into the highlands of Uhehe. On 17 August 1891 the Germans were ambushed at Lugalo by a force of several thousand Hehe, commanded by Mkwawa's brother, Mpangile. Only three of the thirteen Europeans survived, and around eighty percent of their African troops were killed. Zelewski was among the fallen. The Hehe also lost many men, and the surviving Germans retreated back towards

2730-488: The Konde were thought of as brave and intelligent. Witches are usually described as isolated and unpopular, proud men who treated neighbors with disdain and were silent in public, and women who were glum and failed to greet other women and inquire after their children. Witches seldom acted without reason: they act from greed or hatred, and against those with whom they have a grudge. Beginning with childhood, most Nyakyusa have

2821-563: The Ngoni invasion. The Nyakyusa stood naked before evil. Notions of reward and punishment in an after-life were lacking. Religion was this-worldly and concerned with fertility and prosperity. They feared punishment on this earth; and according to Monica Wilson 'a woman's barrenness was the result of her failings and she would be oppressed with guilt'. Only the coming of Christianity did the fear of burning in hell appear with rewards and punishments reserved for an after-life. The traditional god of

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2912-570: The Nyakusa and some of the Kinga chiefs had gotten together to rid the land of all missionaries and other whites. The German authorities were late in learning of the plot from the missionaries who had not pass the information on. Lt. Alpons claimed he went with a troop of forty-five Askari who were then ambushedby more than two thousand Kone ( Hehe style ), who being certain of victory did not use their spears, for they wanted to strip Alpons naked and put

3003-634: The Nyakyusa people is called Kyala, which is the name for God in the Nyakyusa language , however, they also speak Swahili , so they also call their god Mungu. Medicines were important in winning success, cultivation, herding, hunting, love, war, treatment of the sick, protection and retaliation, or even directly harming an enemy and defending against witches. It could be used against a thief or adulterer or put on houses or fields to bring ills quite legally. Medicine could be good or evil, legal or illegal, and able help or to harm. Belief in existence of witches

3094-476: The administration of justice to missionaries in 'trifles and punishment', forcing affairs to really hit the fan on December 2, 1893, with Lutheran Missionary Schumann writing, "Five cattle have been stolen by Muambeneke on the Rungue-Mountain. I have tried to influence Muambeneke, with however, no results." Missionary Schumann continues, "On December 23, 1893 a different chief had also stolen cattle but

3185-504: The age of ten or eleven the boys herded their father's cattle in groups, then hoed the field of their fathers and continued to eat their mother's food. They no longer slept in the houses of their fathers but joined an age-grade village of boys with a separate leader, laws, and customs and could be considered members of two villages. Men and boys were expected to eat regularly with age-mates and were encouraged to bring home two or three friends to eat; parents being proud when they did so, for if

3276-486: The beginning of the rainy season, the Nyakyusa assemble at a place called ' Chikungu ' where their chief Kyungu calls for rain. All villagers are told not to light fire in their homes in the morning of the ritual rain-calling ceremony. All the villagers wait for the sacred fire from the shrine called moto ufya to be distributed. Arbitration in disputes by a friend or neighbor is considered very important. The headman or prince had no power to enforce decisions and while there

3367-413: The caravan route. Lieutenant Maximilian von Tettenborn, who had been in command of the rearguard, was the senior surviving officer. On 30 August he wrote Governor von Soden a letter from Miyombo, just south of modern Kilosa. He reported the attack in the following terms: The column and the artillery had just reached this thicket when a signal shot was heard. Immediately the Hehe appeared on either side of

3458-539: The colony early in 1893. His successor was Friedrich von Schele , a military officer of hawkish instincts but limited ability. The Germans built alliances with the Bena and Sangu peoples whose lands adjoined Uhehe, and Governor Schele led a large expedition which approached Uhehe from the south, reaching Mkwawa's strongly fortified position at Kalenga (west of modern Iringa) late in October 1894. Fortunately for Schele, he

3549-446: The column in large numbers, not more than thirty paces away. With wild cries they advanced upon us in a frenzy. Our soldiers were able to fire only once or twice before the enemy were among them. The confusion was increased by the headlong flight of the donkeys transporting the artillery. The animals charged into the 5th Company. We could not restrain our men from fleeing, and the enemy pursued them vigorously. The severe defeat at Lugalo

3640-528: The expense of the Wasangu , using the Sangu's own military tactics and even utilizing forms of the Sangu language to properly rouse Hehe warriors to battle. Munyigumba even forced the Wasangu, under Merere II , to move their capital to Usafwa . With Munyigumba's death in 1878 or 1879, a civil war broke out and a Nyamwezi slave , married to Munyigumba's sister, was able to kill Munyigumba's brother, leaving

3731-677: The good customs and habits of the tribe," the Nyakyusa Union was established in 1942. European travelers, being strongly impressed with cleanliness and neatness, seem to have found it north of Lake Nyasa. Joseph Thomson , in To the Central African Lakes and Back (1881), comes close to describing the Nyakyusa, "It seemed a perfect Arcadia .... Imagine a perfectly level plain, from which all weeds, garbage, and things unsightly are carefully cleared away. Dotted here and there are

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3822-480: The ground while men and young people walk mostly hand in hand.... The entire image gives a charming picture, really more lovely than words can express." Missionary Richard is quoted in much the same way. "One could imagine being in a garden on Lake Geneva ." Quoting Major von Wissmann, "They are as happy as Africans can be...modest, hospitable, and have until now been able to keep dangerous enemies off of their necks and keep their independence." The film Mother Night

3913-411: The head could still be seen: the small face with unusual slit-like eyes which were however comparatively large, the strong nose, the thick lips, of which the lower hung noticeably downwards, almost as far as the strongly protruding, energetic chin. This chin, the thick lips, and the thrusting jaws gave the head a distinct air of cruelty and willpower. The Germans sent Mkwawa's head to Germany. Mkwawa and

4004-456: The health of the individual, or any type of failing was unknown to the Wahehe.) The village headman was authorized for lighter cases, such as theft or other crimes against property, adultery, personal injury, etc., with the more difficult cases being sent further up the line in the direction of the 'sultan', especially those needing a test administrated by poison. All cases were presented orally and open to all. (Only trials of high treason against

4095-757: The health of the village. The chief's advisers were never his kinsmen, but only non-hereditary commoners with considerable power over the chief. The Nyakyusa were a colonizing people where success and survival depended on individual effort. According to M. Wilson slavery was reported as being totally unknown in 1892, although the slave trade certainly existed in the vicinity of the Konde of Karonga. They lived in very small chiefdoms, not in groups of relatives, but in groups of age-mates attempting to live in harmony to avoid misfortune. The Nyakyusa were eager agriculturists. They practiced intensive crop rotation with corn, beans, squash, sorghum , millet , yams, etc., with banana plantations stretching for miles. Clearing and hoeing

4186-414: The hospitality on which the Nyakyusa community rested and depended. Great stress was placed on geniality and praise was placed on man for being a good mixer. Considerable pressure compelled both men and women to cultivate diligently, but not too conspicuously for each must keep in step with his neighbors. Pressure helped keep laggards up to the mark and kept the energetic from getting too far ahead. There

4277-472: The inhabitants were outside—within their own palisades, protected by the guns of the fort. It is said that slave raids were conducted almost within sight of Karonga, leaving the Nyakyusa and others uncertain as to whether or not to support Mlozi or a European power. Three hundred to five hundred warriors finally supported England . Karonga was important as England's main support base for the 'Stephenson Road', from Lake Nyasa to Lake Tanganyika , which by 1892

4368-405: The land three to four hours a day was the responsibility of the men and his sons, never the women. The crops were used for food, beer, and hospitality, as well as for sale and barter. Neither old age nor high status excused a man from his duty to hoe. They were said to fear leaving their area for concern of being unable to exist without their accustomed food of meat, milk, bananas etc. Each year at

4459-406: The law and morality. Defenders worked through dreams at night. They were powerful, using their power to punish wrongdoers and acted particularly to protect cattle, for all lived on bananas, beans, and the milk of cattle, and even though witches could avoid defenders they were considered pillars of society. They could see and drive away witches and cause them or their children to fall ill, all through

4550-435: The legal system, traditions, and customs to have been quite sophisticated. It is true, however, that all authority came from the chief's will and that conquered chiefdoms were not assimilated but were held by for force, brutality, and fear. Whether one considers the state to be unsophisticated or not, the state was at the same time successful and durable. A visitor it was repeatedly said, could sense an arrogant confidence that

4641-417: The low status of women, which was still considered higher than other tribes. Age-groups dominated their whole lives. Boys guarded the fields and cattle and lived in separate camps starting at about ten years of age and lasting a lifetime. Since the women married much earlier than the men, incest was of great concern to the Nyakyusa and was resolved by putting fathers in one village and sons in another. Up to

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4732-416: The men, but were still thought, by the missionaries, to have a position higher and better than that of other tribes. Cattle for bridewealth , however, were considered vital and gave men even more control, even though the missionaries assumed the position of women was not bad. While the Nyakyusa were expert mat makers, they produced no pots, cloth, iron, or salt, and trade remained very small. The only trade

4823-490: The military, missionaries and the Nyakyusa with some Kinga , including the involvement of German Safari Conductor Bauer. Zugführer Bauer was personally acquainted with Baron v. Eltz , and almost all of the missionaries in the area, and at least some of the Chiefs. Almost everyone knew Bauer but few knew his rank. (Even Charsley in his book lists him as a lieutenant.) Von Eltz , who had no Askari available, decided to cede

4914-708: The military. The missionaries claimed Lt. Alpons had deliberately provoked the Konde. As a result Missionry Bunk was transferred to Ubena and Lt. Alpons was recalled as district commander. Collectively, the Nyakyusa are traditionally thought of as being related to the Kinga of the Livingston Mountains, who had themselves spread westwards as immigrants. 'Nobles', ruling the land, were credited with divine powers, lived in strict religious seclusion, their chiefs (Princes), being strangled by their councillors in old age or illness in order to maintain rain, fertility, and

5005-696: The mission Manow. As Bauer listened to their complaints they abruptly dismissed him. On November 5, 1894 he (Bauer) reports, "Muarukwa was not in agreement with the return of 10 cattle saying the Europeans in Langenburg had nothing to do with it". The issue ended as Bauer burned down this village and taking away the cattle, thereby killing five men and three women. The situation is completely out of hand by 1897 with Chief Makelimba having two Askari 'murdered' on February 5, with Bauer barely getting away (knapper Not Davon) and by December 1897, following Bauer' departure for Germany (he may have smelled trouble coming)

5096-473: The missionaries' point of view, they found 'fireside company' very important and stressed the obligation of eating and drinking together with urban manners and friendliness. They found merry conversation to be a discussion between equals, finding it to be an outstanding example of the sustainable comfort obtainable in African life within a simple Iron Age culture. Cultivation carried prestige and provided for

5187-405: The missionaries. In the eyes of the inhabitants they are one and the same." (this last probably refers to Bauer.) "I (Schumann) have even been accused of judging with a gun in my hand." August 8, 1894 Zugführer Bauer writes that Häuptling Makiemba said, "If one wanted somethingh from him than the Germans should come to him for he was afraid of Nyassa (Lake?). On the other hand if we wanted war he

5278-632: The need to often take cover. Not only were there unfriendly villages, but also because leopards, elephants, buffalos, hippos, crocodiles, etc., were plentiful. Before the arrival of German missionaries, the Nyakyusa just 'cast their dead away' or left them at 'itago' to die. The women were dominated by the older men. They lived at their husband's residence, married ten years earlier than the men, lacked solidarity, developed little leadership, and had no kinsmen to protect their interests. Missionaries reported adultery, divorce, litigation, and marital instability to be widespread. The Nyakyusa were accused of having

5369-460: The north and east at the same time the Germans were building stations along the central caravan route between the coast and Tabora . Those groups recognizing and accepting German supremacy (showing the German flag) were then brutally attacked, looted, and otherwise destroyed. After futile German attempts to negotiate with them, an expedition was sent out under the leadership of commander Emil von Zelewski . The civilian governor, Julius von Soden ,

5460-539: The northern fringes of Uhehe. Prince was on leave in Germany from the end of 1895 until his return to Dar es Salaam in May 1896. He had been promoted to captain, and with his new bride, the former Magdalene von Massow, he set out to establish a new station at Perondo, in the southeast foothills of the Uhehe plateau. In August 1896 Prince advanced into Uhehe. He encountered some resistance, but Mkwawa retreated, unwilling to meet

5551-618: The place so called Ihumitangu , meaning the place where colonial fighters were trained . He was succeeded by his son Galakwila Motomkali Mkini. The Wahehe reside primarily in Uhehe, an area that: lies between the Great Ruaha and Kilombero rivers, in the Usungwa mountains and the plateaux which lie in the northern part of the area known as the Southern Highlands . It includes areas of rainforest, high rolling grasslands,

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5642-475: The protection of life and property, although the selection of weapons indicates they also organized for war. Missionary Nauhaus was told of a boundary dispute in November, 1893, in which six men fell on one side and only one on the other. Such friction was not called war, "I was told it only happens so that there would be something to talk about". Outside the chiefdom the world could also be dangerous. A journey of twenty-five miles could take three days because of

5733-442: The separation of the sexual activities, 'If he sleeps at home he will hear what his parents talk about at night, the night is always full of lewd talk; he may even see them undressing. He will grow up a fool.' Once again > Wilson When an oversupply of young bachelors and a shortage of unmarried girls was created, it was resolved by forming another settlement. It was only after a young man had his wife permanently with him that he

5824-735: The state of regular war between the Konde Chiefs and the Arabs. In 1895 the British hanged Mlozi, a slave trader. Finally the area was incorporated as ' British Central Africa ', with Karonga itself fortified with palisades on the lake and defended on the other three sides with trenches, which could be swept from brick bastions . Gates protected the trenches of the fort with two cannons, one Norden field machine-gun, and 300 to 400 armed inhabitants, who were ready even during peacetime. Administrators and warehouses were to be found inside—the houses of

5915-401: The station at Iringa. Magdalene Prince recorded that Tom took a photograph of Mkwawa's head. No European can claim to have seen Mkwawa's face before, and even in death this most powerful and energetic of all native princes would not allow his mortal enemies to see his real face, because he shot himself in the head and his features had thus been deformed. Nonetheless the characteristic features of

6006-524: The sultan were held in secret.) Two male witnesses were thought sufficient for most 'normal' cases while it was thought that three to five were necessary with female witnesses. There could be verdicts for betraying or offending the state or its leader, giving false witness, adultery, (one female witness was sufficient, with a fine of one to three head of cattle) incest (very seldom if ever used, since females were quite often married between 10 and 13 years of age and needed three to five witnesses), rape (only

6097-445: The superiority of German scientific work in this region." It is no surprise, therefore, that most of the important sources for the history of the Hehe are German. Once German East Africa was split between the British and Belgian empires after World War I , the interest of German scholars waned, and the British chose not to continue their research. The people who were eventually to be called Hehe by Europeans , lived in isolation on

6188-608: The term's roots in Hehe warfare and the victory over the Germans of 1891). It appeared from the Report of the East Africa Commission that, from the point of view of research, the British record in Tanganyika might be exposed to criticism by an international Commission, insomuch as, from reasons of pressing economy following the War, it had been found necessary to suppress the research establishment previously maintained by

6279-402: The traditional community activity. People continued to use bark, home-woven cloth, or animal skins, at least until German calico came in. The chief's power depended upon his right to demand food, high bride price for his daughters, and the anticipation of entertainment. It was the Nyakyusa's practice to work together in community groups, each family doing so two or three times each year. From

6370-465: The types of forbidden food from the father. A Wahehe could not marry anyone with the same praise name and the same forbidden food, even if the relationship could not be traced, and could not marry anyone related through the female line. There was, however, a preference for marrying cross cousins . Most communities contained many households who were related to one another. Two cows and a bull were considered important parts of bride-wealth to be given for

6461-460: The unhappy prospect of dealing with Munyigumba's son Mkwawa . Mkwawa killed the Nyamwezi slave, Mwumbambe, at a location called the "place where heads are piled up", and Mkwawa took center stage, a stage that he continued to dominate until the end of the 19th century. John Iliffe describes Mkwawa in his book A Modern History of Tanganyika as "slender, sharply intelligent, brutal, and cruel with

6552-761: The victim was needed as a witness), murder , manslaughter , vendetta , theft, agricultural theft, receiving stolen goods, and swindling were all parts of the judicial concept and had penalties associated with them. If a divorce took place, the husband was entitled to take all weaned children away from their mother and the mother's family was expected to return the bride-wealth. In spite of this, wives frequently obtained divorces, usually after they had already made arrangements with another man. The state's strength and power lay in its warriors and their spears, which made it not only disciplined and victorious, but also provided unity and identity, allowing everyone to join in its impressive successes. The Wahehe were expanding towards

6643-418: The witches always went naked, flew through the air riding their pythons. Some people in a village had the power to see and fight witches in their dreams and were called 'defenders', the most important being the village headmen. The visions and power of the defenders came from the same source as the witches and pythons. The defenders worked within the law and morality, while the witches acted selfishly against

6734-401: Was a great setback to German military prestige, and significantly depleted the colony's military forces, but Governor Soden resisted the urge for revenge. In a letter to the German chancellor dated 17 November 1892 he wrote, "we should at least have digested the coast before we devoured the interior." Military expeditions into Uhehe were prohibited, but Lieutenant Tom Prince was sent to establish

6825-427: Was a warrior. The youngest lived in the capital, Iringa , where semi-professional warriors trained them. By the 1890s the Hehe had an immediate following of 2,000 to 3,000 men, with another 20,000 men of fighting age who could be mobilized from their scattered homesteads that by 1800 were normally surrounded by large maize fields. It was only later when their military reputation alone was no longer enough and warfare

6916-474: Was abducted by a warrior and a herdsmen, it is said the herdsmen turned the rulership of Empresses to Emperors, but the power and influence of women among the Nyakyusa can be seen through in their traditions the Boys take their mother’s clan name while the girls take their father’s clan name. the mushan are one of nyakyusa clan The Scots had founded Karonga in 1875. In 1889, the treaties of Harry Johnston reduced

7007-416: Was able to have his own fields and eat its produce. Cultivation of land demanded the cooperation of a man and a woman, while elaborate cooking demanded a woman. Until the man was married he still worked his father's fields and ate at his father's house. When the oldest sons of a chief reached thirty-three to thirty-five years of age the father handed over the country's government to them in the 'coming out',

7098-594: Was able to report on the capture of Mkwawa's camp in the Udzungwa Mountains . He noted that "Many of these people were just skin and bones. In this whole camp of 1,000 souls we did not find a single bag of corn. Even in Mkwawa's hut there were only sweet potatoes." Mkwawa was increasingly isolated, and hotly pursued. He killed himself and his last companion on 19 July 1898, not far north of Kalenga. Sergeant-Major Hans Merkl cut off Mkwawa's head and took it back to

7189-431: Was accompanied by the very able Tom Prince, who led the attack on Kalenga on 30 October. The fortress was stormed, but Mkwawa and most of his warriors were able to escape. Schele made no attempt to establish a permanent presence in Uhehe and returned to the coast, largely negating the purpose of the expedition. There was then an uneasy peace between Mkwawa and the Germans, although Prince continued to conduct operations on

7280-431: Was actually a threat, did they begin to consolidate their villages and begin to build their homes closer together. Only after the wars ended did they once again build further apart with each homestead ideally surrounded by their own fields, larger houses for their many wives were built and could be surrounded by an open courtyard. While Iliffe considers the Wahehe state to have been unsophisticated, Lt. Nigmann considered

7371-417: Was already falling apart due to a lack of funds. The British established a council of chiefs in 1933 and referred to it as the tribal system after their attempt to impose supremacy over this largely stateless people failed. The newly created Nyakyusa tribe quickly rose to prominence as a powerful political force, supported by a distinctive culture, a single language, and utter isolation. In order to "preserve

7462-458: Was beyond anything which has yet been seen … I had originally imagined that I would make my journey into the interior of the colony with just a horsewhip in my hand, and that I would travel through most places largely without violence. To destroy support for Mkwawa, the Germans instituted a scorched-earth policy in Uhehe, reducing much of the population to starvation. Early in January 1898 Prince

7553-492: Was no attempt to quiet a quarrel it is considered most proper to arrive at a settlement through some group opinion of equals, established before adolescence, resting on friendship, assistance, and cooperation. There were no clans, or descent groups with a common name and by the third generation kinship bonds were often forgotten. Tradition rarely mentions warfare, although boundary disputes were normal and could lead to fights. Hunters, not warriors, were heroes, and they hunted for

7644-561: Was not enthusiastic about the plan, but acquiesced. Zelewski left Kilwa in July 1891 with four companies, but when he reached the Rufiji River he sent the company under the command of Lieutenant Tom Prince back to Dar es Salaam, telling Prince that three companies would be sufficient to deal with the Hehe, because "these fellows do not even have rifles, only shields and spears." Zelewski led his troops onwards, with little resistance, across

7735-414: Was not found elsewhere, and Hehe identity has survived all colonial pressures. Women captured in war were given to important men, (some men having as many as ten to twenty) who then did almost all of the subsistence agriculture, carried water, and all building material, their housing being well insulated against the violent extremes of heat and cold. A child received his family name, (the praise name) and

7826-412: Was pertinent in the world view of the Nyakyusa. It was believed that certain people flew on pythons, harming people and cattle at night. These witches inherited their power and pythons from a parent, and greed was the typical motive for harming men and cattle. Pythons lusted for the meat and milk available at the funeral of those killed. Sexual dreams were not thought to come from witchcraft, even though

7917-511: Was probably small, with no chiefdom over 5,000 people. By the middle of the 19th century, however, Nguruhe , one of the more important chiefdoms led by the Muyinga dynasty, began to push its weight around and expand its influence and power. It was Munyigumbe , of the Muyinga family, who began to create the beginnings of a 'state' by both marriage and conquest . A good deal of this was at

8008-414: Was ready". Governor Scheele writes "...Provisionally no company is to be sent there...". Finally in October 1894 Bauer reports taking cattle away from Chief Masakiwande and burning the village down because of cattle theft and even though many inhabitants brought their grievances to him to be adjudicated he could find none to act as porters and in the confusion ten Askari were forced to drag Bauer's loads to

8099-418: Was some small trade between the various small Nyakyusa princedoms. However, economic links between princes was flimsy at best and exchanges were most commonly within a chiefdom. There was actually very little trade between the various chiefdoms, for a state of war always existed among the Nyakyusa, whether actual or potential. The weakness of any central authority was indicated by the recurrent civil wars before

8190-407: Was still at large, Prince deceived himself that the Hehe were now largely pacified. The situation soon deteriorated. Mpangile was secretly in contact with Mkwawa, and when Prince discovered this, he had Mpangile executed on 22 February 1897. A local missionary described the execution: "The mood of the people was not pleasant. From the scaffold, Mpangile urged the Hehe to join Mkwawa in waging war on

8281-467: Was with the Kinga when the Nyakyusa exchanged their surplus food for weapons and agricultural implements of considerable artistic merit. While the trade in weapons and tools with the Kinga was important, marriage partners with Kinga women was not, for Kinga women were considered too dirty to marry. The outbreak of rinderpest may not have devastated their herds until 1892–1896. The protection of cattle from raiders by day and witches by night, long remained

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