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106-458: Kava or kava kava ( Piper methysticum : Latin 'pepper' and Latinized Greek 'intoxicating') is a crop of the Pacific Islands . The name kava is from Tongan and Marquesan , meaning 'bitter'; other names for kava include ʻawa ( Hawaiʻi ), ʻava ( Samoa ), yaqona or yagona ( Fiji ), sakau ( Pohnpei ), seka ( Kosrae ), and malok or malogu (parts of Vanuatu ). Kava

212-445: A French overseas territory, legally unionizing Wallis and Futuna despite the fact that the islands are home to two distinct Polynesian societies with different cultures. Despite being a French colony, Futunan remained relatively protected from the linguistic consequences of European language domination. The situation began to change around the second World War when the numbers of speakers started to decline dramatically. A major event in

318-485: A au e lātou ke kau ano o fakafofoga loku fā kolo i le aso o Toloke. "They represented me to go and represent the village at the festivities in Toloke"). Co-occurring clitic and post-posed pronouns seem to have given way to the unique occurrence of post-posed pronouns with similar focusing functions. The marker 'a' is required before definite plural nouns and noun phrases, post-verbal pronominals and proper nouns, however it

424-459: A depth of 60 centimetres (2.0 ft). Kava consists of sterile cultivars cloned from its wild ancestor, Piper wichmanii . Today it comprises hundreds of different cultivars grown across the Pacific. Each cultivar has not only different requirements for successful cultivation, but also displays unique characteristics both in terms of its appearance and its psychoactive properties. Scholars make

530-494: A different orthography. In daily life, the macron is usually omitted or replaced with a circumflex accent due to difficulties in typing these diacritics on an AZERTY keyboard. The apostrophe for glottal stop is also omitted, especially when located at the beginning of the word. Thus, the phrase mālō le ma’uli 'good morning' is often written as malo le ma’uli or even simply malo le mauli without any apostrophe at all. Claire Moyse-Faurie nevertheless believes that it

636-611: A distinction between the so-called noble and non-noble kava. The latter category comprises the so-called tudei (or "two-day") kavas, medicinal kavas, and wild kava ( Piper wichmanii , the ancestor of domesticated Piper methysticum ). Traditionally, only noble kavas have been used for regular consumption, due to their more favourable composition of kavalactones and other compounds that produce more pleasant effects and have lower potential for causing negative side effects, such as nausea, or "kava hangover". The perceived benefits of noble cultivars explain why only these cultivars were spread around

742-526: A faster pace. It is characterised by greater use of prepositions, and word order that is closer to modern Romance languages, for example, while grammatically retaining more or less the same formal rules as Classical Latin. Ultimately, Latin diverged into a distinct written form, where the commonly spoken form was perceived as a separate language, for instance early French or Italian dialects, that could be transcribed differently. It took some time for these to be viewed as wholly different from Latin however. After

848-743: A few in German , Dutch , Norwegian , Danish and Swedish . Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church . The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology . They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics . Their works were published in manuscript form before

954-404: A few. Famous and well regarded writers included Petrarch, Erasmus, Salutati , Celtis , George Buchanan and Thomas More . Non fiction works were long produced in many subjects, including the sciences, law, philosophy, historiography and theology. Famous examples include Isaac Newton 's Principia . Latin was also used as a convenient medium for translations of important works first written in

1060-457: A fine powder, straining and mixing it with cold water. Traditionally, grog is drunk from the shorn half-shell of a coconut, called a bilo . Grog is very popular in Fiji , especially among young men, and often brings people together for storytelling and socializing. Drinking grog for a few hours brings a numbing and relaxing effect to the drinker; grog also numbs the tongue, and grog drinking typically

1166-436: A list of 118 words collected by William Schouten  [ fr ] and Jacob Le Maire in 1616 during their visit to Futuna . The first orthography for Futunan was developed by Isidore Grétzel, and was largely phonological, with vowel length indicated by a superscript dash (e.g. ā, ē, ī, ō, ū) and glottal stop by an apostrophe . This practice was then adopted and improved by Claire Moyse-Faurie , notably replacing

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1272-402: A macron: ā, ē, ī, ō, ū. Futunan has 11 consonants: 4 plosives /p, t, k, ʔ/; 3 nasals /m, n, ŋ/; 1 liquid /l/; and 3 fricatives /f, v, s/. The Futunan syllable structure is (C)V, examples: eio (yes), tauasu (meeting where one drinks kava), aua (particle of the negative imperative), etc.). As Futunan natives did not have a writing system, the first documented written form of Futunian was

1378-560: A native language, Medieval Latin was used across Western and Catholic Europe during the Middle Ages as a working and literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance , which then developed a classicizing form, called Renaissance Latin . This was the basis for Neo-Latin which evolved during the early modern period . In these periods Latin was used productively and generally taught to be written and spoken, at least until

1484-567: A result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from late antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars. The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, also called Archaic or Early Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom , traditionally founded in 753 BC, through

1590-480: A ritual presentation of the bundled roots as a sevusevu (gift) and drinking of the yaqona itself. Due to the importance of kava in religious rituals and the seemingly (from the Western point of view) unhygienic preparation method, its consumption was discouraged or even banned by Christian missionaries. With kava's increasing popularity, bars serving the plant in its liquid state are beginning to open up outside of

1696-407: A separate language, existing more or less in parallel with the literary or educated Latin, but this is now widely dismissed. The term 'Vulgar Latin' remains difficult to define, referring both to informal speech at any time within the history of Latin, and the kind of informal Latin that had begun to move away from the written language significantly in the post-Imperial period, that led ultimately to

1802-524: A similar mildly psychoactive bitter drink in Austronesian rituals. Cognates for *kava include Pohnpeian sa-kau ; Tongan , Niue , Rapa Nui , Tuamotuan , and Rarotongan kava ; Samoan , Tahitian , and Marquesan ʻava ; and Hawaiian ʻawa . In some languages, most notably Māori kawa , the cognates have come to mean "bitter", "sour", or "acrid" to the taste. In the Cook Islands ,

1908-568: A small effect for treating short-term anxiety . Moderate consumption of kava in its traditional form, i.e., as a water-based suspension of kava roots, has been deemed to present an "acceptably low level of health risk" by the World Health Organization . However, consumption of kava extracts produced with organic solvents , or excessive amounts of poor-quality kava products, may be linked to an increased risk of adverse health outcomes, including potential liver injury . Kava

2014-654: A small number of Latin services held in the Anglican church. These include an annual service in Oxford, delivered with a Latin sermon; a relic from the period when Latin was the normal spoken language of the university. In the Western world, many organizations, governments and schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with formality, tradition, and the roots of Western culture . Canada's motto A mari usque ad mare ("from sea to sea") and most provincial mottos are also in Latin. The Canadian Victoria Cross

2120-429: A sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech. Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus , which contain fragments of everyday speech, gives evidence of an informal register of the language, Vulgar Latin (termed sermo vulgi , "the speech of the masses", by Cicero ). Some linguists, particularly in the nineteenth century, believed this to be

2226-572: A spoken and written language by the scholarship by the Renaissance humanists . Petrarch and others began to change their usage of Latin as they explored the texts of the Classical Latin world. Skills of textual criticism evolved to create much more accurate versions of extant texts through the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and some important texts were rediscovered. Comprehensive versions of authors' works were published by Isaac Casaubon , Joseph Scaliger and others. Nevertheless, despite

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2332-452: A state of calmness, relaxation, and well-being without diminishing cognitive performance. Kava may produce an initial talkative period, followed by muscle relaxation and eventual sleepiness. As noted in one of the earliest Western publications on kava (1886): "A well prepared Kava potion drunk in small quantities produces only pleasant changes in behavior. It is therefore a slightly stimulating drink which helps relieve great fatigue. It relaxes

2438-432: A strictly left-to-right script. During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, from about 75 BC to AD 200, a new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature , which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools , which served as

2544-553: A strong kava drink is normally followed by a hot meal or tea. The meal traditionally follows some time after the drink so that the psychoactives are absorbed into the bloodstream more quickly. Traditionally, no flavoring is added. In Papua New Guinea, the locals in Madang province refer to their kava as waild koniak ("wild cognac" in English). Fijians commonly share a drink called grog , made by pounding sun-dried kava root into

2650-410: A toxic alkaloid (not present in the consumable parts of the plant), pipermethystine . Alkaloids are present in the roots and leaves. The following pharmacological actions have been reported for kava and/or its major active constituents: Receptor binding assays with botanical extracts have revealed direct interactions of leaf extracts of kava (which appear to be more active than root extracts) with

2756-693: A vernacular, such as those of Descartes . Latin education underwent a process of reform to classicise written and spoken Latin. Schooling remained largely Latin medium until approximately 1700. Until the end of the 17th century, the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin. Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a Romance language ) and later native or other languages. Education methods gradually shifted towards written Latin, and eventually concentrating solely on reading skills. The decline of Latin education took several centuries and proceeded much more slowly than

2862-411: Is Veritas ("truth"). Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue. Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name Helvetia on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's four official languages . For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code CH , which stands for Confoederatio Helvetica ,

2968-519: Is endemic to New Zealand and nearby Norfolk Island and Lord Howe Island . It was exploited by the Māori based on previous knowledge of the kava, as the latter could not survive in the colder climates of New Zealand. The Māori name for the plant, kawakawa , is derived from the same etymon as kava, but reduplicated . It is a sacred tree among the Māori people . It is seen as a symbol of death, corresponding to

3074-897: Is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages . Latin was originally spoken by the Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio ), the lower Tiber area around Rome , Italy. Through the expansion of the Roman Republic it became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and subsequently throughout the Roman Empire . By the late Roman Republic , Old Latin had evolved into standardized Classical Latin . Vulgar Latin refers to

3180-510: Is a member of the diminishing set of native Pacific languages . it is classified as endangered. King Sigave signed a treaty establishing a French protectorate on 16 February 1888, after being pressured by missionaries to do so. The islands were put under the authority of the French colony of New Caledonia . In 1917, the three traditional kingdoms of Wallis, Futuna and Alofi were annexed as colonies of France. In 1961 citizens voted on becoming

3286-640: Is a reversal of the original phrase Non terrae plus ultra ("No land further beyond", "No further!"). According to legend , this phrase was inscribed as a warning on the Pillars of Hercules , the rocks on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar and the western end of the known, Mediterranean world. Charles adopted the motto following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of taking risks and striving for excellence. In

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3392-826: Is absent in New Zealand , where it cannot grow. Consumption of kava is also believed to be the reason why betel nut chewing , ubiquitous elsewhere, was lost for Austronesians in Oceania. According to Lynch (2002), the reconstructed Proto-Polynesian term for the plant, *kava , was derived from the Proto-Oceanic term *kawaR in the sense of a "bitter root" or "potent root [used as fish poison]". It may have been related to reconstructed *wakaR (in Proto-Oceanic and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian ) via metathesis . It originally referred to Zingiber zerumbet , used to make

3498-417: Is closely related to other Western Polynesian languages : Fagauvea , Wallisian , Tongan , Samoan , Tokelau , and Niuafoʻou . It is classified as Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Oceanic, Central-Eastern Oceanic, Remote Oceanic, Central Pacific, East Fijian-Polynesian, Polynesian, Nuclear, Samoic-Outlier, Futunic, Futuna, East. This language

3604-540: Is conspecific with Piper wichmannii, indicating Kava was domesticated from Piper wichmannii (syn. Piper subbullatum ). Kava originated in Fiji and spread through the pacific by Polynesian navigation . It was spread by the Austronesian Lapita culture after contact eastward into the rest of Polynesia . It is endemic to Oceania and is not found in other Austronesian groups. Kava reached Hawaii , but it

3710-552: Is consumed for its sedating effects throughout the Pacific Ocean cultures of Polynesia , including Hawaii and Vanuatu , Melanesia , some parts of Micronesia , such as Pohnpei and Kosrae , and the Philippines . The root of the plant is used to produce a drink with sedative , anesthetic , and euphoriant properties. Its active ingredients are called kavalactones . A 2003 systematic review concluded it had

3816-457: Is essential to note the vowel length and the glottal stroke in order to distinguish words correctly and avoid any confusion. Similarly, the spacing of words differs between the official orthography and the majority usage of Futunans. For example, the official spelling separates prepositions from articles ( ko le, i le, ki le ), whereas self-taught orthography tends to use no spacing at all ( kole, ile, kile ). The third person pronoun

3922-453: Is followed by a "chaser" or sweet or spicy snack to follow a bilo . Water extraction is the traditional method for preparation of the plant. Pharmaceutical and herbal supplement companies extract kavalactones from the kava plant using solvents such as supercritical carbon dioxide , acetone , and ethanol to produce pills standardized with between 30% and 90% kavalactones. Numerous scholars and regulatory bodies have raised concerns over

4028-552: Is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy have retained a remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Muslim conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously. The spoken Latin that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from

4134-406: Is generally detectable for up to 48 hours. Kava is consumed in various ways throughout the Pacific Ocean cultures of Polynesia , Vanuatu , Melanesia , and some parts of Micronesia and Australia . Traditionally, it is prepared by either chewing, grinding, or pounding the roots of the kava plant. Grinding is done by hand against a cone-shaped block of dead coral ; the hand forms a mortar and

4240-460: Is greatest in the roots and decreases higher up the plant into the stems and leaves. Relative concentrations of 15%, 10%, and 5% have been observed in the root, stump, and basal stems, respectively. The relative content of kavalactones depends not only on plant segment but also on the kava plant variety, plant maturity, geographic location, and time of harvest. The kavalactones present are kavain , demethoxyyangonin , and yangonin , which are higher in

4346-528: Is made of lateral roots only. A total of 18 different kavalactones (or kavapyrones) have been identified to date, at least 15 of which are active. However, six of them, including kavain , dihydrokavain , methysticin , dihydromethysticin , yangonin , and desmethoxyyangonin , have been determined to be responsible for about 96% of the plant's pharmacological activity. Some minor constituents, including three chalcones — flavokavain A , flavokavain B , and flavokavain C — have also been identified, as well as

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4452-689: Is modelled after the British Victoria Cross which has the inscription "For Valour". Because Canada is officially bilingual, the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the Latin Pro Valore . Spain's motto Plus ultra , meaning "even further", or figuratively "Further!", is also Latin in origin. It is taken from the personal motto of Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I), and

4558-814: Is not required for phrases preceded by an article or possessive pronoun. The marker 'e' is used in front of ergative arguments. The markers 'i' and 'ki' cover a range of meanings and satisfy a range of conditions. Most commonly the objects of 'i' are obligatory, while only some objects of 'ki' are. They are used extensively as directional, causal, or instrumental case markers. They refer to destination, aim or purpose as well as verbs of feeling, address or sensation. The verb classes consists of impersonal , intransitive (A/A + I) , middle (A + Ki), transitive (A + E), "AA + E", "AA + I" or AA + E" verbs. most AA + I and A + E verbs undergo derivation to change their argument structure. Futunan has single, double and triple argument structures. Suffixes 'i' and 'ki' are used to derive verbs,

4664-475: Is now rarely used in Futunan. For all pronoun references, except third person singular, Futunan offers a choice of pre-posed and post-posed pronouns, which are pronouns placed before or after the subject. Modern Futunan has done away with the possibility of expressing pre-posed and post-posed pronouns. Clitic pronouns (clitic pronouns are dependent on an adjacent word and cannot stand on their own in meaning. ) of

4770-437: Is strictly regulated. Only cultivars classified as noble are allowed to be exported. Only the most desirable cultivars for everyday drinking are classified as noble to maintain quality control. In addition, their laws mandate that exported kava must be at least five years old and farmed organically. Their most popular noble cultivars are "Borogu" or "Borongoru" from Pentecost Island , "Melomelo" from Aoba Island (called Sese in

4876-1011: Is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas. It is most common in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian liceo classico and liceo scientifico , the German Humanistisches Gymnasium and the Dutch gymnasium . Occasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast in Latin. Notable examples include Radio Bremen in Germany, YLE radio in Finland (the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until it

4982-543: The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy . About 270,000 inscriptions are known. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. In

5088-535: The GABA (i.e., main) binding site of the GABA A receptor, the D 2 receptor , the μ- and δ-opioid receptors , and the H 1 and H 2 receptors . Weak interaction with the 5-HT 6 and 5-HT 7 receptors and the benzodiazepine site of the GABA A receptor was also observed. Potentiation of GABA A receptor activity may underlie the anxiolytic effects of kava, while elevation of dopamine levels in

5194-583: The Holy See , the primary language of its public journal , the Acta Apostolicae Sedis , and the working language of the Roman Rota . Vatican City is also home to the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions in Latin. In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language. There are

5300-574: The Middle Ages , borrowing from Latin occurred from ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century or indirectly after the Norman Conquest , through the Anglo-Norman language . From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed " inkhorn terms ", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by

5406-478: The Moʻi variety, which had a strong cerebral effect due to a predominant amount of the kavalactone kavain. This sacred variety was so important to them that no one but royalty could ever experience it, "lest they suffer an untimely death". The reverence for Hiwa in old Hawaiʻi is evident in this portion of a chant recorded by Nathaniel Bright Emerson and quoted by E. S. Craighill and Elizabeth Green Handy: "This refers to

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5512-576: The Roman Rite of the Catholic Church at the Vatican City . The church continues to adapt concepts from modern languages to Ecclesiastical Latin of the Latin language. Contemporary Latin is more often studied to be read rather than spoken or actively used. Latin has greatly influenced the English language , along with a large number of others, and historically contributed many words to

5618-569: The Romance languages . During the Classical period, informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors, inscriptions such as Curse tablets and those found as graffiti . In the Late Latin period, language changes reflecting spoken (non-classical) norms tend to be found in greater quantities in texts. As it

5724-636: The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses. While the written form of Latin was increasingly standardized into a fixed form, the spoken forms began to diverge more greatly. Currently, the five most widely spoken Romance languages by number of native speakers are Spanish , Portuguese , French , Italian , and Romanian . Despite dialectal variation, which

5830-637: The British Crown. The motto is featured on all presently minted coinage and has been featured in most coinage throughout the nation's history. Several states of the United States have Latin mottos , such as: Many military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as: Some law governing bodies in the Philippines have Latin mottos, such as: Some colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example Harvard University 's motto

5936-613: The English lexicon , particularly after the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman Conquest . Latin and Ancient Greek roots are heavily used in English vocabulary in theology , the sciences , medicine , and law . A number of phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As

6042-599: The Grinch Stole Christmas! , The Cat in the Hat , and a book of fairy tales, " fabulae mirabiles ", are intended to garner popular interest in the language. Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook . Some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series,

6148-660: The Hiwa variety, was offered to hula deities in return for knowledge and inspiration. More recently, specialized kava varieties have been introduced to South Florida which have been acclimated and adapted to grow well in South Florida's unique soil and climate and have significant resistance to pest and disease pressures. As of 2024, cultivation of these varieties is limited to a small number of commercial farms and backyard growers. The Kawakawa ( Piper excelsum ) plant, known also as "Māori kava", may be confused with kava. While

6254-612: The Maori explorers brought some kava with them. Unfortunately, most of New Zealand is simply too cold for growing kava and hence the Maori settlers lost their connection to the sacred plant." Further, "in New Zealand, where the climate is too cold for kava, the Maori gave the name kawa-kawa to another Piperaceae M. excelsum , in memory of the kava plants they undoubtedly brought with them and unsuccessfully attempted to cultivate. The Maori word kawa also means "ceremonial protocol", recalling

6360-960: The Pacific by Polynesian and Melanesian migrants, with presence of non-noble cultivars limited to the islands of Vanuatu, from which they originated. More recently, it has been suggested that the widespread use of tudei cultivars in the manufacturing of several kava products might have been the key factor contributing to the rare reports of adverse reactions to kava observed among the consumers of kava-based products in Europe. Tudei varieties have traditionally not been grown in Hawaii and Fiji, but in recent years there have been reports of farmers attempting to grow "isa" or "palisi" non-noble cultivars in Hawaii, and of imports of dried tudei kava into Fiji for further re-exporting. The tudei cultivars may be easier and cheaper to grow: while it takes up to 5 years for noble kava to mature, non-noble varieties can often be harvested just one year after being planted. The concerns about

6466-478: The South Pacific. While some bars have been committed to only serving the traditional forms and types of kava, other establishments have been accused of serving non-traditionally consumed non-noble kava varieties, which are cheaper but far more likely to cause unpleasant effects and adverse reactions, or of serving kava with other substances, including alcohol . The nature of effects will largely depend on

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6572-467: The United States the unofficial national motto until 1956 was E pluribus unum meaning "Out of many, one". The motto continues to be featured on the Great Seal . It also appears on the flags and seals of both houses of congress and the flags of the states of Michigan, North Dakota, New York, and Wisconsin. The motto's 13 letters symbolically represent the original Thirteen Colonies which revolted from

6678-563: The University of Kentucky, the University of Oxford and also Princeton University. There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The Latin Misplaced Pages has more than 130,000 articles. Italian , French , Portuguese , Spanish , Romanian , Catalan , Romansh , Sardinian and other Romance languages are direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin borrowings in English and Albanian , as well as

6784-407: The adverse effects of non-noble varieties, produced by their undesirable composition of kavalactones and high concentrations of potentially harmful compounds ( flavokavains , which are not present in any significant concentration in the noble varieties), have led to legislation prohibiting exports from countries such as Vanuatu. Likewise, efforts have been made to educate non-traditional customers about

6890-437: The author and then forgotten, but some useful ones survived, such as 'imbibe' and 'extrapolate'. Many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French . Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and Dutch vocabularies. Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Futunan language The language

6996-425: The benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics . The libretto for the opera-oratorio Oedipus rex by Igor Stravinsky is in Latin. Parts of Carl Orff 's Carmina Burana are written in Latin. Enya has recorded several tracks with Latin lyrics. The continued instruction of Latin is seen by some as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts education. Latin

7102-599: The body after strenuous efforts, clarifies the mind and sharpens the mental faculties". Despite its psychoactive effects, kava is not considered to be physically addictive and its use does not lead to dependency. There is limited safety information available on the effects of kava consumption, but in general, moderate consumption appears unlikely to be harmful, while there is evidence of harm from heavy use. Latin Latin ( lingua Latina , pronounced [ˈlɪŋɡʷa ɫaˈtiːna] , or Latinum [ɫaˈtiːnʊ̃] )

7208-409: The careful work of Petrarch, Politian and others, first the demand for manuscripts, and then the rush to bring works into print, led to the circulation of inaccurate copies for several centuries following. Neo-Latin literature was extensive and prolific, but less well known or understood today. Works covered poetry, prose stories and early novels, occasional pieces and collections of letters, to name

7314-414: The chemical solvents' ability to extract far greater amounts of the potentially toxic compounds than water, makes them particularly problematic. In the context of these concerns, the World Health Organization advises against the consumption of ethanolic and acetonic kavalactone extracts, and says that "products should be developed from water-based suspensions of kava". The government of Australia prohibits

7420-415: The classicised Latin that followed through to the present are often grouped together as Neo-Latin , or New Latin, which have in recent decades become a focus of renewed study , given their importance for the development of European culture, religion and science. The vast majority of written Latin belongs to this period, but its full extent is unknown. The Renaissance reinforced the position of Latin as

7526-409: The coral a pestle . The ground root/bark is combined with only a little water, as the fresh root releases moisture during grinding. Pounding is done in a large stone with a small log. The product is then added to cold water and consumed as quickly as possible. The extract is an emulsion of kavalactone droplets in starch. The taste is slightly pungent, while the distinctive aroma depends on whether it

7632-465: The country's full Latin name. Some film and television in ancient settings, such as Sebastiane , The Passion of the Christ and Barbarians (2020 TV series) , have been made with dialogue in Latin. Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as The Exorcist and Lost (" Jughead "). Subtitles are usually shown for

7738-443: The cultivar of the kava plant and the form of its consumption. Traditionally, only noble kava cultivars have been consumed, as they are accepted as safe and produce desired effects. The specific effects of various noble kavas depend on various factors, such as the cultivar used (and the related specific composition of kavalactones), age of the plant, and method of consumption. However, it can be stated that in general, noble kava produces

7844-506: The cup of sacramental ʻawa brewed from the strong, black ʻawa root (ʻawa hiwa), which was drunk sacramentally by the kumu hula": The day of revealing shall see what it sees: A seeing of facts, a sifting of rumors, An insight won by the black sacred 'awa, A vision like that of a god! Winter describes a hula prayer for inspiration that contains the line, He ʻike pū ʻawa hiwa. Pukui and Elbert translated this as "a knowledge from kava offerings". Winter explains that ʻawa, especially of

7950-503: The decline in written Latin output. Despite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary world. The largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church . The Catholic Church required that Mass be carried out in Latin until the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965 , which permitted the use of the vernacular . Latin remains

8056-508: The decline was the immigration of a large number of native Futunian speakers to New Caledonia. French has since enveloped Futunan in society, becoming the primary language used in grade schools. Futunans speak and use their language daily, mainly only using French in contact with European natives, or within the educational spheres. RFO-radio airs 15 minutes daily news broadcasts in Futunan. The Futunan language has five vowels; /a, e, i, o, u/, which can be short or long. Long vowels are denoted by

8162-445: The difference between noble and non-noble varieties and that non-noble varieties do not offer the same results as noble cultivars. In recent years, government regulatory bodies and non-profit NGOs have been set up with the declared aim of monitoring kava quality; producing regular reports; certifying vendors selling proper, noble kava; and warning customers against products that may contain tudei varieties. In Vanuatu, exportation of kava

8268-589: The educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Without the institutions of the Roman Empire that had supported its uniformity, Medieval Latin

8374-743: The first and second type may correspond to different types of arguments: the absolute of intransitive clauses, the ergative of transitive clauses, and the absolute of transitive clauses. In some cases unique to the Polynesian language family, Futunan uses a pre-posed pronoun to refer to the patient of an ergative verb. In casual conversation the use of a pre-verbal pronoun can be rather frequent. Futunan makes extensive syntactic use of pre-posed pronouns in conversation, where post-posed pronouns are used more in tails. Sentences containing post-posed pronouns only have two possible word orders: VAO (Verb, Adverb, Object) or VOA (Verb, Object, Adverb) (Example: etusiʻi

8480-703: The invention of printing and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library , published by Harvard University Press , or the Oxford Classical Texts , published by Oxford University Press . Latin translations of modern literature such as: The Hobbit , Treasure Island , Robinson Crusoe , Paddington Bear , Winnie the Pooh , The Adventures of Tintin , Asterix , Harry Potter , Le Petit Prince , Max and Moritz , How

8586-704: The language of the Roman Rite . The Tridentine Mass (also known as the Extraordinary Form or Traditional Latin Mass) is celebrated in Latin. Although the Mass of Paul VI (also known as the Ordinary Form or the Novus Ordo) is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings. It is the official language of

8692-440: The large areas where it had come to be natively spoken. However, even after the fall of Western Rome , Latin remained the common language of international communication , science, scholarship and academia in Europe until well into the early 19th century, by which time modern languages had supplanted it in common academic and political usage. Late Latin is the literary language from the 3rd century AD onward. No longer spoken as

8798-401: The large-diameter pieces that look like 1.5 to 5 inches (38 to 127 mm)-diameter wooden poker chips. Most kava plants consist of approximately 80% crown root upon harvesting. Lateral roots are smaller-diameter roots that look more like a typical root. A mature kava plant is about 20% lateral roots. Kava lateral roots have the highest content of kavalactones in the kava plant. "Waka" grade kava

8904-467: The late seventeenth century, when spoken skills began to erode. It then became increasingly taught only to be read. Latin grammar is highly fusional , with classes of inflections for case , number , person , gender , tense , mood , voice , and aspect . The Latin alphabet is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets . Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and

9010-431: The later part of the Roman Republic , up to 75 BC, i.e. before the age of Classical Latin . It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence . The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet . The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon script to what ultimately became

9116-421: The less prestigious colloquial registers , attested in inscriptions and some literary works such as those of the comic playwrights Plautus and Terence and the author Petronius . While often called a "dead language", Latin did not undergo language death . By the 6th to 9th centuries, natural language change eventually resulted in Latin as a vernacular language evolving into distinct Romance languages in

9222-434: The north Pentecost Island ), and "Palarasul" kava from Espiritu Santo . In Vanuatu, Tudei ("two-day") kava is reserved for special ceremonial occasions and exporting it is not allowed. "Palisi" is a popular Tudei variety. In Hawaii , there are many other cultivars of kava ( Hawaiian : ʻawa ). Some of the most popular cultivars are Mahakea , Moʻi , Hiwa , and Nene . The Aliʻi (kings) of precolonial Hawaii coveted

9328-766: The nucleus accumbens likely underlie the moderately psychotropic effects the plant can produce. Changes in the activity of 5-HT neurons could explain the sleep-inducing action. However, failure of the GABA A receptor inhibitor flumazenil to reverse the anxiolytic effects of kava in mice suggests that benzodiazepine -like effects are not contributing to the pharmacological profile of kava extracts. Heavy, long-term use of kava has been found to be free of association with reduced ability in saccade and cognitive tests , but has been associated with elevated liver enzymes. Recent usage of kava has been documented in forensic investigations by quantitation of kavain in blood specimens. The principal urinary metabolite, conjugated 4'-OH-kavain,

9434-494: The only productive suffix is 'a' which means "be full of". If an absolute argument in a sentence with a non-derived verb represents an agent, it will be marked as an ergative , and a patient will be added in the absolute case. (Example: "kutu" means lice; "kutu-a" means be covered with lice). If an absolutive argument represents a patient in a sentence with a derived verb, it will contain an additional ergative argument. (Example: "lamata" means tame, "faka-lamata" means be tamed by). In

9540-466: The other varieties, as it was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire. Spoken Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing. For many Italians using Latin, though, there

9646-520: The rangiora ( Brachyglottis repanda ), which is the symbol of life. However, kawakawa has no psychoactive properties. Its connection to kava is linked to its similarity in appearance and bitter taste. Kava was historically grown only in the Pacific islands of Hawaii , Federated States of Micronesia , Vanuatu , Fiji , the Samoas , and Tonga . An inventory of P. methysticum distribution showed it

9752-438: The reduplicated forms of kawakawa or kavakava are also applied to the unrelated members of the genus Pittosporum . In other languages, such as Futunan , compound terms like kavakava atua refer to other species belonging to the genus Piper . The reduplication of the base form is indicative of falsehood or likeness, in the sense of "false kava". In New Zealand , it was applied to the kawakawa ( Piper excelsum ), which

9858-448: The roots than in the stems and leaves, with dihydrokavain , methysticin , and dihydromethysticin also present. The mature roots of the kava plant are harvested after a minimum of four years (at least five years, ideally) for peak kavalactone content. Most kava plants produce around 50 kg (110 lb) of root when they are harvested. Kava root is classified into two categories: crown root (or chips) and lateral root. Crown roots are

9964-576: The safety profile of such products. One group of scholars say that organic solvents introduce compounds that may affect the liver into the standardized product; these compounds are not extracted by water and are consequently largely absent from kava prepared with water. For instance, when compared with water extraction, organic solvents extract vastly larger amounts of flavokavains, compounds associated with adverse reactions to kava that are present in very low concentrations in noble kava, but significant in non-noble. Also, "chemical solvents used do not extract

10070-472: The sales of such kavalactone extracts, and only permits the sale of kava products in their natural form or produced with cold water. Kava is used for medicinal, religious, political, cultural, and social purposes throughout the Pacific. These cultures have a great respect for the plant and place a high importance on it. In Fiji, for example, a formal yaqona (kava) ceremony will often accompany important social, political, or religious functions, usually involving

10176-449: The same compounds as the natural water extracts in traditional use. The extraction process may exclude important modifying constituents soluble only in water". In particular, it has been noted that, unlike traditional water-based preparations, products obtained with the use of organic solvents do not contain glutathione , an important liver-protecting compound. Another group of researchers noted: "The extraction process (aqueous vs. acetone in

10282-494: The stylized consumption of the drug typical of Polynesian societies". Kawakawa is commonly used in Maori traditional medicine for the treatment of skin infections, wounds, and cuts, and (when prepared as a tea) for stomach upsets and other minor illnesses. Fresh kava root contains on average 80% water . Dried root contains approximately 43% starch , 20% dietary fiber , 15% kavalactones , 12% water, 3.2% sugars , 3.6% protein , and 3.2% minerals . In general, kavalactone content

10388-485: The superscript denoting vowel length with a macron . In the Futunan orthography nasal velar consonant [ ŋ ] is written as ⟨g⟩ . This practice differs from the other Polynesian languages such as Tongan , where the said phoneme is written as ⟨ng⟩ (e.g. Tongan tangata vs. Futunan tagata , 'man'). Despite the adoption of the Futunan orthography proposed by Moyse-Faurie for teaching and official uses, both Futunans and Wallisians use

10494-542: The two plants look similar and have similar names, they are different, but related, species. Kawakawa is a small tree endemic to New Zealand, having importance to traditional medicine and Māori culture . As noted by the Kava Society of New Zealand, "in all likelihood, the kava plant was known to the first settlers of Aotearoa [New Zealand]. It is also possible that (just like the Polynesian migrants that settled in Hawaii)

10600-481: The two types of preparations) is responsible for the difference in toxicity as extraction of glutathione in addition to the kava lactones is important to provide protection against hepatotoxicity". It has also been argued that kavalactone extracts have often been made from low-quality plant material, including the toxic aerial parts of the plant that contain the hepatotoxic alkaloid Pipermethystine , non-noble kava varieties, or plants affected by mold — which, in light of

10706-531: Was cultivated on numerous islands of Micronesia , Melanesia , Polynesia , and Hawaii , whereas specimens of P. wichmannii were all from Papua New Guinea , the Solomon Islands , and Vanuatu. Traditionally, plants are harvested around four years of age, as older plants have higher concentrations of kavalactones. After reaching about 2 metres (6.6 ft) in height, plants grow a wider stalk and additional stalks, but not much taller. The roots can reach

10812-413: Was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, Romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages . Late Latin is a kind of written Latin used in the 3rd to 6th centuries. This began to diverge from Classical forms at

10918-496: Was much more liberal in its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use fui and fueram instead. Furthermore, the meanings of many words were changed and new words were introduced, often under influence from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail. Renaissance Latin, 1300 to 1500, and

11024-441: Was no complete separation between Italian and Latin, even into the beginning of the Renaissance . Petrarch for example saw Latin as a literary version of the spoken language. Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the post-classical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed, that is from around 700 to 1500 AD. The spoken language had developed into the various Romance languages; however, in

11130-409: Was prepared from dry or fresh plant, and on the variety. The colour is grey to tan to opaque greenish. Kava prepared as described above is much more potent than processed kava. Chewing produces the strongest effect because it produces the finest particles. Fresh, undried kava produces a stronger beverage than dry kava. The strength also depends on the species and techniques of cultivation. In Vanuatu,

11236-482: Was shut down in June 2019), and Vatican Radio & Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other material in Latin. A variety of organisations, as well as informal Latin 'circuli' ('circles'), have been founded in more recent times to support the use of spoken Latin. Moreover, a number of university classics departments have begun incorporating communicative pedagogies in their Latin courses. These include

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