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105-714: Around the March 1st Movement in 1919, numerous armed independence movement groups, including the Seo-rogunjeongseo, were organized and active in the West Jiandao region, the middle and upper reaches of the Songhua River , centered on the area west of Mt. Baekdu and along the Yalu River . Accordingly, in 1920, Japan deployed a large number of troops into Manchuria to suppress Korean independence forces in

210-719: A discussion of Korea's sovereignty on the agenda, but did not succeed. Koreans in China also created a plan to secretly extract former Korean emperor Gojong from his house arrest in Korea, and eventually bring him to the conference. Before that could happen, on January 21, 1919, Gojong suddenly died. Japan reported that Gojong had died from natural causes, but he had reportedly been healthy just until his death. Koreans widely suspected that Japan had poisoned him  [ ko ] ; these theories were in part motivated by knowledge of previous attempts on Gojong's life. Public outrage at

315-696: A district head. The governor and district chief protected Koreans in the region, collected taxes, and worked to promote the spirit of independence. Self-governing activities were centered around the general office established in each region, and the general office was responsible for liaison with the central government, administrative work, tax collection, military fundraising, and promotion of independence ideas. At that time, Koreans in Western Jiandao were experiencing economic difficulties because they had to pay rent and taxes to Chinese landlords and Chinese officials. Therefore, in order to improve this situation,

420-663: A group of bandits bribed by the Japanese military, and although they tried to avoid a meaningless battle, commander Shin Pal-gyun and crew member Yoo Gyeong-ryeol were killed in the fight. Meanwhile, Kim Sa-heon (金史軒), Seon Woo-il (鮮于一), and others worked hard to promote the national spirit and enlighten the people through education by editing and publishing brochures. Therefore, the Korean Unification Government again launched an unification movement and formed

525-417: A larger role in regions with more developed transportation, and Cheondoists in regions with less developed transportation. According to one estimate, 17% of arrests made during the protests were of Christians, when they composed less than 1% of the population. 58.4% of arrests were of peasants, and 3.9% were of laborers. The Pyongan region played what historian Michael Shin argued was an outsized role in

630-490: A military advisor, Kim Gyu-sik as the 1st Brigade Commander, Park Yeong-hee as the Staff, Anmu as the 2nd Brigade Commander, and Staff Lee Dan-seung (李檀承), 2nd Brigade Cavalry Commander Kang Phillip, company commanders Kim Chang-hwan, Oh Gwang-seon (吳光鮮), and Jo Dong-shik (趙東植) were appointed. There was a brigade as an upper unit under the corps, and under it, three battalions, nine companies, and 27 platoons were organized, and

735-731: A military agreement was signed between the buffer government in Chita and the anti-Japanese independence army through the good offices of Ohamuk, a graduate of the Russian Military Academy who participated in the Russian Revolution. According to this military agreement, the independence army received weapons from them, established the Goryeo Revolutionary Military Academy (高麗革命軍官學校) to train the independence army, and participated in

840-581: A military police corps. The volunteer army was formed by integrating the independence army units of existing organizations that participated in the Tonguibu, and each company was assigned jurisdiction and duties. They were deployed to 12 districts, including Heunggyeong (興京), Hwanin (桓仁), Tonghwa (通化), Gaipan (集安), and Yuha (柳河), were appointed as governors. They carried out independent military activities to destroy Japanese institutions and purge Zhou Gubai. The military activities of Unification Government include

945-566: A plan to protest in the last week of January; these efforts were merged into the Cheondoist ones. They secured alliances from major Christian and Buddhist groups, as well as from several student organizations. They gained the support of several former government officials from the Korean Empire , although they were rebuffed by Joseon -era politicians Park Yung-hyo and Han Kyu-sŏl . They decided to schedule their protest for March 1,

1050-444: A process of Japanization : forced cultural assimilation. Land was confiscated from Koreans and given to Japanese people, and economic and administrative systems were created that were systemically discriminatory. Resistance was violently suppressed, and freedom of speech and press were tightly controlled. Japanese colonial policies mandated that Koreans send increasingly significant portions of their economic output to Japan, for what

1155-586: A reality. In February 1922 in the West Jiandao area, the Han Chinese Association, the Military administration, Korean Independence Foundation, The Korean Unification Government (大韓統軍府), a large-scale anti-Japanese organization formed through this alliance, expanded and developed into an integrated struggle group in the western Jiandao area in August of that year. Ministry of Unification of Korea

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1260-505: A reporter for the Chicago Daily News , reportedly witnessed 30 prisoners being kept in a single 10 ft × 6 ft (3.0 m × 1.8 m) room in a Pyongyang prison. Koreans were reportedly kept separate from Japanese prisoners, and given worse facilities. Another issue was heating; physician Jessie Hirst , head of Severance Hospital , reported that four nurses from his hospital were arrested for protesting in

1365-645: A role in the planning of the protests. In mid-February, Robert Grierson allowed secret meetings about the protests to be conducted in his house in Sŏngjin . Protests in Sŏngjin went on to become the first in North Hamgyong Province . On February 28th, Canadian missionary Frank Schofield was asked to document the protests. Schofield's publicization of the protests proved so significant in influencing global public opinion, that he has since been described as

1470-494: A series of policies that have since been dubbed " cultural rule  [ ja ; ko ] ". Furthermore, the movement went on to inspire other movements abroad, including the Chinese May Fourth Movement and Indian satyagraha protests. The anniversary of the movement's start has been celebrated since, although this was largely done in secret in Korea until its liberation in 1945. In South Korea, it

1575-684: A testimony that was later submitted into the American Congressional Record : It was on the 5th of March that I [joined a] procession at the South Gate . As we neared the Palace , a Japanese policeman seized me by the hair, and I was thrown violently to the ground. He kicked me mercilessly, and I was rendered almost unconscious. He rushed me along by my hair, and I was led to the Chongno Police Station. At

1680-550: A union of independence movement groups in November 1924. The Righteous Government organized and was absorbed into it. The activities of the remnants of Unification Government were reported until around 1927, but the center of independence army activities in the western Jiandao region gradually shifted to General Staff Headquarters and the Righteous Government. March 1st Movement The March First Movement

1785-422: A village at night, set it on fire, and killed people who attempted to put the fires out. On April 15, during the now infamous Jeamni massacre , Japanese authorities lured 20 to 30 Korean civilians into a church, opened fire on them, then burned the church down to hide evidence of the killings. There are reports of crucifixions being performed on Korean Christians; this is attested to in one photograph, which

1890-449: Is a national holiday . The North Korean government initially celebrated it as a national holiday, but eventually demoted it and now does not evaluate the movement's significance similarly. It now promotes writings about the event that seek to emphasize the role of the ruling Kim family in the protests. In 1910, Japan formally annexed Korea . Japanese rule was initially especially tight. Japan took control over Korea's economy, and began

1995-462: The Jeamni massacre . Japanese authorities then conducted a global disinformation campaign on the protests. They promoted a wide range of narratives, including outright denial of any protests occurring, portraying them as violent Bolshevik uprisings, and claiming that Koreans were in need of the benevolent rule of Japan. These narratives were publicly challenged by sympathetic foreigners and by

2100-794: The Korean Declaration of Independence in the restaurant Taehwagwan  [ ko ] and in Tapgol Park . The movement grew and spread rapidly. Statistics on the protest are uncertain; there were around 1,500 to 1,800 protests with a total of around 0.8 to 2 million participants. The total population of Korea at the time was around 16 to 17 million. Despite the peaceful nature of the protests, they were frequently violently suppressed. One Korean estimate in 1920 claimed 7,509 deaths and 46,948 arrests. Japanese authorities reported much lower numbers, although there were instances where authorities were observed destroying evidence, such as during

2205-560: The Korean Young People's Independence Organization ( 조선청년독립단 ; 朝鮮靑年獨立團 ) proclaimed and publicly distributed a declaration of independence, which they sent to the Japanese government, attendees of the Paris Peace Conference, and to representatives of various countries. The students were arrested en masse by Japanese authorities, although news of their act reached Korea. In late 1918, leaders of

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2310-701: The Maritime Province and prepare for a long-term anti-Japanese war, and in 1920. It is a joint unit that united the forces of the independence army in December at Milsan near the Sino-Soviet border . At the request of the Chinese side, which could not overcome the pressure of Japan, the independence army units located in all parts of South and North Manchuria, especially in North Gando, moved to

2415-532: The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea , envisioned an independent nation that was too different to achieve perfect integration. The conflict arising from the fact that the central organization, which was the leadership, was led by the republican faction, and the front-line commanders had republican tendencies. The figure representing republicanism was Yang Gi-tak (梁起鐸, 1871–1938), and

2520-607: The South Manchuria Railway . The executives of the Unification Military Government of Korea were elected as President Chae Sang-deok, Secretary-General Ko Hwal-shin, Civil Affairs Department Director Lee Woong-hae, Military Department Director Lee Cheon-min, Education Director Kim Dong-sam, Business Department Director Byeon Chang-geun, Police Inspector Jeon Deok-won, and Commander Kim Chang-hwan. These people were mainly executives of

2625-480: The "Thirty-fourth Representative" ( 민족대표 34인 ), effectively equating his significance to that of the signers of the declaration. Around noon on March 1, 1919, 29 of the 33 signers of the declaration gathered in Taehwagwan to start the protest. The signers conducted a prominent reading of the declaration in the restaurant. The Korean restaurant owner An Sunhwan ( 안순환 ; 安淳煥 ) rushed over and reported

2730-621: The 'Southern Manchurian Unification Conference.' At this meeting, it was agreed to unite each organization and form the Unification Government. The independence activists who organized the Unification Military Government attempted to negotiate with more organizations to form an integrated organization. The Unification Military Government held a central staff meeting on June 3, 1922 and decided to actively pursue integration with other organizations in

2835-657: The 218 administrative districts in Korea hosted protests. Various locations often hosted multiple protests for weeks afterwards. Numerous small villages hosted three or four protests. For example, Hoengseong County held a series of protests from March 27 to mid-April. Protests often coincided with market days, and were often held at government offices. The protests were broadly supported across economic and religious spectrums, including groups such as merchants, noblemen, literati, kisaeng , laborers, monks, Christians, Cheondoists, Buddhists, students, and farmers. Korean shop owners reportedly closed their doors in solidarity with

2940-604: The Dongji line connecting Subunhe to Harbin. They expanded their power centering on Manchuria. At this time, several independent army units were officially integrated into the Korean Independence Corps. Still, complete integration was not achieved due to poor finances and dispersed military forces. Afterward, amid Japanese oppression of the independence Army, including the Mitsuya Agreement,

3045-477: The Fourteen Points; for example, around this time it reportedly banned a foreign film from being screened in Korea because the film had images of President Wilson. After the conclusion of the war, various nations participated in the 1919–1920 Paris Peace Conference , during which the sovereignty of a number of nations was discussed. Koreans made a number of unsuccessful attempts to be represented at

3150-618: The Free City Incident in June 1921, the Korean Independence Corps was reorganized into several units as follows: Afterward, the Korean Independence Corps was reorganized in August 1922 by representatives of the Korean Military Government, Uigunbu, Hyeolseongdan, National Association, Korean Liberation Association, Daejindan, Korean Uimindan, Korean New People's Union, and Korean Independence Corps. Lee Beom-yoon

3255-670: The Gando Massacre in 1920 and the Free City Incident in 1921, the armed independence units in Manchuria suffered a heavy blow. In the midst of this, independence movement groups in the West Jiandao region devoted all their efforts to rebuilding the foundation of the independence movement. After two years of struggle, including the subjugated Zhou Gu-bae (走狗輩), they restored Manchuria, but a single independence movement group could not be formed. The people responsible for

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3360-678: The General Staff Headquarters as a military unit directly under the provisional government. In other words, the first division of Unification Government established the Uigunbu, and the second division created the General Staff Headquarters . The Unification Government began to reorganize again and maintain its troops after a large number of volunteer troops deserted, but the antagonism with General Staff Headquarters continued thereafter. Eventually, with

3465-506: The Korean Liberation Army General Command (大韓光復軍總營). Each organization resolved six issues, including dismantling and integrating all existing systems, changing the name of its military unit to Unification Government Volunteer Army, and preparing a charter with 9 chapters and 63 articles. As a result of a discussion on the issue of unification of armed independence groups at a meeting held on August 23, it

3570-583: The Korean Unification Government. In December of the following year, Kim Woo-geun (金宇根) led the Volunteer Army and engaged in a battle with the Junggangjin Jeongjeong Artillery Guard, injuring 11 enemy soldiers. On the way back, they collided with a Chinese police unit, wounding one Chinese police officer. Because the Korean Unification Government was an alliance of various forces in the western Jiandao region from

3675-500: The Korean community and military activities centered on the volunteer army. The system of Unification Government was a presidential system, and under the president, 10 departments were established: civil affairs, negotiation, military, legal affairs, finance, academic affairs, business, power, transportation, and staff. In addition, a secretarial department and a judicial office were established to form an autonomous government. The capital

3780-542: The Korean diaspora. The movement did not result in Korea's prompt liberation, but had a number of significant effects. It invigorated the Korean independence movement and resulted in the creation of the Korean Provisional Government . It also caused some damage to Japan's international reputation and caused the Japanese colonial government to grant some limited cultural freedoms to Koreans under

3885-581: The Manchurian region. However, when the subjugation operation against the independence army actually failed, with the independence army winning a landslide victory as seen in the Battle of Cheongsanri , Japan, in retaliation, committed the so-called the Gando Massacre in 1920, destroying Korean villages and massacring Koreans under the pretext of eradicating the base of the independence army. Through

3990-553: The Maritime Province to wage a long-term anti-Japanese war. Decided to prepare, he organized this group in Milsan, the Korean Independence Corps ( Korean :  대한독립군단 ; Hanja :  大韓獨立軍團 ). The ten Independence Army units gathered here were integrated and reorganized to form the Korean Independence Corps. The organizations incorporated into the Korean Independence Corps are as follows: In addition to

4095-445: The Righteous Government was organized in November 1924, most of the independence activists who remained in the Korean Unification Government joined the Righteous Government, and the issue was naturally resolved. The Unification Government took the form of an autonomous military government with the characteristics of civil and military administration. The Unification Government's activities can be divided into autonomous administration for

4200-740: The Southern Manchuria Unification Conference. These included, the mutual military settlement, the Korean Independence Corps , Korean Liberation Army Camp, Korean Church, Korea Justice Military Camp, Korean Liberation Army General Camp, North Pyongan Provincial Government, the Northern Military Administration Office , Korean Independence Association, Korean People's Association (aka: Han Church), Korean Liberation Army Camp, Korean Justice Military Camp, and

4305-652: The Soviet Union and fight Japan. Koreans in Hawaii organized an impromptu meeting upon hearing of the protests that was attended by around 600. A followup meeting dubbed the First Korean Congress was symbolically held in Philadelphia , which they viewed as "the cradle of liberty" in the U.S. They sent statements to President Wilson, but were ignored. The Japanese Government-General of Chōsen

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4410-478: The Soviet newspaper Izvestia , gatherings became treated with suspicion by Japanese authorities. In one instance, after a Korean attendee of a wedding was found to have documents linking him to the independence movement, Japanese authorities raided the wedding and conducted mass beatings and arrests. There are numerous reports of prison conditions being extremely poor. Seoul's Seodaemun Prison became infamous for

4515-615: The U.S. and the Allies reportedly greatly increased. The sincerity behind Wilson's advocacy for self-determination is debated. Some scholars argue his advocacy was limited to the former colonies of the defeated Central Powers , which Japan was not a part of. Historian Ku Daeyeol argues Wilson's efforts were sincere, but frustrated by geopolitical realities. The U.S. would not begin openly advocating for Korean independence until decades later, after it joined World War II against Japan. The Japanese colonial government suppressed discussion of

4620-474: The Unification Government and the Uigunbu even after they were separated, the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd companies of the volunteer army criticized the innocent sacrifices caused by the party conflict, appealed to gather under the banner of the provisional government, and withdrew from the Unification Government in May 1924. Subsequently, the 5th Company of the Volunteer Army also deserted Unification Government. They established

4725-431: The Unification Government negotiated with Chinese landowners and Chinese government officials, and established unemployment incentive measures to protect Korean residents and secure financial resources. They encouraged side jobs for Koreans, opened labor training centers to provide farming education, planned the establishment of factories, and created stock companies. They established of labor training centers for Koreans, and

4830-535: The West, particularly liberal democracy , which they received in part via the Japanese Taishō Democracy movement and Wilson's Fourteen Points. By early 1919, their ideas coalesced, and they also became angered by the rebuffing of the Korean representatives to the Paris Peace Conference, by the brutality of Japanese rule, and by the possibility that Gojong had been poisoned. On February 8, 600 students of

4935-559: The above ten units, the Korean New People's Association dispatched Kim Seong-bae as a representative of the Korean New People's Association to Milsan in December to form the Korean Independence Corps, but there was no result. Seo Il (徐一) as president, Hong Beom-do (洪範圖) as vice president, Baek Soon (白純 and Kim Ho-ik) as advisors, Choi Jin-dong (崔振東) as foreign minister, Kim Jwa-jin (金佐鎭) as chief of staff, staff Lee Jang-nyeong and Na Joong-so as military advisers, Ji Cheong-cheon as

5040-702: The area under the jurisdiction of Unification Government, and attacked Japanese ruling institutions, including consulates and police stations, and engaged in battle with Japanese police. The plan to raise military funds within Joseon and establish the Gyeongseong branch of Tonguibu in Seoul became known to the public and attracted attention. In addition, the Ministry of Tongui sought a way out through military defense and negotiation against China, which attempted to restrain

5145-511: The army reorganized its organization and continued the unification movement by establishing the Chamuibu, Jeonguibu, and Shinminbu. The Korean Independence Corps was an armed group that sought to unite the Korean community and simultaneously waged a desperate armed independence struggle against Japanese colonial rule, hoping to liberate the country through a war of independence. The Korean Liberation Army inherited this independence movement line. It

5250-427: The border with both Russia and China. In addition, the ratio of Japanese security forces to civilians was lower in the area. In Chūseihoku-dō ( North Chungcheong Province ) and Chūseinan-dō, some radical groups attacked and destroyed Japanese government offices and police stations. Zenrahoku-dō ( North Jeolla Province ) had protests that have been characterized as less intense than others. This has been attributed to

5355-748: The city. News of the protests spread rapidly in Seoul, and marching and public demonstations continued for many hours afterwards. That day, around 3,000 copies of the declaration were distributed around Seoul. These protestors were reportedly consistently peaceful. The declaration contains the text "We entertain no spirit of vengeance towards Japan... [L]et there be no violence". The protestors were often met with violent repression by Japanese authorities, which resulted in deaths and arrests. That same day, similar protests were held in other cities in Korea, including in Pyongyang , Chinnamp'o , Anju , and Wonsan . Despite Japanese repression of information, news of

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5460-493: The conference. The Korean-American Korean National Association attempted to send Syngman Rhee and Henry Chung  [ ko ] to the conference, but the U.S. government denied them permission to go. A group of Koreans in China , the New Korean Youth Party  [ ko ] , managed to send Kim Kyu-sik with the Chinese delegation. Chinese leaders, hoping to embarrass Japan, attempted to put

5565-530: The conflict between the monarchist faction and the republican faction within Unification Government worsened, leading to bloodshed. The conflict and dissatisfaction between monarchism and republicanism eventually led to an armed conflict in February 1923 between the two forces and the defection of monarchism. In the end, members of the monarchist faction, including Jeon Deok-won, Chae Sang-deok, Kim Pyeong-sik, Oh Seok-yeong, Park Dae-ho, and other monarchists within

5670-592: The cooperation of major politicians and groups in Korea. Some negotiations were strained and took months; they became so disheartened by these setbacks that they reportedly even considered abandoning their plan. However, the events of January and February 1919 caused a spike in pro-independence activism; around this time, they were able to quickly secure a number of significant alliances. They found that some groups had already been independently planning protests. For example, Presbyterian leaders in Pyongyang reportedly had

5775-405: The day of Gojong's public funeral, in order to capitalize on the significant number of people congregating in Seoul. From February 25 to 27, thirty-three representatives  [ ko ] from these various groups held a series of secret meetings in Seoul, during which they signed the Korean Declaration of Independence . From 6 p.m. to 10 p.m. on February 27, they printed 21,000 copies of

5880-450: The declaration at the printing facilities of Posŏngsa  [ ko ] , a publisher affiliated with Cheondoism. On the morning of the 28th, they distributed these copies around the peninsula. They also coordinated the distribution of copies to members of the Korean diaspora, to U.S. President Wilson, and to participants in the Paris Peace Conference. That day, they held a final meeting at Son Byong-hi's house and reviewed their plans for

5985-909: The direction of Milsan near the Sino-Soviet border to build a new anti-Japanese war base. In December 1920, under the leadership of the Bukrogunjeongseo, the Korean Independence Army, the Korean New People's Association, the Korean National Association headed by Gu Chun-seon, and the Korean National Association in Honchun, the Military Provincial Government Department, Representatives of the Uigunbu, Hyolseongdan, Yadan, and Daehanjeonguigunjeongsa crossed over to

6090-426: The end of the document's reading, cheers of "long live Korean independence" ( 대한독립 만세 ) erupted continually from the crowd, and they filed out onto the main street Jongno for a public march. By the time the marchers reached the gate Daehanmun of the former royal palace Deoksugung , their numbers had swelled to the tens of thousands. From there, a number of splinter groups marched in different directions throughout

6195-509: The entrance of the police office twenty or more Japanese policemen, who stood in line, kicked me and struck me [...] in the face so many times... I was made to kneel down with my legs bound together, and each question and answer was accompanied alternately by blows to the face... An April 12 cablegram, sent from Shanghai to the Korean National Association in San Francisco, read: Japan began massacring in Korea. Over [one] thousand unarmed people killed in Seoul during three hours' demonstration on

6300-643: The establishment of the Manchuria Agricultural Corporation. In addition, Unification Government carried out educational projects by establishing schools. A representative school related to Unification Government was Gwangdong School (光東學校), which was established in October 1923 by expanding Seodang. In addition to educational projects, the government tried to promote national spirit through the publication of brochures, including Unification Government's brochure 『Gyeongjongbo (警鍾報)』 and 『Unification Government Gazette』 in February 1923. They also focused on educational enlightenment activities. In July 1924, they were attacked by

6405-416: The event to the Japanese Government-General of Chōsen , which caused the signers to be arrested by around 80 Japanese military police officers. Meanwhile, around 4,000 to 5,000 people assembled at Tapgol Park after hearing there was going to be an announcement made there. Around 2 p.m., an unidentified young man rose up before the crowd and began reading the Korean Declaration of Independence aloud. Near

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6510-408: The expansion, an armed independence army of 50 to 60 to 100 people was organized centered around Hwanin, Gwanjeon, and Jiganhyeon. In August 1922, the Volunteer Army, the military organization of Unification Government, consisted of 850 people (3,250 at its peak) and was organized into a total of 7 companies, including 5 companies under one battalion, plus an independent platoon, a guerrilla corps, and

6615-477: The figure representing monarchism was Jeon Deok-won (全德元, 1870–?) from the Righteous Army Command . On October 14, 1922, an incident occurred in which about 20 soldiers of the Pro-Japanese collaborators murdered Propaganda Director Kim Chang-ui (金昌義) and captured and beat key executives of Korean Unification Government, including Yang Gi-tak. Immediately after this incident occurred, Jeon Deok-won, Yang Gi-tak, and others tried to resolve it amicably, but despite this,

6720-437: The formation of the Righteous Government in November 1924, most of the independence activists who remained in the Unification Government joined the Righteous Government. The 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th companies were newly organized around the remaining 4th company, maintaining the same five companies as before. However, the conflict between the Righteous Military Government and the General Staff Headquarters continued. Meanwhile, when

6825-459: The front lines of the independence war, representatives of the Korean Independence Association, Gwanghandan, and the Korean Liberation Army General held the Southern Manchurian Unification Conference. The independence activists realized that integrated activities were needed rather than the scattered activities divided into various organizations in the past. Therefore, the movement to form a powerful integrated independent corps gradually began to become

6930-404: The independence army forces under the pressure of Japan at the time. Local administration established a governor's office in each prefecture and appointed officers below the governor's rank. The Chief Inspector was the head of 1,000 households, and each district was made up of 100 to 200 households depending on the local circumstances, and each district was divided into 4 and 5 districts, each with

7035-772: The military administration and the Korean Independence Movement. There were a total of 73 executives of the Korean Unification Government. The executives of the Unification Government of Korea, which was expanded and reorganized which included, President Kim Dong-sam, Vice President Chae Sang-deok Secretary General Ko Hal-shin (Go Hwal-shin), Civil Affairs Department Head Lee Woong-hae , Negotiation Department Chief Kim Seung-man , Military Department Director Yang Gyu-yeol, and Justice Department Director Hyeon Jeong-gyeong, Finance Director Lee Byeong-gi, Academic Affairs Director Shin Eon-gap, Employment Department Director Byeon Chang-geun, Transportation Department Director Oh Dong-jin, Chief of Staff Lee Cheon-min, and Commander Kim Chang-hwan. Before

7140-677: The mistreatment and extrajudicial killings of prisoners. There, women were stripped naked in front of male guards. An April 22, 1919 pamphlet by the Presbyterian Church in America read: [When] they put Korean women in the question box—this, mind you, is before they are condemned at all—they are stripped absolutely naked... From here they have to walk across an open court where they can be seen by any one who pleases... Some women, who tried to cover themselves, had their hands tied behind them. There are reports that conditions were extremely cramped and dirty, and that some rooms were so cramped that people were unable to sit or lie down. William R. Giles,

7245-425: The native Korean religion Cheondoism , including Kwŏn Tongjin  [ ko ] , O Se-chang , and Son Byong-hi , reached a consensus that nonviolent resistance and turning international public opinion against Japan would be effective in advocating for Korea's independence. They also agreed that they needed assistance from other major groups in Korea. They dispatched representatives to negotiate and secure

7350-498: The number of protestors at around 20,000 to 30,000. This was around 10% of the total Korean population of the region at the time. One person, who had sent her son to the protest, later recalled what she had heard of it: I heard that a large crowd of people gathered from all over to hear the news. After the noon bell finished ringing, a large flag celebrating Korea's independence was unfurled. Everyone raised their own flags and shouted "long live Korean independence". The flag blocked

7455-407: The peninsula opening fire or conducting organized bayonet charges on unarmed protestors. During an intense raid on Suwon and Anseong , Japanese authorities reportedly burnt 276 private homes down, killed 29, and arrested around 2,000 people. Many Koreans were tortured and executed. On April 6, the Sucheon-ri massacre  [ ko ] occurred, during which Japanese authorities entered

7560-584: The possibility that Gojong had been murdered has since been evaluated as having a critical impact on the timing of, and even the altogether occurrence of, the March First Movement. By the mid-1910s, several hundred Korean students were studying in Japan as part of Japan's cultural assimilation efforts. While there, they were exposed to and developed a variety of ideas, which they discussed and debated. Of particular interest to them were ideas from

7665-844: The procurement of weapons and military funds and the armed struggle developed based on this. The Unification Government distributed military funds and supplies through the Korean community within its jurisdiction, and raised military funds not only in the West Jiandao region but also throughout Korea, including Pyeongan and Gyeongseong . He raised military funds necessary for the armed struggle for independence by requesting funds from wealthy people in various places and issuing receipts, or by raiding gold mines. Unification Government actively carried out armed struggle using military funds raised from various parts of Manchuria and Korea. They attacked military stations in North Pyongan Province, bordering Manchuria, purged pro-Japanese personnel in

7770-660: The protest in Seoul reached these cities quickly, as they were connected to Seoul via the Gyeongui and Gyeongwon railway lines. On March 2, more protests were held in Kaesong and Keiki-dō ( Gyeonggi Province ). On March 3, more were held in Yesan and Chūseinan-dō ( South Chungcheong Province ). Protests continued to spread in this fashion, until by March 19, all thirteen provinces of Korea had hosted protests. On March 21, Jeju Island held their first protest. All but seven of

7875-626: The protests, and began organizing their own. In Ussuriysk , a protest was held and suppressed on March 17. The Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan had been part of the Allies of World War I , and had signed agreements to suppress the Korean independence movement. Inspired by the Ussuriysk protest, the Koreans of the enclave Sinhanch'on in Vladivostok launched their own that same day, which

7980-486: The protests, with some reportedly refusing to reopen even after Japanese soldiers attempted to force them to. Some shop owners demanded the release of imprisoned protestors. The protests were decentralized and diverse. The diversity in the protests was influenced by local culture and religion. In some regions, Christians played a more significant role in organizing protests, and in others Cheondoists were more significant. The scholar Kim Jin-bong argued that Christians played

8085-540: The protests. They initially planned to start the protest by inviting thousands of observers to Tapgol Park in Seoul. However, they worried that if they were prominently arrested, angered Korean observers could possibly violently retaliate against authorities. In the interest of maintaining the non-violence of the protests, they decided to change the starting location to the less-visible restaurant Taehwagwan  [ ko ] in Insa-dong . Foreigners also played

8190-619: The protests. Many of the movement's earliest protests were in the region, and a plurality of the signers were from there (11 of the 33). This region contained the second-largest city in Korea Pyongyang, was a center of Christianity, and produced a large number of intellectuals. North Hamgyong Province was the last province to join the protests; they began on March 10. Its protests have been characterized as less intense than others, possibly due to transportation being less developed there, as well as security being tighter due to it being on

8295-514: The region being relatively depleted after having previously heavily participated in the 1894–1895 Donghak Peasant Revolution and subsequent righteous army conflicts. In this province and in Zenranan-dō ( South Jeolla Province ), students often played a significant role in protests. Women both led and participated in many of the protests. A group of female students wrote a public letter entitled "From Korean School Girls" to world leaders that

8400-414: The restoration of the Manchuria region was Lee Woong-hae (李雄海) as general commander, Jeon Deok-won (全德元) as staff member, Oh Dong-jin (吳東振) as treasurer, Hyeon Jeong-gyeong (玄正卿) as judicial officer, Kim Woo-geun (金宇根) as liaison, and secretary. It was decided to select Go Hal-sin (Go Hwal-sin]) to organize a nationally unified independence movement group that would integrate each group. In order to reorganize

8505-774: The same time, attack and defeat the resisting independence forces, causing the Free City Incident . At this time, the Independence Army units suffered many casualties and suffered untold hardships, causing the Korean Independence Corps to disintegrate. Unit that went to Free City Park Doo-hee (Bukrogunjeongseo): Misan → Iman → Jayusi Lee Dong-hwi linked unit: Misan → Iman → Jayusi Ji Cheong cheon Unit: Misan → Iman → Jayusi Hong Beom-do Unit: Misan → Iman → Jayusi Choreography unit: Misan → Iman → Jayusi Kim Jwa-jin (North Korean military sentiment): Milsan → Iman → retreat to northern Manchuria Other units (Lee Beom-seok, Kim Hong-il, etc.): Withdraw from Misan While moving to Free City,

8610-675: The southern Manchuria area. The Unification Military Government decided to ‘open the Unification Military Government and unconditional unification with other organizations,’ At the Central Staff Meeting on June 3, 1922, the Unification Military Government announced that it would largely open its doors and unify with other organizations, but obey all public decisions, and negotiated with other independence movement groups. On August 23, 71 representatives from various organizations participating in Hwanin-hyeon gathered together at

8715-635: The subjugation of the Baekgye Army. Knowing this, Japan launched a robust diplomatic offensive against the Russian government and demanded that it disarm. Meanwhile, Russia, anxious about domestic civil war after the revolution, was wary of discord with Japan and promised to disarm the Korean Independence Army. Accordingly, on June 22, 1921, the Russian authorities issued an order to the Korean independence forces stationed in Free City to disarm and, at

8820-465: The sun, and the shouting echoed like thunder. When the Japanese authorities saw this, their faces turned ashen. Japanese authorities pressured the Chinese warlord Zhang Zuolin into suppressing the protest. This resulted in around 17 to 19 deaths. Like in Korea, the Koreans continued to hold protests for weeks afterwards; by mid-May they would host at least 50 more. Koreans in Russia also learned of

8925-686: The team and attacked the Yeongsan police station, killing three enemy police officers. At that time, Yang Gi-tak (梁起鐸), who returned to Manchuria after being imprisoned in 1922, formed the Unification Committee and raised the unification of independence movement groups. In the spring of 1922, representatives of various independence military organizations, including the Korean Independence Corps , Seorogunjeongseo, Bohapdan, Korean Liberation Army General, Military Government, Korea Independence Association, and Gwanghandan gathered together and held

9030-399: The time of its establishment, there were differences in ideology and policy from the beginning. In particular, the conflict between republicanism and monarchism was serious over the seizure of military power. The monarchists, who advocate for the monarchy and aim to return to the existing Joseon dynasty or the Korean Empire , and the republicans who favor the republican government, as seen in

9135-450: The time of the movement. Japan had been successfully rapidly industrializing since the late 19th century. Around this time, Western theories surrounding social Darwinism and colonial civilizing missions gained significant traction in Japan. These theories were often used to justify and promote Japanese colonialism . The devastation during the 1914–1918 First World War was a shock to many, and motivated intellectuals in Korea and around

9240-693: The total strength was about 3,500. Paradoxically, the Korean Independence Corps became more desperate for support, including armament, clothing, and provisions, to maintain a large army. In December of that year, They crossed the Heilong River and were stationed in the Russian Free City Srabske area. With the help of 500,000 Koreans and the Russian Red Army, they received weapons replenishment and sometimes participated in joint operations. Meanwhile, in February 1921,

9345-543: The twenty-eighth. Japanese troops, fire brigades, and civilians are ordered [to shoot, beat, and hook [ sic ]] people mercilessly throughout Korea. Killed several thousand since twenty-seventh. Churches, schools, homes of leaders destroyed. Women made naked and beaten before crowds, especially leaders' family. The imprisoned being severely tortured. Doctors are forbidden caring wounded. Foreign Red Cross urgently needed. Foreigners were also reportedly persecuted by Japanese authorities. American missionary Eli M. Mowry

9450-563: The units that did not respond to disarmament returned to Manchuria from Iman, Primorsky Krai (now Dalnerechensk Province, Primorsky Krai, Russia). Units that moved to Free City suffered the Heihe Incident (Yiqing) in the integration process. After the Heihe Incident, the remaining troops in Free City were reorganized into the Koryo Revolutionary Army. Afterward, the Koryo Revolutionary Army moved to Irkutsk. After

9555-622: The volunteer army withdrew from the Korean Unification Government and reformed the Righteous Army Command . They declared that they would inherit Yu In-seok's loyalty and used the Yonghui era name to represent the tradition of the Righteous Army . Excluding Jeon Deok-won from key positions in the early days of the founding of Unification Government caused dissatisfaction among republicans. Armed conflict continued between

9660-453: The winter of 1919. They were kept in conditions so cold that their hands, feet, and one of their faces froze. There are reports that prisoners were made to strip down in one building and run to another in the cold. One woman reportedly was made to walk from one prison barefoot through the snow to another in order to be processed for her release. Korean Independence Corps The Korean Independence Corps ( Korean :  대한독립군단 )

9765-530: The world to discuss liberal reforms, especially anti-colonialism , and ideals that would serve to discourage future such conflicts. After the end of the war in 1918, United States President Woodrow Wilson announced his vision for establishing peace and the new world order. This vision was dubbed the Fourteen Points, and included the right of national self-determination . Koreans who learned of Wilson's vision were inspired, and interpreted it as signaling support for their independence movement. Their sympathy to

9870-555: Was a militant Korean independence organization that united the Korean Independence armies until its dissolution after the Free City Incident , reorganization in Manchuria , and its final dissolution. As Japan launched a full-fledged attack following defeats such as the Battle of Cheongsanri and the Battle of Fengwudong , independence forces, including the Northern Military Administration Office , decided to move to

9975-619: Was a series of protests against Japanese colonial rule that was held throughout Korea and internationally by the Korean diaspora beginning on March 1, 1919. Protests were largely concentrated in March and April, although related protests continued until 1921. In South Korea, the movement is remembered as a landmark event of not only the Korean independence movement , but of all of Korean history. The protests began in Seoul , with public readings of

10080-519: Was agreed to unconditionally unify the Unification Military Government with the other organizations, but to obey all public decisions. Therefore, the Unification Military Government was reorganized into the Korean Unification Government. On August 30, under the name of Kim Seung-man, Chairman of the Southern Han Chinese Unification Association, the meeting was held to announce the resolution of the formation of

10185-448: Was also suppressed. They launched another the following day. In Moscow on August 12, a public rally in support of the March First Movement was held, and was reportedly attended by around 200 people, including at least one Soviet politician. The rally was left-leaning; its speakers, including an ethnic Korean Red Army officer (likely Yi Ouitjyong ), interpreted the movement in a socialist framework and advocated for Koreans to ally with

10290-758: Was appointed as president, and Kim Jwa-jin was appointed as commander-in-chief. Efforts to create an independent corps by integrating the units of the Anti-Japanese Independence Army continued. A preparatory meeting for the military federation was organized as part of these efforts in September 1924. Lee Beom-yoon (李範允) was appointed president, and Kim Jwa-jin was appointed commander-in-chief. Kim Gyu-sik, Choi Jin-dong, Hyeon Cheon-muk, Kang Guk-mo, Nam Sung-geek, Choi Ho, Park Doo-hee, Yoo Hyeon, Lee Jang-nyeong etc. actively Centering on Dongnyeong County in Manchuria, it expanded its influence along

10395-633: Was located in Gwanjeon County, and by 1923, a total of 26 general government offices were located in Heunggyeong, Hwanin, Tonghua , Ji'an , and Yuha. Local organizations were established to establish local autonomous administration and military training institutions. Representative armed activities included procurement of weapons and military funds, punishment of Japanese secret agents and pro-Japanese forces, and attacks on Japanese institutions such as consulates, police stations, post offices, and

10500-437: Was organized. Accordingly, representatives of the Han Chinese Association, Seorogunjeongseo, and Korean Independence Group united the organizations that had been dispersed until now at the mouth of Hwanin-hyeon, Bongcheon-seong in February 1922 and established the Unification Military Government. Afterwards, Gwanghandan, Korean Liberation Army General, etc. also participated. On May 7, 1922 (lunar calendar), Kim Tae-yeon (金泰淵) led

10605-585: Was reportedly unaware that the protests would occur until they began, and was surprised by the scale and intensity of them. It rushed to recruit people from various backgrounds, including firemen and security guards at railroads, to stop the protests. The government-general received more military police and police officers from Japan, as well as more army divisions. They equipped these groups with lethal weapons and distributed them around Korea. A significant number of mass murders of Korean civilians occurred. There are numerous reports of Japanese authorities around

10710-478: Was reprinted in American newspapers and paired with expressions of outrage. Korean schoolgirls are attested to being stripped and publicly flogged. An anecdote attested to claims a girl had her hand cut off by a Japanese soldier because she was holding a copy of the declaration. She then reportedly switched to holding the item in her other hand, and continued to protest. One female student of Ewha Haktang gave

10815-499: Was reprinted in international newspapers. The role of women in the protests was hailed by international feminist observers, and described as a milestone in their changing social status, especially in contrast to their status during the conservative Joseon period . On March 7, Koreans in Manchuria learned of the movement. They held a large protest in Longjing on March 13. Estimates of the number of protestors vary, although some put

10920-501: Was seen as inadequate compensation. This caused a significant decline in the quality of life for many farmers and laborers, who began publicly protesting their treatment. In 1916, there were 6 strikes with 362 participants. In 1917, there were 8 strikes with 1,128, and by 1918 there were 50 strikes with 4,442. Historians of the National Institute of Korean History argue that this reflected increasing discontent in Korea around

11025-535: Was sentenced to hard labor for allegedly harboring demonstrators. An American woman was reportedly attacked in Pyongyang. According to the League of Friends of Korea , two American women "were beaten by the Japanese soldiers for no other reason than they were sympathetic with the Koreans". Japanese authorities searched the residences of foreigners, reportedly without warrant . According to an August 15 article in

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