The way
70-719: The "goal" Background Chinese texts Classical Post-classical Contemporary Zen in Japan Seon in Korea Thiền in Vietnam Western Zen Seon or Sŏn Buddhism ( Korean : 선 ; Hanja : 禪 ; Korean pronunciation: [sʌn] ) is the Korean name for Chan Buddhism , a branch of Mahāyāna Buddhism commonly known in English as Zen Buddhism . Seon
140-426: A spoken language . Since the turn of the 21st century, aspects of Korean culture have spread to other countries through globalization and cultural exports . As such, interest in Korean language acquisition (as a foreign language ) is also generated by longstanding alliances, military involvement, and diplomacy, such as between South Korea–United States and China–North Korea since the end of World War II and
210-615: A "sudden enlightenment followed by gradual practice" dictum, which he outlined in a few relatively concise and accessible texts. Jinul incorporated Dahui Zonggao's gwanhwa ( 觀話 ; guān huà , "observing the critical phrase") into his practice. This form of meditation is the main method taught in Korean Seon today. Jinul's philosophical resolution of the Seon-Gyo conflict brought a deep and lasting effect on Korean Buddhism. Jinul's successor, Chin’gak Hyesim (혜심/慧諶) further emphasized
280-484: A Korean influence on Khitan. The hypothesis that Korean could be related to Japanese has had some supporters due to some overlap in vocabulary and similar grammatical features that have been elaborated upon by such researchers as Samuel E. Martin and Roy Andrew Miller . Sergei Starostin (1991) found about 25% of potential cognates in the Japanese–Korean 100-word Swadesh list . Some linguists concerned with
350-524: A contemporary of Mazu Daoyi (709–788). Sayings to the effect that Shitou and Mazu were the two great masters of their day date from decades after their respective deaths. Shítóu's retrospective prominence owes much to the importance of Dongshan Liangjie . Shítóu does not appear to have been influential or famous during his lifetime: He was a little-known teacher who led a reclusive life and had relatively few disciples. For decades after Shitou's death, his lineage remained an obscure provincial tradition. In
420-480: A core vowel. The IPA symbol ⟨ ◌͈ ⟩ ( U+0348 ◌͈ COMBINING DOUBLE VERTICAL LINE BELOW ) is used to denote the tensed consonants /p͈/, /t͈/, /k͈/, /t͡ɕ͈/, /s͈/ . Its official use in the extensions to the IPA is for "strong" articulation, but is used in the literature for faucalized voice . The Korean consonants also have elements of stiff voice , but it is not yet known how typical this
490-472: A meditative method of Chan Buddhism in 1205. In Chan Buddhism, hwadu ( 화두 ; 話頭 ) is a delivery of realising a natural state of the Awakening. Jinul addressed a doctrine of Sagyo Yiepseon ( 사교입선 ; 捨敎入禪 ) that monks should live an inborn life after learning and forgetting all creeds and theories. Within the doctrine of Jinul, hwadu is the witnessing of truthful meaning in everyday life. During
560-474: A mere thirty-six. Limits were placed on the number of clergy, land area, and ages for entering the sangha. When the final restrictions were in place, monks and nuns were prohibited from entering the cities. Buddhist funerals, and even begging, were outlawed. A few rulers temporarily lifted the more suppressive regulations. The most noteworthy of these was the Queen Munjeong . The queen had deep respect for
630-523: A number of major monastic centers, as well as being taught at Dongguk University , which has a major of studies in this religion. The largest Buddhist denomination is the Jogye Order . In the 1980s a debate arose about "sudden" versus "gradual" enlightenment" . Since Jinul Korean Seon was based on the integration of practice and scholarly study in the slogan "sudden enlightenment, gradual cultivation". The modern Korean Seon master Seongcheol revived
700-521: A possible relationship.) Hudson & Robbeets (2020) suggested that there are traces of a pre- Nivkh substratum in Korean. According to the hypothesis, ancestral varieties of Nivkh (also known as Amuric ) were once distributed on the Korean Peninsula before the arrival of Koreanic speakers. Korean syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), consisting of an optional onset consonant, glide /j, w, ɰ/ and final coda /p, t, k, m, n, ŋ, l/ surrounding
770-595: A status it still holds. Taego Bou studied the Linji school in China and returned to unite the Nine Mountain Schools. There would be a series of important Seon teachers during the next several centuries, such as Hyegeun ( 혜근 ; 慧勤 ), Taego Bou , Gihwa and Hyujeong , who continued to develop the basic mold of Korean meditational Buddhism established by Jinul. At the end of Goryeo and during Joseon
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#1732765677627840-656: Is an agglutinative language . The Korean language is traditionally considered to have nine parts of speech . Modifiers generally precede the modified words, and in the case of verb modifiers, can be serially appended. The sentence structure or basic form of a Korean sentence is subject–object–verb (SOV), but the verb is the only required and immovable element and word order is highly flexible, as in many other agglutinative languages. Question 가게에 gage-e store- LOC 가셨어요? ga-syeo-sseo-yo go- HON . PAST - CONJ - POL 가게에 가셨어요? gage-e ga-syeo-sseo-yo store-LOC go-HON.PAST-CONJ-POL 'Did [you] go to
910-628: Is an elected position with an initial ten year term limit. Pangjangs can also be recalled by a vote. Lachs feels this model is instructive, as it would remove much of the hierarchy and idealization of the teacher so prevalent in American Zen centers, which follow more the Japanese style. According to Robert Buswell, in Korean Sŏn, the "master-student relationship is not nearly as formal and restrictive as we might suspect from most Western accounts of
980-511: Is closer to a near-open central vowel ( [ɐ] ), though ⟨a⟩ is still used for tradition. Grammatical morphemes may change shape depending on the preceding sounds. Examples include -eun/-neun ( -은/-는 ) and -i/-ga ( -이/-가 ). Sometimes sounds may be inserted instead. Examples include -eul/-reul ( -을/-를 ), -euro/-ro ( -으로/-로 ), -eseo/-seo ( -에서/-서 ), -ideunji/-deunji ( -이든지/-든지 ) and -iya/-ya ( -이야/-야 ). Some verbs may also change shape morphophonemically. Korean
1050-399: Is mainly reserved for specific circumstances such as newspapers, scholarly papers and disambiguation. Today Hanja is largely unused in everyday life but is still important for historical and linguistic studies. The Korean names for the language are based on the names for Korea used in both South Korea and North Korea. The English word "Korean" is derived from Goryeo , which is thought to be
1120-399: Is of faucalized consonants. They are produced with a partially constricted glottis and additional subglottal pressure in addition to tense vocal tract walls, laryngeal lowering, or other expansion of the larynx. /s/ is aspirated [sʰ] and becomes an alveolo-palatal [ɕʰ] before [j] or [i] for most speakers (but see North–South differences in the Korean language ). This occurs with
1190-621: Is one of Nine mountain schools . Later, the Nine mountain schools had been unified to Jogye Order by Jinul and Taego Bou . Caodong school is called "Tào Động tông" in Vietnamese . It was brought to the north Vietnam in the late of 17th century by Thiền master Thông Giác Thủy Nguyệt (通覺水月, 1637-1704), a disciple of Yiju Zhijiao (一句智教). Chan master Zhijiao is the 4th generation after Zhanran Yuancheng (湛然圓澄, 1561-1626) - one of Caodong school's famous revivers in late Ming period. via Shitou
1260-687: Is the Sino-Korean pronunciation of Chan ( Chinese : 禪 ; pinyin : chán ) an abbreviation of 禪那 ( chánnà ), which is a Chinese transliteration of the Sanskrit word of dhyāna (" meditation "). Seon Buddhism, represented chiefly by the Jogye and Taego orders, is the most common type of Buddhism found in Korea. A main characteristic of Seon Buddhism is the use of the method of meditation, Ganhwa Seon . A Korean monk, Jinul accepted partially
1330-747: Is well attested in Western Old Japanese and Northern Ryukyuan languages , in Eastern Old Japanese it only occurs in compounds, and it is only present in three dialects of the Southern Ryukyuan language group . Also, the doublet wo meaning "hemp" is attested in Western Old Japanese and Southern Ryukyuan languages. It is thus plausible to assume a borrowed term. (See Classification of the Japonic languages or Comparison of Japanese and Korean for further details on
1400-572: Is written in the Korean script ( 한글 ; Hangeul in South Korea, 조선글 ; Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea), a system developed during the 15th century for that purpose, although it did not become the primary script until the 20th century. The script uses 24 basic letters ( jamo ) and 27 complex letters formed from the basic ones. When first recorded in historical texts, Korean was only
1470-627: The Five Houses of Chán . The school emphasised sitting meditation (Ch: zuochan, Jp: zazen), and the " five ranks " teaching. During the Song dynasty, Caodong masters like Hongzhi Zhengjue developed " silent illumination " (mozhao) meditation. The key figure in the Caodong school was founder Dongshan Liangjie (807–869, 洞山良价, Jpn. Tozan Ryokai) and his heir Caoshan Benji (840–901, 曹山本寂, Ts'ao-shan Pen-chi, Jpn. Sōzan Honjaku). Some attribute
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#17327656776271540-574: The Goryeo dynasty Jinul strongly influenced Korean Buddhism. He was the first monk to be appointed a national teacher and advisor by the king, having written a book presenting the Seon tradition from the Song dynasty. And this Seon tradition preserved well to this day, after Taego Bou brought his Dharma transmission to Goryeo. The Joseon dynasty suppressed Buddhism in favour of Confucianism . In spite of
1610-522: The Hongzhou school of Mazu Daoyi and his successors and the Rinzai school of Linji Yixuan . Mazu's successors had numerous Korean students, some of whom returned to Korea and established their own schools at various mountain monasteries with their leading disciples. Initially, the number of these schools was fixed at nine. Seon was termed the nine mountain schools " at the time. Eight of these were of
1680-703: The Korean War . Along with other languages such as Chinese and Arabic , Korean is ranked at the top difficulty level for English speakers by the United States Department of Defense . Modern Korean descends from Middle Korean , which in turn descends from Old Korean , which descends from the Proto-Koreanic language , which is generally suggested to have its linguistic homeland somewhere in Manchuria . Whitman (2012) suggests that
1750-524: The Korean dialects , which are still largely mutually intelligible . The Chinese language , written with Chinese characters and read with Sino-Xenic pronunciations , was first introduced to Korea in the 1st century BC, and remained the medium of formal writing and government until the late 19th century. Korean scholars adapted Chinese characters (known in Korean as Hanja ) to write their own language, creating scripts known as idu , hyangchal , gugyeol , and gakpil. These systems were cumbersome, due to
1820-603: The Providence Zen Center . The Kwan Um School has more than 100 Zen centers on six continents. Another Korean Zen teacher, Samu Sunim , founded Toronto 's Zen Buddhist Temple in 1971. He is head of the Buddhist Society for Compassionate Wisdom , which has temples in Ann Arbor , Chicago , Mexico City , and New York City . In the early 20th century, Master Kyongho , re-energized Korean Seon. At
1890-697: The Songgwangsa at Jogyesan as a new center of pure practice. Jinul's works are characterized by a thorough analysis and reformulation of the methodologies of Seon study and practice. He laid an equal emphasis on doctrinal teaching and Seon practice. One major issue that had long fermented in Chan, and which received special focus from Jinul, was the relationship between "gradual" and " sudden " methods in practice and enlightenment. Drawing upon various Chinese treatments of this topic, most importantly those by Guifeng Zongmi and Dahui Zonggao , Jinul created Pojo Seon,
1960-724: The Sōtō sect. His lineage incorporates not only the dharma-transmission via Fushan Fayuan, but also Linji dharma-transmissions via Eisai and his student Myozen, a teacher of Dogen, and the Linji dharma-transmission of Dahui Zonggao via the Nōnin school . Caodong school was introduced to Korea at the end of Silla , through Seon master Ieom (利嚴, 869–936). He arrived China in 894 and studied under teaching of Yunju Daoying . He returned to Silla in 911 and then established Sumi-san (須彌山) school to expand Caodong's teaching. He had several hundred students, his sect
2030-568: The Three Kingdoms of Korea (not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula), while " -eo " and " -mal " mean "language" and "speech", respectively. Korean is also simply referred to as guk-eo , literally "national language". This name is based on the same Han characters ( 國語 "nation" + "language") that are also used in Taiwan and Japan to refer to their respective national languages. In North Korea and China ,
2100-657: The 11th century the Caodong-school nearly extinguished. Dayang Jingxuan (942-1027), the last descendant of the Caodong-lineage passed on his dharma-transmission via Fushan Fayuan, a teacher from the Linji school , to Fayuan's student Touzi Yiqing (1032-1083), who was born five years after Jingxuan's death. During the Northern Song (960–1127) the Caodong was not successful in the social elite. The Linji school and Yunmen school dominated Chán. It
2170-968: The 16th century for all Korean classes, including uneducated peasants and slaves. By the 17th century, the yangban had exchanged Hangul letters with slaves, which suggests a high literacy rate of Hangul during the Joseon era. In the context of growing Korean nationalism in the 19th century, the Gabo Reform of 1894 abolished the Confucian examinations and decreed that government documents would be issued in Hangul instead of literary Chinese. Some newspapers were published entirely in Hangul, but other publications used Korean mixed script , with Hanja for Sino-Korean vocabulary and Hangul for other elements. North Korea abolished Hanja in writing in 1949, but continues to teach them in schools. Their usage in South Korea
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2240-409: The Caodong school was revived and became one of the major traditions of Song dynasty Chan. These Song era teachers taught a practiced termed " silent illumination " or "serene reflection" ( Ch : 默照禅) which relied on the doctrine of inherent enlightenment and buddha-nature . Since Buddha was seen as something already present in the mind, all that one needed to do was to let go of all striving and this
2310-677: The Fourth Patriarch Dayi Daoxin , was the first to bring the teachings to Korea. Beomnang transmitted his teachings to Sinhaeng (神行), who also traveled to China. Sinhaeng studied with Puji (651–739), a successor of Yuquan Shenxiu , the head of the East Mountain Teaching of Chan. Seon was further popularized by Doui (道義) at the beginning of the ninth century. Seon was gradually further transmitted into Korea, as Korean monks of predominantly Hwaeom and Yogacara background began to travel to China to study
2380-460: The Jogye Order was combined with the scholarly schools. It lost influence under the ruling class, which embraced neo-Confucianism. Buddhism was gradually suppressed for the next 500 years. The number of temples was reduced, restrictions on membership in the sangha were installed, and Buddhist monks and nuns were literally chased into the mountains, forbidden to mix with society. Joseon Buddhism
2450-695: The Soviet Union administering the peninsula north of the 38th parallel and the United States administering the south . The politics of the Cold War resulted in the 1948 establishment of two separate governments, North Korea and South Korea. Since the middle of the 20th century Christianity has competed with Buddhism in South Korea, while religious practice has been suppressed in North Korea. Seon continues to be practiced in Korea today at
2520-685: The US by Seungsahn . He was a temple abbot in Seoul and after living in Hong Kong and Japan , he moved to the US in 1972, not speaking any English. On the flight to Los Angeles, a Korean American passenger offered him a job at a laundry in Providence, Rhode Island , which became headquarters of Seung Sahn's Kwan Um School of Zen . Shortly after arriving in Providence, he attracted students and founded
2590-616: The United States, such as the Potomac Zen Sangha, the Patriarchal Zen Society and the Baltimore Zen Center. Korean language Korean ( South Korean : 한국어 , Hanguk-eo ; North Korean : 조선어 , Chosŏnŏ ) is the native language for about 81 million people, mostly of Korean descent. It is the national language of both North Korea and South Korea . Beyond Korea,
2660-486: The Zen tradition. [...] Few [monks] develop a deep personal rapport with a single teacher. A monk's affinities are really more with his fellow meditation monks, rather than with a specific master. [...] In this way, Buddhist thought and practice is kept separate from the person of the master; a monk learns from many teachers, but does not take any one person's version of the dharma to be definitive." Korean Seon has been spread in
2730-433: The act of purification. During those times, masters like Gyoengheo and Mangong kept Dharma transmission alive. 21st century, the few left this Dharma transmission. "남진제 북송담'(南眞際 北松潭) (Jinje to the south, Songdam to the north)." is well-known phrase in Korean seon tradition these days. Others are Seungsahn , Daewon . Chan was transmitted into Unified Silla (668–935). Beomnang (法朗, Pŏmnang, Peomnang) , who studied with
2800-455: The beginnings of words. /l/ becomes alveolar flap [ɾ] between vowels, and [l] or [ɭ] at the end of a syllable or next to another /l/ . A written syllable-final ' ㄹ ', when followed by a vowel or a glide ( i.e. , when the next character starts with ' ㅇ '), migrates to the next syllable and thus becomes [ɾ] . Traditionally, /l/ was disallowed at the beginning of a word. It disappeared before [j] , and otherwise became /n/ . However,
2870-414: The compact Koreanic language family . Even so, Jejuan and Korean are not mutually intelligible . The linguistic homeland of Korean is suggested to be somewhere in contemporary Manchuria . The hierarchy of the society from which the language originates deeply influences the language, leading to a system of speech levels and honorifics indicative of the formality of any given situation. Modern Korean
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2940-410: The correction, revival, and improvement of the quality of Buddhism were prominent issues for Buddhist leaders of the period. Jinul sought to establish a new movement within Korean Seon, which he called the " samādhi and prajñā society". Its goal was to establish a new community of disciplined, pure-minded practitioners deep in the mountains. He eventually accomplished this mission with the founding of
3010-511: The end of World War II, his disciple, Master Mann Gong, proclaimed that lineage Dharma should be transmitted worldwide to encourage peace through enlightenment. Consequently, his Dharma successor, Hye Am brought lineage Dharma to the United States. Hye Am's Dharma successor, Myo Vong founded the Western Son Academy (1976), and his Korean disciple, Pohwa Sunim, founded World Zen Fellowship (1994) which includes various Zen centers in
3080-399: The first Korean dynasty known to Western nations. Korean people in the former USSR refer to themselves as Koryo-saram or Koryo-in (literally, " Koryo/Goryeo persons"), and call the language Koryo-mal' . Some older English sources also use the spelling "Corea" to refer to the nation, and its inflected form for the language, culture and people, "Korea" becoming more popular in
3150-456: The fundamental disparities between the Korean and Chinese languages, and accessible only to those educated in classical Chinese. Most of the population was illiterate. In the 15th century King Sejong the Great personally developed an alphabetic featural writing system , known today as Hangul , to promote literacy among the common people. Introduced in the document Hunminjeongeum , it
3220-419: The hwadu (Ch. huatou, "word head" or "critical phrase") practice. He collected 1,125 gongans in his Sŏnmun yŏmsongjip ("The Collection of Verses and Cases", 1226). Hyesim encouraged male practitioners to practice hwadu, whereas women's Buddhist practice was limited to chanting and sūtra-readings. It was during the time of Jinul that the Jogye Order , a Seon sect, became the predominant form of Korean Buddhism,
3290-479: The inflow of western loanwords changed the trend, and now word-initial /l/ (mostly from English loanwords) are pronounced as a free variation of either [ɾ] or [l] . All obstruents (plosives, affricates, fricatives) at the end of a word are pronounced with no audible release , [p̚, t̚, k̚] . Plosive sounds /p, t, k/ become nasals [m, n, ŋ] before nasal sounds. Hangul spelling does not reflect these assimilatory pronunciation rules, but rather maintains
3360-408: The issue between Japanese and Korean, including Alexander Vovin, have argued that the indicated similarities are not due to any genetic relationship , but rather to a sprachbund effect and heavy borrowing, especially from Ancient Korean into Western Old Japanese . A good example might be Middle Korean sàm and Japanese asá , meaning " hemp ". This word seems to be a cognate, but although it
3430-639: The language is most often called Joseon-mal , or more formally, Joseon-o . This is taken from the North Korean name for Korea (Joseon), a name retained from the Joseon dynasty until the proclamation of the Korean Empire , which in turn was annexed by the Empire of Japan . In mainland China , following the establishment of diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1992, the term Cháoxiǎnyǔ or
3500-659: The language is recognized as a minority language in parts of China , namely Jilin , and specifically Yanbian Prefecture , and Changbai County . It is also spoken by Sakhalin Koreans in parts of Sakhalin , the Russian island just north of Japan, and by the Koryo-saram in parts of Central Asia . The language has a few extinct relatives which—along with the Jeju language (Jejuan) of Jeju Island and Korean itself—form
3570-455: The late 1800s. In South Korea the Korean language is referred to by many names including hanguk-eo ("Korean language"), hanguk-mal ("Korean speech") and uri-mal ("our language"); " hanguk " is taken from the name of the Korean Empire ( 대한제국 ; 大韓帝國 ; Daehan Jeguk ). The " han " ( 韓 ) in Hanguk and Daehan Jeguk is derived from Samhan , in reference to
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#17327656776273640-678: The lineage of Mazu Daoyi (馬祖道一), as they were established through connection with either him or one of his eminent disciples. The one exception was the Sumi-san school founded by Yieom (利嚴), which had developed from the Caodong school . Toǔi (道義 Doui), who studied with Zhizang and Baizhang Huaihai is regarded as the first patriarch of Korean Seon. He founded the Kaji Mountain school (迦智山 Gaji san school). The Nine mountain Schools adopted
3710-466: The monk Bou (보우, 普雨), and installed him as the head of the Seon school. Buddhist monks helped in repelling the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98) . Monks were organized into guerrilla units, which enjoyed some instrumental successes. The "righteous monk" (義士; uisa ) movement was led by Hyujeong , a Seon master and the author of a number of important religious texts. The presence of the monks' army
3780-645: The name Jogye Order in 826. The first record of the Nine Mountains school dates from 1084. By the eleventh century Seon Buddhism became established in Korea. It distinguished itself from the existing Five Schools and their scriptural emphasis. Tension developed between the new meditational schools and the previously existing scholastic schools, which were described by the term gyo , meaning "learning" or "study". Efforts were needed to attain mutual understanding and rapprochement between Seon and these scholastic schools. The most important figure of Goryeo-era Seon
3850-480: The name "Cáodòng" as a union of "Dongshan" and "Caoshan". The "Cao" may also be from Cáoxī (曹溪), the "mountain-name" of Huineng , the Sixth Ancestor of Chan, as Caoshan was of little importance unlike his contemporary and fellow Dharma-heir, Yunju Daoying . The Caodong school was founded by Dongshan Liangjie and his Dharma-heir Caoshan Benji. Dongshan traced back his lineage to Shitou Xiqian (700–790),
3920-638: The proto-Koreans, already present in northern Korea, expanded into the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at around 300 BC and coexisted with the descendants of the Japonic Mumun cultivators (or assimilated them). Both had influence on each other and a later founder effect diminished the internal variety of both language families. Since the establishment of two independent governments, North–South differences have developed in standard Korean, including variations in pronunciation and vocabulary chosen. However, these minor differences can be found in any of
3990-669: The short form Cháoyǔ has normally been used to refer to the standard language of North Korea and Yanbian , whereas Hánguóyǔ or the short form Hányǔ is used to refer to the standard language of South Korea. Korean is a member of the Koreanic family along with the Jeju language . Some linguists have included it in the Altaic family, but the core Altaic proposal itself has lost most of its prior support. The Khitan language has several vocabulary items similar to Korean that are not found in other Mongolian or Tungusic languages, suggesting
4060-406: The slogan "sudden enlightenment, sudden cultivation", ascribed to Huineng . The last three Supreme Patriarchs of the Jogye Order have a stance in this debate that is in accordance with Seongcheol . Stuart Lachs observes that Korean Sŏn places less stress on the figure of the teacher than does Japanese Zen, which is more hierarchical. In Korean Sŏn, the role of pangjang, the equivalent of roshi ,
4130-510: The store?' Response 예/네. ye/ne AFF Caodong school The way The "goal" Background Chinese texts Classical Post-classical Contemporary Zen in Japan Seon in Korea Thiền in Vietnam Western Zen Caodong school ( Chinese : 曹洞宗 ; pinyin : Cáodòng zōng ; Wade–Giles : Ts'ao-tung-tsung ) is a Chinese Chan Buddhist branch and one of
4200-478: The suppression, Hyujeong wrote about the three religions (Seon Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism) in the Joseon dynasty from Seon point of view. He also succeeded to the Dharma transmission. During the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98) , Hyujeong and Yujeong commanded guerrilla units of monks and took part in diplomacy. Under annexation by Japan most monks were forced to marry - this lasted about 40 years until
4270-441: The tense fricative and all the affricates as well. At the end of a syllable, /s/ changes to /t/ (example: beoseot ( 버섯 ) 'mushroom'). /h/ may become a bilabial [ɸ] before [o] or [u] , a palatal [ç] before [j] or [i] , a velar [x] before [ɯ] , a voiced [ɦ] between voiced sounds, and a [h] elsewhere. /p, t, t͡ɕ, k/ become voiced [b, d, d͡ʑ, ɡ] between voiced sounds. /m, n/ frequently denasalize at
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#17327656776274340-464: The underlying, partly historical morphology . Given this, it is sometimes hard to tell which actual phonemes are present in a certain word. The traditional prohibition of word-initial /ɾ/ became a morphological rule called "initial law" ( 두음법칙 ) in the pronunciation standards of South Korea, which pertains to Sino-Korean vocabulary. Such words retain their word-initial /ɾ/ in the pronunciation standards of North Korea. For example, ^NOTE ㅏ
4410-439: The war with Japan. Buddhism during the three centuries, from the time of Seosan down to the next Japanese incursion into Korea in the late nineteenth century, did not change very much. The Buddhism of the late Joseon Kingdom saw a revival of Hwaeom studies. There was also a revival of Pure Land Buddhism . With the Korean Empire started the Gwangmu Reform , a modernisation of Korea. The Korean Empire ended in 1910, when Korea
4480-423: Was annexed by Japan . Korean monks travelled to Japan for the scholarly study of Buddhism, where they were influenced by Japanese scholars who introduced western ideas into their studies. Via those Korean monks western ideas were also introduced in Korean Buddhism, and a bifurcation developed between monks and scholars. After the Second World War the United Nations developed plans for a trusteeship administration,
4550-431: Was Jinul, who established a reform movement in Korea. In his time, the sangha was in a crisis of external appearance and internal issues of doctrine. Buddhism was seen as infected by secular tendencies and involvements, such as fortune-telling and the offering of prayers and rituals for success in secular endeavors. This perceived corruption was seen to create a profusion of monks and nuns with questionable motives. Therefore,
4620-417: Was Touzi Yiqing's student Furong Daokai (1043–1118) who was a successful monastic, and revived the Caodong school. His dharma "grandson" Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157) became very successful among elite literati in the Southern Song (1127–1279), when the Imperial Court decreased their influence on society, and Chán schools became dependent on elite literati for support. Under Hongzhi and Zhengzie Qingliao,
4690-495: Was a critical factor in the eventual expulsion of the Japanese invaders. Seosan made efforts toward the unification of Buddhist doctrinal study and practice. He was strongly influenced by Wonhyo, Jinul, and Giwha. He is considered the central figure in the revival of Joseon Buddhism, and most major streams of modern Korean Seon trace their lineages back to him through one of his four main disciples: Yujeong ; Eongi, Taeneung and Ilseon, all four of whom were lieutenants to Seosan during
4760-405: Was achieved by silently sitting in meditation. The success of the revived Caodong school drew opposition from Linji school figures like Dahui Zonggao , who promoted the Hua Tou method of koan practice, and attacked silent illumination as quietistic . In 1227 Dōgen Zenji , a former Tendai student, studied Caodong Buddhism under Tiantong Rujing , and returned to Japan to establish
4830-533: Was called eonmun ('colloquial script') and quickly spread nationwide to increase literacy in Korea. The Korean alphabet was denounced by the yangban aristocracy, who looked down upon it too easy to learn. However, it gained widespread use among the common class and was widely used to print popular novels which were enjoyed by the common class. Since few people could understand official documents written in classical Chinese, Korean kings sometimes released public notices entirely written in Hangul as early as
4900-415: Was first condensed to Seon and Gyo. Eventually, these were further reduced to the single school of Seon. Giwha wrote an important treatise in defense of Buddhism, the Hyeonjeong non . In the tradition of earlier philosophers, he applied Essence-Function and Hwaeom ( sa-sa mu-ae , "mutual interpenetration of phenomena" ). During Joseon, the number of Buddhist monasteries dropped from several hundred to
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