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42-455: "Ka Island" or "Ka-to" is the official North Korean romanization of the island's name, using its form of the McCune–Reischauer system . Since 2000, its South Korean equivalent has been "Gado" or "Ga-do", using its Revised Romanization system . In Chinese sources, the same name appears as Jiadao . The names all translate as " Pomelo Island". In the 17th century, the Chinese knew Ka as " Hides Island", which appears in English accounts of

84-644: A consensus. In 1991, the South Korean National Academy of the Korean Language (NAKL; 국립국어연구원 ) proposed its own new system. Concurrently, Bok Moon Kim produced his own romanization system  [ ko ] . A large debate reportedly emerged, with more systems being proposed and some proposing reverting to previous systems. On July 7, 2000, the NAKL and Ministry of Culture and Tourism announced that South Korea would adopt

126-642: A force under the command of Zu Dashou's brother-in-law, Wu Xiang , accompanied by his son Wu Sangui . In 1633, Kong and Geng fled Shandong via the sea. After fighting several naval battles against Ming and Korean forces along the way, they landed in Liaodong with about 14,000 followers. They then switched allegiance to the Manchu Later Jin dynasty, and presented their Dengzhou artillery to the khan, Hong Taiji . Their former associate under Mao Wenlong, Shang Kexi, soon joined them in 1634. Hong Taiji renamed

168-608: A new system: Revised Romanization (RR). Road signs and textbooks were required to follow these rules as soon as possible, at a cost estimated by the government to be at least US$ 500–600 million. In the 1920s and 1930s various languages of the Soviet Union were switched to the Latin alphabet and it was planned that the language of Koreans of the Far East would be one of them. Hanja was deemed too hard to learn, while Hangul

210-583: A single 심 family, a father's surname was rendered as "Shim" and the son's as "Sim". McCune–Reischauer (MR) is a system that was first introduced in 1939, in the journal Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society Korea Branch . It is named for George M. McCune and Edwin O. Reischauer ; the two developed the system together in consultation with Korean linguists Choe Hyeon-bae , Jeong In-seop  [ ko ] , and Kim Seon-gi  [ ko ] . With 1945 came

252-516: A standard keyboard. Some took to replacing the breve with alternate characters or simply omitting it altogether; the diversity of practice and ambiguity if breves were not used led to confusion. In 1986, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) requested both North and South Korea to work together on developing a standard romanization. The two countries held a series of meetings, during which they failed to reach

294-581: A variant of it has been the official system of North Korea since 1992. RR is the official system of South Korea and has been in use since 2000. The earliest romanization systems for Korean emerged around the mid-19th century. Due to a number of factors, including the properties of the Korean language and alphabet, as well as social and geopolitical issues, a single settled standard did not emerge. By 1934, there were 27 extant romanization systems, and by 1997, there were over 40. The following systems are currently

336-515: Is unclear what he introduced as Zhanyi Gate exactly was, and in fact Kong's body was buried outside Fucheng Gate(阜成門) in Beijing. Kong Youde claimed to be a descendant of Confucius . This claimed descent, repeated in his Qing era biographies, was likely a fabrication. It was rejected by the officially recognized descendants of Confucius in Shandong, and he was barred by the family from entering

378-629: The Battle of Dalinghe in 1631, Kong and Geng mutinied , pillaging the countryside, sacking Dengzhou , and subsequently defecting to the Later Jin dynasty —in 1633. They were joined in 1634 by another former officer under Mao, Shang Kexi . Together, the three were known as the "Three Miners from Shandong" and participated in many campaigns under the Qing dynasty, hastening the demise of the Ming. Kong Youde

420-431: The Later Jin dynasty laid siege to the northern fortress of Dalinghe. Sun ordered Kong Youde to reinforce Ming general Zu Dashou , who was trapped at Dalinghe. Rather than join the battle, Kong decided to loot the surrounding countryside instead. In February 1632, Kong Youde attacked Sun's garrison at Dengzhou, where Geng Zhongming was stationed. Geng turned on Sun Yuanhua, and Dengzhou fell to Kong Youde's assault. Among

462-563: The Manchu northwards". By 1628, there were 26,000 troops who—together with their dependents—consumed 100,000 seom of rice. Its supply was largely organized from the port of Dengzhou (now Penglai) on the north coast of China 's Shandong Peninsula , but—partially owing to continued Korean gratitude for the Ming's help repelling Japan—this was supplemented by a Korean levy known as the "western provisions tax" ( sŏryang ) that ultimately contributed about 260,000   seom of rice. Because of

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504-572: The Yellow Sea trade between Manchuria , China, and Korea . Scholars estimate he was able to collect tens of thousands of silver tael a year; he also sought supplies of Korean copper and iron to mint his own currency. Even after Mao's assassination by the Ming in 1629, troops and refugees remained stationed on the island until 1636. As preparation for the Manchu's second invasion of Korea , Hong Taiji traveled to Zhenjiang and sent Abatai , Jirgalang , and Ajige to secure its western coast in

546-462: The liberation of Korea , as well as its division . Both Koreas began to develop separate language standards . Just after the 1950–1953 Korean War , romanization was reportedly seen as a minor concern, compared to improving domestic literacy in Hangul. Meanwhile, romanization systems continued to emerge; by 1997, there were more than 40 romanization systems. In 1956, North Korea became the first of

588-525: The 12th lunar month of 1636. Shen Shikui was well ensconced in Ka Island's fortifications and hammered his attackers with heavy cannon for over a month. In the end, Ming and Korean defectors including Kong Youde landed 70 boats on the eastern side of the island and drew out his garrison in that direction. On the next morning, however, he found that the Qing—"who seem to have flown"—had landed to his rear in

630-451: The 1621 Battle of Fort Zhenjiang . He then used the island as a personal base of operations from 1622. Obliged to remain off the Korean mainland by Manchu pressure on the Joseon court, Mao justified his occupation of the island as an "area of strategic importance" ( 扼要 區 , èyào qū ) able to "defend Dengzhou and Laizhou southwards, stay in connection with Korea eastwards, and attack

672-673: The 1640s as the Qing dynasty consolidated its control over China proper, notably in Hunan and Guangxi . In 1652, Kong Youde was battling Southern Ming armies in Guangxi when he was outflanked by the Ming loyalist general Li Dingguo . Having nowhere to escape, Kong committed suicide in Guilin . According to one of Wakeman's works, Kong was buried outside the Zhanyi Gate in Beijing . But it

714-575: The 20th century, there were significant variations in pronunciation and spelling in the Korean language itself, often due to the dialects of Korean . Attempts were made to standardize the Korean language, but these efforts were made by multiple authorities. Two rivaling societies for standardizing Korean emerged: the Korean Language Society ( 조선어학회 ) and the Chŏson Ŏhak Yŏn'guhoe ( 조선어학연구회 ); they published separate guidances. Eventually,

756-657: The Dallet system was introduced; it was based around French-language phonology . It was the first to use the digraphs eo and eu , and the first to use diacritics for Korean romanization; it used the grave and acute accents over the letter "e". The first system to see significant usage was the Ross system, named for John Ross , which was designed in 1882. It saw adoption by missionaries. In 1897, James Scarth Gale introduced his system in his work A Korean-English Dictionary . This system went on to achieve some adoption; it

798-674: The Japanese language. In addition, the Japanese colonial government implemented various restrictions on the use of the Korean language around the mid-1930s; the Korean Language Society was also persecuted in one incident . Regardless of romanization systems, many Koreans chose and continue to choose to spell their names in Latin script in an ad hoc manner. For example, 이/리 (李) is variously romanized as Lee , Yi , I , or Rhee . In some cases, single families romanized their surnames differently on South Korean passports . For example, within

840-696: The Korean Language Society's standard became the basis for the standards of both North and South Korea. Other references for spelling included those used in Gale's dictionary, guidances from the Government-General of Chōsen , and a French dictionary. Other challenges were fundamental to properties of the Korean language and script, which make the language not easily mappable onto the Latin script. McCune and Reischauer claimed in 1939 that there are eight to ten vowels in Korean (this topic

882-502: The Later Jin dynasty to the Qing dynasty in 1636. Kong Youde participated in the invasion of Shanxi in 1634. Kong, Geng, and Shang Kexi all participated in the second Manchu invasion of Korea . Kong and Shang also participated in the siege of Jinzhou , against Zu Dashou. All three men were also involved in the war against Li Zicheng 's short-lived Shun dynasty . Kong Youde continued fighting against Southern Ming forces throughout

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924-531: The casualties of the battle were several of the Portuguese artillery specialists from Macau who had been training the Ming troops. Kong and Geng took the Western cannons. Sun was allowed to leave unharmed, but was subsequently executed for desertion after arriving at the Ming capital of Beijing . After capturing Dengzhou, Kong Youde besieged the Ming garrison at Laizhou . The Ming court responded by sending

966-544: The era as Pi Island or Pidao . It was also known as the Dongjiang   Garrison, from Mao Wenlong 's settlement there. Ming soldiers were stationed on the island during the reigns of the Joseon kings Gwanghae ( r .   1608–1623) and Injo ( r .   1623–1649). Owing to the Later Jin invasion of Liaoning , the island flooded with both Ming troops and northern refugees. The Ming general Mao Wenlong attacked from and retreated to Ka Island during

1008-558: The garrison was quickly overrun. Romanization of Korean The romanization of Korean ( Korean :  로마자 표기법 ; RR :  romaja pyogibeop ) is the use of the Latin script to transcribe the Korean language . There are multiple romanization systems in common use. The two most prominent systems are McCune–Reischauer (MR) and Revised Romanization (RR). MR is almost universally used in academic Korean studies , and

1050-617: The international academic linguistics community, although few others adopted it. Fouser argues that while the system allowed for reversibility , it is "unsightly", is suited to those who already know Hangul, and does not adequately communicate pronunciation, even in comparison to the MOE system. With the spread of computers and the Internet by the 1980s and 1990s, complaints about MR reportedly grew. The breves used in MR were not easily accessible on

1092-870: The irregularity of Chinese supply and the frequency of Korean famines, Mao also established farming colonies on the nearby mainland at Cholsan ("Tieshan"), Changsong ("Changcheng"), and Uiju ("Yizhou"). After the fall of Lüshun to the Manchu, Mao was freed from most oversight and began to establish Ka as an independent maritime kingdom with open markets at Ka and Tieshan. He attempted to negotiate an official free trade policy between China and Korea, ending their remaining sea bans and restrictions on exportation of goods considered strategically important, but also aimed to restrict Korea's direct tributary trade with China, instead driving its goods to his markets. He charged visiting merchants high taxes but protected all comers, including raiders and smugglers, and so drew in much of

1134-550: The most widely used: Possibly the earliest romanization system was an 1832 system by German doctor Philipp Franz von Siebold , who was living in Japan. Another early romanization system was an 1835 unnamed and unpublished system by missionary Walter Henry Medhurst that was used in his translation of a book on the Chinese, Korean, and Japanese languages. Medhurst's romanization scheme was otherwise not significantly used. In 1874,

1176-452: The northwest corner of the island in the middle of the night. Shen refused to surrender, but was overrun and beheaded by Ajige . Official reports put the casualties as at least 10,000 , with few survivors. The Ming general Yang Sichang then withdrew the remaining Ming forces in Korea to Denglai in northern Shandong . (The removal of the Chinese settlement is sometimes portrayed as reducing

1218-493: The regular Ming army, some including Kong Youde and Geng Zhongming refused to join him. Kong Youde and Geng Zhongming had close relationship, some historical sources indicate that they were sworn brothers, both of them left instead for Dengzhou to work for Sun Yuanhua. While serving in Dengzhou, Kong and Geng were among the officers who learned to use the new European cannons Sun had obtained from Macau . In September 1631,

1260-455: The state Silla is written in Korean as 신라 ( sin-la ), but pronounced sil-la . Some challenges were social and geopolitical. Reportedly, early scholars often wrote about Korea from Sinocentric or Japanese perspectives; Korean place names were often rendered using pronunciations from the Chinese or Japanese languages. Furthermore, after Korea went under Japanese rule , the "official" names of many places were considered to be those in

1302-518: The system as prioritizing use for Koreans; it had a one-to-one correspondence from Hangul to Latin script, and did not account for the pronunciation changes that Hangul itself did not reflect. The system also tended to produce romanizations that bore superficial resemblance to words in English, some of which were seen as odd or humorous. Eventually, the South Korean government began reevaluating

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1344-558: The tax burden on nearby Korean settlements, but in fact the Qing merely continued them under another name.) In late October 1951, the PLA made a concerted push to remove UN troops from islands near the mouth of the Yalu . The most significant was Taehwa Island , but Ka Island was also assaulted during the night of 5 November and then strafed by Yak fighters on 14 November. During the second attack,

1386-561: The two Koreas to promulgate an official romanization system. This system combines features of the Dallet and 1933 Unified systems. It was revised in 1986. In 1959, the South Korean Ministry of Education  [ ko ] published a romanization system, which has since been dubbed the Ministry of Education system (MOE). It reportedly quickly proved to be controversial, especially amongst non-Koreans. Fouser evaluated

1428-542: The use of the system in anticipation of the 1988 Summer Olympics , which were to be held in Seoul. In 1984, a slightly revised version of McCune–Reischauer was adopted. Some South Koreans reportedly had negative reactions to the system, which they viewed as confusing and overly beholden to pronunciation. In 1968, Samuel E. Martin introduced a system that has since been dubbed the Yale system . The system became widely adopted by

1470-401: The widely accepted standard for the romanization of Japanese by the 1930s, Korean continued to lack such a standard. This led to significant diversity and inconsistencies in romanizations, not only between scholars but reportedly even within the writings of individual authors. The task of developing a standard romanization scheme for Korean was complicated by a number of factors. Even into

1512-542: Was appended to the Unified Han'gŭl Orthography System , was promulgated by the Korean Language Society. In 1935, Jeong In-seop  [ ko ] published "The International Phonetic Transcription of Korean Speech Sounds". Systems continued to be developed to address various perceived shortcomings in other systems. By 1934, according to Japanese linguist Shinpei Ogura 's count, there were at least 27 extant systems. Whereas Hepburn romanization had already become

1554-435: Was claimed to be inconvenient for typesetting and handwriting. Since removal of Hanja would result in much ambiguity, it was proposed that Chinese words would be replaced by words of Korean origin (compare linguistic purism in Korean ). The new alphabet, made by famous Koreanist Aleksandr Kholodovich  [ ru ] , who would later make a system of transcribing Korean words into Russian , looked like this: Lowercase ʙ

1596-545: Was commonly used in Soviet Roman-derived alphabets due to some alphabets having a letter similar to b with a different purpose. The usage of only lowercase letters was also not unusual, as it was the Latin alphabet of Adyghe language , for example. Some words written in the Soviet Latin alphabet: gu lli, nongdhion haggio, nong ʙ, zængsan, gugga diaʙondiyi. The alphabet faced criticism from Koreans and

1638-475: Was illiterate, but was known for his ferocity and martial skills in battle. He was a loyal follower of the semi-independent warlord Mao Wenlong, who operated in Liaodong under nominal Ming supervision. In an effort to unify Ming forces on the northern frontier under a single command structure, general Yuan Chonghuan trapped and executed Mao Wenlong in 1629. Although Yuan had hoped to recruit Mao's followers into

1680-539: Was never put into use. Kong Youde Kong Youde ( Chinese : 孔 有 德 ; pinyin : Kǒng Yǒudé ; Manchu : ᡴᡠᠩ ᡳᡠᠣ ᡩᡝ ; Transliteration of Manchu : kung ioo de; died August 7, 1652) was a Chinese adventurer and Ming dynasty military officer who served under the warlord Mao Wenlong until Mao's death in 1629. Subsequently, he worked for Sun Yuanhua , governor of Shandong , along with Geng Zhongming , his fellow and one of Mao's subordinates. When ordered by Sun to reinforce Zu Dashou at

1722-486: Was reportedly adopted by the Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies . In spite of this, some scholars found issues with these early systems. More systems by Westerners emerged, based on English, French, and German phonology. Japanese scholars also developed their own romanizations for Korean, many of which were built on the work of Siebold and Dallet. In 1933, the first romanization system developed by Koreans, which

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1764-425: Was still debated by that point). As there are only five vowels in the Latin script, the other vowel sounds had to be rendered either using multiple letters in the form of digraphs (e.g. eo for ㅓ ) or by using diacritics . Also, in many cases, pronunciation does not exactly match what is written in Hangul; similar phenomena occurs with all other major scripts as well. For example, due to linguistic assimilation ,

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