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57-754: The Kawasaki C-1 (川崎 C-1) is a twin-engined short-range military transport aircraft developed and manufactured by the Japanese conglomerate Kawasaki Heavy Industries . It is solely used by the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF). Development of the C-1 commenced in 1966 in response to a requirement from the JASDF, which sought an indigenous jet-powered replacement for its aging Second World War –era Curtiss C-46 Commando transport fleet. First flown on 12 November 1970, quantity production of

114-649: A great circle route. Hence, in case of an engine failure in a twinjet (like Boeing 777 ), the twin-jet could make emergency landings in fields in Canada , Alaska , eastern Russia , Greenland , Iceland , or the British Isles . The Boeing 777 has also been approved by the Federal Aviation Administration for flights between North America and Hawaii , which is the world's longest regular airline route with no diversion airports along

171-518: A podded engine usually mounted beneath, or occasionally above or within, each wing. Most notable examples of such a configuration are the Boeing 737 and Airbus A320 . The second has one engine mounted on each side of the rear fuselage, close to its empennage , used by many business jets , although some airliners like the Fokker 70 , Douglas DC-9 and COMAC ARJ21 utilise such a design as well. In

228-713: A starship crew in science fiction , where they are sometimes called astrogators, a merger of the prefix "astro" and "navigator". According to a science fiction citations site for the Oxford English Dictionary , the earliest known use of the word is in David Lasser 's 1931 book The Conquest of Space . According to that site and also Brave New Words: The Oxford Dictionary of Science Fiction , it first appeared in science fiction in Stanley G. Weinbaum 's short story " The Planet of Doubt ", published in

285-406: A comprehensive passage plan depending on the size and type of vessel, each applicable according to the individual situation. A good passage plan will include a track line laid out upon the largest-scale charts available which cover the vessel's track. The navigator will draw and redraw the track line until it is safe, efficient, and in line with all applicable laws and regulations. When the track

342-495: A folio of over three thousand charts this can be a laborious and time-consuming task for the navigator. Various and diverse methods exist for the correction of electronic navigational charts. The term nautical publications is used in maritime circles to describe a set of publications, generally published by national governments, for use in safe navigation of ships, boats, and similar vessels. The nature of waterways described by any given nautical publication changes regularly, and

399-402: A greater understanding of structural design and fatigue -prevention techniques, were transferred into the manufacture of automotive and rolling stock , along with smaller-scale items such as control panels and display systems. However, Samuels also notes that a high-priority political goal of the programme, the transformation of Japan's aerospace companies to become global leaders in the field,

456-639: A level equal to surface warfare officers. U.S. Coast Guard officers that are shipboard navigators are normally cutter qualified at a level analogous to the USN officers previously mentioned. Quartermasters are the navigator's enlisted assistants and perform most of the technical navigation duties. Aboard ships in the Merchant Marine and Merchant Navy , the second mate is generally the (senior) navigator. Navigators are sometimes also called 'air navigators' or 'flight navigators'. In civil aviation this

513-709: A mariner navigating by use of an old or uncorrected publication is courting disaster. Every producer of nautical publications also provides a system to inform mariners of changes that affect the chart. In the United States, corrections and notifications of new editions are provided by various governmental agencies by way of Notice to Mariners , Local Notice to Mariners , Summary of Corrections , and Broadcast Notice to Mariners. Radio broadcasts give advance notice of urgent corrections. For ensuring that all publications are fully up-to-date, similar methods are employed as for nautical charts. Various and diverse methods exist for

570-669: A maritime or flight region and adjacent coastal regions. Depending on the scale of the chart, it may show depths of water and heights of land, natural features of the seabed, details of the coastline, navigational hazards, locations of natural and man-made aids to navigation , information on tides and currents , local details of the Earth's magnetic field , restricted flying areas, and man-made structures such as harbors , buildings and bridges . Nautical charts are essential tools for marine navigation; many countries require vessels, especially commercial ships, to carry them. Nautical charting may take

627-559: A pre-voyage conference (USAF term is "mission briefing") in order to ensure that all members of the team share the same mental model of the entire trip. Passage planning procedures are specified in International Maritime Organization Resolutions, in the laws of IMO signatory countries (for example, Title 33 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations ), and a number of professional books and USN/USAF publications. There are some fifty elements of

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684-408: A specified distance from an available diversion airport. Overwater flights near diversion airports need not be ETOPS/LROPS-compliant. Since the 1990s, airlines have increasingly turned from four-engine or three-engine airliners to twin-engine airliners to operate transatlantic and transpacific flight routes. On a nonstop flight from America to Asia or Europe, the long-range aircraft usually follows

741-541: A trijet aircraft) and Boeing worked on new widebody twinjet designs that would become the Airbus A330 and Boeing 777 , respectively. The MD-11's long range advantage was brief as it was soon nullified by the Airbus A330-300 and the extended-range Boeing 767-300ER and Boeing 777-200ER. The Airbus A320 twinjet stands out as the most produced jet airliner. The Boeing 777X is the world's largest twinjet, and

798-517: A whole truck or a pair of jeeps , which would be loaded via a ramp deployed at the airlifter's rear. It was designed to be typically operated by a crew of five, comprising two pilots, a flight engineer , a navigator , and a loadmaster. The C-1 incorporates a high-lift system, which includes aerodynamic features such as a leading edge slat and a four-stage Fowler flap , facilitates a high level of short takeoff and landing (STOL) performance, while day-and-night all-weather operations are achieved via

855-735: Is finished, it is becoming common practice to also enter it into electronic navigation tools such as an Electronic Chart Display and Information System , a chartplotter , or a GPS unit. Once the voyage has begun the progress of the vessel along its planned route must be monitored. This requires that the ship's position be determined, using standard methods including dead reckoning , radar fixing, celestial navigation , pilotage , and electronic navigation , to include usage of GPS and navigation computer equipment. Passage planning software, tide and tidal current predictors, celestial navigational calculators, consumables estimators for fuel, oil, water, and stores, and other useful applications. The navigator

912-474: Is not an issue, as one of the engines is more than powerful enough to keep the aircraft aloft (see below). Mostly, ETOPS certification involves maintenance and design requirements ensuring that a failure of one engine cannot make the other one fail also. The engines and related systems need to be independent and (in essence) independently maintained. ETOPS/LROPS is often incorrectly thought to apply only to long overwater flights, but it applies to any flight more than

969-415: Is responsible for the maintenance of the ship's navigational equipment. U.S. Air Force navigators are responsible for troubleshooting problems of the navigation equipment while airborne, but the ground Maintenance personnel are ultimately responsible for the repair and upkeep of that aircraft's navigation system. Boats and ships can use several Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) to navigate all of

1026-402: Is the person on board a ship or aircraft responsible for its navigation . The navigator's primary responsibility is to be aware of ship or aircraft position at all times. Responsibilities include planning the journey, advising the ship's captain or aircraft commander of estimated timing to destinations while en route, and ensuring hazards are avoided. The navigator is in charge of maintaining

1083-399: Is with a "chart and publication correction record card" system. Using this system, the navigator does not immediately update every chart in the portfolio when a new Notice to Mariners arrives, instead creating a card for every chart and noting the correction on this card. When the time comes to use the chart, the navigator pulls the chart and chart's card, and makes the indicated corrections on

1140-518: The 777X in November 2013, while then-CEO Fabrice Brégier preferred to focus on product improvement rather than all-new concepts for 10 years. It would have a 10-abreast economy like the 777; its 565 m (6,081 sq ft) wing, slightly more than the 747-8, would have an 80 m (262 ft) span, as wide as the A380 , for a 892,900 lb (405 t) MTOW compared to 775,000 lb (352 t) for

1197-399: The Boeing 777 , Boeing 787 and Airbus A350 have matched or surpassed older quad-jet designs such as the Boeing 747 and Airbus A340 in these aspects, and twinjets have been more successful in terms of sales than quad-jets. In 2012, Airbus studied a 470-seat twinjet competitor for the Boeing 747-8 with lower operating costs expected between 2023 and 2030, revived after Boeing launched

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1254-673: The Lockheed C-130 Hercules , motivating some officials within the JASDF to lobby for a domestically designed and -manufactured transport aircraft with which to replace it. Such ambitions were successfully incorporated into the Third Defense Buildup Plan. With this purpose in mind, the JASDF approached the Nihon Aircraft Manufacturing Corporation (NAMC), a consortium of several major Japanese corporations, which

1311-597: The rudder was built by seaplane specialist Shin Meiwa , while the flaps were manufactured by NIPPI Corporation . At the time of its development, the C-1 was only the third indigenous aircraft programme to be undertaken in postwar Japan, coming after only the Fuji T-1 intermediate trainer aircraft and the YS-11 itself. In terms of its basic configuration, the C-1 is a twin-engine medium-range airlifter, somewhat resembling

1368-753: The 777-200LR variant has the world's second longest aircraft range (behind Airbus A350-900 ULR). Other Boeing twinjets include the 767 , 757 (With the latter having stopped production, but still in commercial service) and 787 . Competitor Airbus produces the A320 family , the A330 , and the A350 . Some modern commercial airplanes still use four engines ( quad-jets ) like the Airbus A380 and Boeing 747-8 , which are classified as very large aircraft (over 400 seats in mixed-class configurations). Four engines are still used on

1425-432: The 777X, with a composite structure for an operating empty weight of 467,400 lb (212 t), and a 8,150 nmi (15,090 km) range at Mach 0.85. When flying far from diversionary airports (so called ETOPS/LROPS flights), the aircraft must be able to reach an alternate on the remaining engine within a specified time in case of one engine failure. When aircraft are certified according to ETOPS standards, thrust

1482-598: The C-1's design as the basis for a next-generation commercial transport project. While some work was undertaken on this initiative, it was subsequently decided to discard such efforts in order to concentrate on international collaboration efforts, such as on the American aerospace company Boeing 's new 767 airliner. Efforts were made to incorporate the technologies and knowledge learned from the C-1 programme into other sectors of Japanese commercial undertakings; according to author Richard J. Samuels, substantial benefits, such as

1539-428: The JASDF's 401st Tactical Airlift Squadron in 1989. Another reason for the curtailment was the enactment of general cutbacks upon various military programmes and procurement initiatives during the 1970s. The Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) had a considerable interest in the C-1 programme. Beyond its primary purpose as a military-orientated airlifter, at one stage, MITI had decided to adopt

1596-457: The Kawasaki name. In addition to Kawasaki's heavy contribution to the programme, significant portions of the airlifter were manufactured by other members of NAMC. Specifically, the tail section, as well as the middle and rear portions of the fuselage, were constructed by rival Japanese conglomerate Mitsubishi Heavy Industries , the majority of the wings were produced by Fuji Heavy Industries ,

1653-520: The agency's research programmes. By 2010, a programme to develop a replacement for the C-1, known as the Kawasaki C-2 , had reached the advanced stages of development. In comparison with the older C-1, the C-2 is a considerably larger airlifter, being able to lift three times more payload in terms of weight, as well as possessing greater endurance. On 30 June 2016, the production-standard C-2, "68-1203",

1710-622: The aircraft or ship's nautical charts , nautical publications , and navigational equipment, and they generally have responsibility for meteorological equipment and communications. With the advent of satellite navigation , the effort required to accurately determine one's position has decreased by orders of magnitude, so the entire field has experienced a revolutionary transition since the 1990s with traditional navigation tasks, like performing celestial navigation , being used less frequently. Using multiple independent position fix methods without solely relying on electronic systems subject to failure helps

1767-617: The application of numerous electronic navigation systems. The maximum range of C-1 caused a problem after the island of Okinawa was returned to Japan from the United States; the airlifter was unable to fly directly to Okinawa from most parts of the Japanese home islands. This may have been a factor in the decision to reduce the planned procurement of the C-1 in favour of the American-built C-130H Hercules utility transport aircraft instead, which entered service with

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1824-526: The chart. This system ensures that every chart is properly corrected prior to use. British merchant vessels receive weekly Notices to Mariners issued by the Admiralty . When corrections are received all charts are corrected in the ship's folio and recorded in NP133A (Admiralty Chart Correction Log and Folio Index). This system ensures that all charts are corrected and up to date. In a deep-sea vessel with

1881-443: The correction of electronic nautical publications. The navigator focuses on creating the ship's passage plans (or "mission plans" for USAF purposes). A mission or passage plan can be summarized as a comprehensive, step by step description of how the voyage is to proceed from berth to berth, including unberthing, departure, the en-route portion of a voyage, approach, and mooring/arrival at the destination. Before each voyage begins,

1938-577: The dedicated Navigator's position was discontinued and its function was assumed by dual-licensed Pilot-Navigators, and still later by the aircraft's primary pilots (Captain and FO), resulting in a continued downsizing in the number of aircrew positions on commercial flights. Modern electronic navigation systems made the civil aviation navigators redundant by the early 1980s. In military aviation , navigators are still actively trained and licensed in some present day air forces , as electronic navigation aids cannot be assumed to be operational during wartime . In

1995-735: The form of charts printed on paper or computerised electronic navigational charts . The nature of a waterway depicted by a chart changes regularly, and a mariner navigating on an old or uncorrected chart is courting disaster. Every producer of navigational charts also provides a system to inform mariners and aviators of changes that affect the chart. In the United States, chart corrections and notifications of new editions are provided by various governmental agencies by way of Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs), Notice to Mariners , Local Notice to Mariners , Summary of Corrections , and Broadcast Notice to Mariners. Radio broadcasts give advance notice of urgent corrections. A convenient way to keep track of corrections

2052-530: The introduction of ETOPS rules that allowed twin-engine jets to fly long-distance routes that were previously off-limits to them, Airbus was able to further develop the A300 as a medium- to long-range airliner to increased sales; Boeing launched its widebody twinjet, the Boeing 767 , in response. In the 1980s the Boeing 727 was discontinued, as its central engine bay would require a prohibitively expensive redesign to accommodate quieter high-bypass turbofans, and it

2109-441: The larger Lockheed C-141 Starlifter . It is powered by a pair of Pratt & Whitney JT8D -M-9 low-bypass turbofan engines, which were locally manufactured under license by Mitsubishi, each capable of generating up to 64 kN (14,500 lbf) of thrust. In terms of payload capacity, a single C-1 could carry up to 80 fully-equipped troops, 45 paratroopers , or 36 stretcher-bound personnel, in addition to bulky cargo, including

2166-449: The largest cargo aircraft capable of transporting outsize cargo , including strategic airlifters . Twin-jets tend to be more fuel-efficient than trijet (three engine) and quad-jet (four engine) aircraft. As fuel efficiency in airliners is a high priority, many airlines have been increasingly retiring trijet and quad-jet designs in favor of twinjets in the twenty-first century. The trijet designs were phased out first, in particular due to

2223-406: The mid-1960s. USAF navigators/combat systems officers and USN/USMC naval flight officers must be basic mission qualified in their aircraft, or fly with an instructor navigator or instructor NFO to provide the necessary training for their duties. A naval ship's navigator is responsible for buying and maintaining its nautical charts. A nautical chart, or simply "chart", is a graphic representation of

2280-410: The more complicated design and maintenance issues of the middle engine mounted on the stabilizer. Early twinjets were not permitted by ETOPS restrictions to fly long-haul trans-oceanic routes, as it was thought that they were unsafe in the event of failure of one engine, so quad-jets were used. Quad-jets also had higher carrying capacity than comparable earlier twinjets. However, later twinjets such as

2337-414: The navigator detect errors. Professional mariners are still proficient in traditional piloting and celestial navigation. Shipborne navigators in the U.S. Navy are normally surface warfare officer qualified with the exception of naval aviators and naval flight officers assigned to ship's navigator billets aboard aircraft carriers and large deck amphibious assault ships and who have been qualified at

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2394-402: The navigator should develop a detailed mental model of how the entire voyage will proceed. In the aviation community, this is known as "chair flying". This mental model includes charting courses and forecasting weather, tides, and currents. It includes updating and checking aeronautical charts , nautical publications , which could include Sailing Directions and Coast Pilots , and projecting

2451-656: The requirement that an aircraft be able to continue a takeoff if an engine fails after the takeoff decision speed is reached. Thus, with all engines operating, trijets must be able to produce at least 150% of the minimum thrust required to climb and quad-jets 133%. Conversely, since a twinjet will lose half of its total thrust if an engine fails, they are required to produce 200% of the minimum thrust required to climb when both engines are operating. Because of this, twinjets typically have higher thrust-to-weight ratios than aircraft with more engines, and are thus able to accelerate and climb faster. Navigator A navigator

2508-484: The service. In addition to its military application, there was also a civil user of the C-1. At the urging of MITI, the National Aerospace Laboratory procured a single C-1, which was extensively modified into an experimental testbed. Commonly referred to as either Asuka or QSTOL (Quiet STOL), it flew for a number of years as a 150-seat short takeoff and landing (STOL) aircraft for one of

2565-694: The third configuration both engines are within the fuselage, side-by-side, used by most fighters since the 1960s. Later fighters using this configuration include the Su-27 'Flanker', the F-15 Eagle , and the F-22 Raptor . The first twinjet to fly was the German fighter prototype Heinkel He 280 , flying in April 1941 with a pair of nacelled Heinkel HeS 8 axial-flow turbojets. The twinjet configuration

2622-465: The transport fleet of the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) was primarily composed of Curtiss C-46 Commandos , an American transport aircraft that had been manufactured primarily during the Second World War , and was considered to be quite capable aircraft for the era. By the mid-1960s, the capabilities of the decades-old C-46 had paled in comparison to numerous newer aircraft such as

2679-399: The type commenced during the following year. The C-1 has formed the backbone of the JASDF's transport capability throughout the latter half of the twentieth century and the initial years of the twenty-first century as well. During the 2010s, Kawasaki developed a newer, larger, and longer-range airlifter, the Kawasaki C-2 , which will eventually replace the JASDF's C-1 fleet entirely. By 1966,

2736-413: The various future events including landfalls, narrow passages, and course changes that will transpire during the voyage. This mental model becomes the standard by which the navigator will measure progress toward the goal of a safe and efficient voyage, and it is manifested in a written passage plan. When working in a team environment, the passage/mission plan should be communicated to the navigation team in

2793-450: The way. On large passenger jets, the cost of the engines makes up a significant proportion of the plane's final cost. Each engine also requires separate service, paperwork, and certificates. Having two larger engines as opposed to three or four smaller engines will typically significantly reduce both the purchase and maintenance costs of a plane. Regulations governing the required thrust levels for transport aircraft are typically based upon

2850-562: The world's air forces, modern navigators are frequently tasked with weapons and defensive systems operations, along with co-pilot duties such as flight planning and fuel management, depending on the type, model and series of aircraft. In the U.S. Air Force , the aeronautical rating of navigator has been augmented by addition of the combat systems officer , while in the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps , those officers formerly called navigators, tactical systems officers, or naval aviation observers have been known as naval flight officers since

2907-510: The world's lakes, seas and oceans. Maritime GNSS units include functions useful on water, such as "man overboard" (MOB) functions that allow instantly marking the location where a person has fallen overboard, which simplifies rescue efforts. GNSS may be connected to the ships self-steering gear and Chartplotters using the NMEA 0183 interface, and GNSS can also improve the security of shipping traffic by enabling AIS . Navigators are often part of

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2964-510: Was a position on older aircraft, typically between the late-1910s and the 1970s, where separate crew members (sometimes two navigation crew members) were often responsible for an aircraft's flight navigation, including its dead reckoning and celestial navigation , especially when flown over oceans or other large featureless areas where radio navigation aids were not originally available. As sophisticated electronic air navigation aids and universal space-based GPS navigation systems came online,

3021-518: Was by this time engaged in the production of the YS-11 , an indigenously developed airliner of the postwar era. During 1966, NAMC commenced design work on what would subsequently be designated as the C-1 . Following a design review of the programme, NAMC decided that the Japanese conglomerate Kawasaki Heavy Industries would serve as the airlifter's prime contractor ; it is for this reason that aircraft bears

3078-813: Was delivered to the Air Development and Test Wing at Gifu Air Field . Note: Three C-1s were allocated to the MSDF as airborne minelayers under the Fourth Defense Buildup Plan (1972–76). It is unknown what designation was given to them, or indeed whether they were ever actually delivered. Data from Jane's all the world's aircraft, 1975–76 General characteristics Performance Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Related lists Twinjet There are three common configurations of twinjet aircraft. The first, common on large aircraft such as airliners, has

3135-494: Was largely unfulfilled. The prototype, designated XC-1 , performed its maiden flight on 12 November 1970. Following the successful completion of roughly one year of flight testing, the pair of prototypes were turned over to the JASDF for evaluation purposes. Since 1974, the Kawasaki C-1 has been in regular use as a military transport with the JASDF. Its introduction noticeably improved the tactical transport capabilities of

3192-656: Was soon supplanted by twinjets for the narrow-body market; Airbus with the A320 , and Boeing with the 757 and updated "classic" variants of the 737 . During that decade only McDonnell Douglas continued development of the trijet design with an update to the DC-10 , the MD-11 , which initially had a range advantage over its closest medium wide-body competitors which were twinjets, the in-production Boeing 767 and Airbus A300/A310. In contrast to McDonnell Douglas sticking with their existing trijet configuration, Airbus (which never produced

3249-484: Was used for short-range narrow-bodied aircraft such as the McDonnell Douglas DC-9 and Boeing 737 . The Airbus A300 was initially not successful when first produced as a short-range widebody, as airlines operating the A300 on short-haul routes had to reduce frequencies to try and fill the high-capacity aircraft, and lost passengers to airlines operating more frequent narrow-body flights. However, after

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