132-632: The Kabaw Valley also known as Kubo valley is a highland valley in Myanmar 's western Sagaing Division , close to the border with India's Manipur . The valley is located between Yomadong range of mountains, which constitute the present-day India–Myanmar border , and the Chindwin River (also called the Ningthi River). According to the Manipur chronicles, king Kiyamba of Manipur and
264-588: A Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities , and multi-party elections were held in 1951–1952 , 1956 and 1960 . The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement , which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British. In 1961, U Thant ,
396-502: A military dictatorship under the Burma Socialist Programme Party . On 8 August 1988, the 8888 Uprising then resulted in a nominal transition to a multi-party system two years later, but the country's post-uprising military council refused to cede power, and has continued to rule the country through to the present. The country remains riven by ethnic strife among its myriad ethnic groups and has one of
528-453: A choice mithun ), Ka’ng Ka’p , Ka’ngchoi Ka’p (top game), Suhtumkhawh (javelin throw using the heavy wooden implement for pounding-de-husking-paddy) and So’ngse (shot put). The Lawm was also a centre where young Kuki people learned discipline and social etiquette. After harvest season, the Lawm meet is celebrated with a Lawm-se’l and, as a commemoration, a pillar is erected. The event
660-557: A consensus seems to have developed among the Kuki tribes of Manipur to use the compound term " Kuki-Zo " to refer to themselves. Ethnologist C. A. Soppitt argued that the Kuki tribes must have settled in region west of Irrawaddy river from before the 11th century, based on the fact that they had no traces of Buddhism, which was already prevalent in Burma by that time. He grouped the Kuki tribes into two broad classes: Hrangkhol along with
792-577: A considerable period, possibly as a subsidiary of Pong. Nothing more is heard of Khampat after this conquest. The headquarters of the principality appears to have shifted to Tamu , close to the route to Manipur called the "Aimol Pass". Around 1555, the King Bayinnaung of the Toungoo dynasty unified all of present day Burma (Myanmar), conquering or receiving tribute from all the Shan kingdoms in
924-506: A coup d'état . The coup, which was widely condemned by the international community , led to continuous ongoing widespread protests in Myanmar and has been marked by violent political repression by the military, as well as a larger outbreak of the civil war . The military also arrested Aung San Suu Kyi in order to remove her from public life, and charged her with crimes ranging from corruption to violation of COVID-19 protocols; all of
1056-656: A land invasion of Assam, which commenced immediately, and a naval invasion on the Burmese mainland starting in May 1824. Gambhir Singh's force entered Manipur in June 1825 and found that the Burmese forces had already left the state. They had been apparently recalled to fight against British advances along the Irrawaddy Valley. In January 1826, Gambhir Singh marched to Kabaw Valley, where again only local men were present under
1188-599: A long vowel: [ˈmjænmɑː, ˈbɜːmə] . So the pronunciation of the last syllable of Myanmar as [mɑːr] by some speakers in the UK and most speakers in North America is in fact a spelling pronunciation based on a misunderstanding of non-rhotic spelling conventions. However, Burma is pronounced [ˈbɜːrmə] by rhotic speakers of English due to a phonotactic constraint, as /ɜː/ occurs only before /r/ in those accents. Archaeological evidence shows that Homo erectus lived in
1320-589: A progression in time. The British testimony regarding Kukis in Manipur was variable. British Commissioner Pemberton wrote in 1835 that the Khongjais stretched along the hills from the south of the Manipur valley to the Arakan Mountains . British Residents, William McCulloch (1844–1863) and Colonel Johnstone (1877–1886), wrote that Khongjais had long been subjects of Manipur, but "new immigrants" of them came through between 1830 and 1840. They "poured into
1452-695: A prosperous economy for more than 80 years. From the 1720s onward, the kingdom was beset with repeated Meithei raids into Upper Myanmar and a nagging rebellion in Lan Na. In 1740, the Mon of Lower Myanmar founded the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom . Hanthawaddy forces sacked Ava in 1752, ending the 266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty. After the fall of Ava, the Konbaung–Hanthawaddy War involved one resistance group under Alaungpaya defeating
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#17327732623631584-517: A relaxation of press censorship, and the regulation of currency practices. In response, United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited Myanmar in December 2011 – the first visit by a US Secretary of State in more than fifty years – meeting both President Thein Sein and opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi. Kuki people The Kuki people , or Kuki-Zo people , are an ethnic group in
1716-626: A small group within India's North-Eastern border states of Manipur and Mizoram ; since the late 20th century, they claim descent from one of the Lost Tribes of Israel and have adopted the practice of Judaism. The Bnei Menashe are made up of Mizo , Kuki and Chin peoples , who all speak Tibeto-Burman languages , and whose ancestors migrated into northeast India from Burma mostly in the 17th and 18th centuries. They are called Chin in Burma . In
1848-485: A smaller, more manageable kingdom, encompassing Lower Myanmar , Upper Myanmar , Shan states , Lan Na and upper Tenasserim . The restored Toungoo kings created a legal and political framework whose basic features continued well into the 19th century. The crown completely replaced the hereditary chieftainships with appointed governorships in the entire Irrawaddy valley and greatly reduced the hereditary rights of Shan chiefs. Its trade and secular administrative reforms built
1980-413: A stalemate, exchanging Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Ayutthaya). Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Ayutthaya in the east, King Bodawpaya turned west, acquiring Arakan (1785), Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817). It was the second-largest empire in Burmese history but also one with a long ill-defined border with British India . In 1826, Burma lost Arakan, Manipur , Assam and Tenasserim to
2112-644: A unified state. Aung Zan Wai , Pe Khin, Bo Hmu Aung , Sir Maung Gyi, Sein Mya Maung, Myoma U Than Kywe were among the negotiators of the historic Panglong Conference negotiated with Bamar leader General Aung San and other ethnic leaders in 1947. In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Myanmar, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members. On 4 January 1948,
2244-468: Is "Republic of the Union of Myanmar" ( Burmese : ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော် , Pyihtaungsu Thamada Myanma Naingngantaw , pronounced [pjìdàʊɴzṵ θàɴməda̰ mjəmà nàɪɴŋàɴdɔ̀] ). Countries that do not officially recognise that name use the long form "Union of Burma" instead. In English, the country is popularly known as either Burma or Myanmar . In Burmese, the pronunciation depends on
2376-552: Is accompanied by dance and drinking rice-beer, which sometimes continues for days and nights. With regard to governance, Semang (cabinet) is the annual assembly of a Kuki village community held at the Chief's residence represents the Inpi (Assembly). In such an assembly, the Chief and his Semang and Pachong (cabinet members and auxiliary of Inpi) and all the household heads of the village congregate to discuss and resolve matters relating to
2508-544: Is among the widest in the world, as a large proportion of the economy is controlled by cronies of the military junta . Myanmar is one of the least developed countries ; as of 2020, according to the Human Development Index , it ranks 147 out of 189 countries in terms of human development , the lowest in Southeast Asia . Since 2021, more than 600,000 people were displaced across Myanmar due to
2640-463: Is standard. Pronunciations with two syllables are found most often in major British and American dictionaries. Dictionaries—such as Collins —and other sources also report pronunciations with three syllables. As John Wells explains, the English spellings of both Myanmar and Burma assume a non-rhotic variety of English , in which the letter r before a consonant or finally serves merely to indicate
2772-420: Is the village of Moreh on the Manipur side of the border. A Manipuri stockade was established here by Gambhir Singh in 1829, and later a penal colony for women convicts. In the 20th century, it has developed into a border trading town twinned with Tamu. The Chronicles of Manipur, called Cheitharol Kumbaba state that, in 1470 CE, King Kiyamba of Manipur and King Choupha Khekkhompa of Pong (identified with
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#17327732623632904-593: Is witnessed in the chronicles of Tripura from the reign of Dhanya Manikya ( r. 1490–1515 ) and fairly regularly afterwards. From even earlier, a couplet in Sanskrit is found mentioning a 12th century land grant in Kukisthana (Kuki-land). The Tibetan Buddhist writer Taranatha (1575–1634) wrote a description of the Kuki ( Ko-ki ) country, including in it almost the entire eastern hill range and beyond. The term also occurs in traditional Meitei hymns where
3036-536: The Ayutthaya Kingdom , Lan Xang and southern Arakan. However, the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia unravelled soon after Bayinnaung's death in 1581, completely collapsing by 1599. Ayutthaya seized Tenasserim and Lan Na, and Portuguese mercenaries established Portuguese rule at Thanlyin (Syriam). The dynasty regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1613 and Siam in 1614. It restored
3168-742: The Bay of Bengal to its south and southwest. The country's capital city is Naypyidaw , and its largest city is Yangon (formerly Rangoon). Early civilisations in the area included the Tibeto-Burman -speaking Pyu city-states in Upper Myanmar and the Mon kingdoms in Lower Myanmar . In the 9th century, the Bamar people entered the upper Irrawaddy valley, and following the establishment of
3300-485: The Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP). During this period, Myanmar became one of the world's most impoverished countries. There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years, and these were almost always violently suppressed. On 7 July 1962, the government broke up demonstrations at Rangoon University , killing 15 students. In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at
3432-812: The Chindwin River valley, separated by a range called Ango Ching (or Ang-go Ching). It is bounded on the west by the Yomadong range of mountains, the bounding range of Manipur and Chin Hills . The northern section, called the Kabaw valley, is watered by the Yu River (or the Kabaw River), which flows south until Khampat and then breaks through the Ango Ching range to join Chindwin. The southern section, called
3564-462: The Han Chinese , Wa , and Kachin . During 8–12 August, the first days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Burmese civilians fled to Yunnan in neighbouring China. Civil wars have been a constant feature of Myanmar's socio-political landscape since the attainment of independence in 1948. These wars are predominantly struggles for ethnic and sub-national autonomy, with the areas surrounding
3696-588: The Kaka Kalelkar Commission visited Manipur, there was a concerted attempt by the Kuki and Naga tribes to delineate each tribe separately in the Schedule Tribe Order's list. Consequently, in 1956, the umbrella terms such as 'any Kuki' and 'any Naga' were deleted, and 29 tribes of Manipur were listed individually. This revision completely left out other unlisted tribes from the scheduled tribes list. In other states of India, however,
3828-616: The Kuki Rebellion of 1917–1919 , the Kukis in Manipur were estimated to number 40,000. Cheitharol Kumbaba , the court chronicle of the Manipur kings, mentions various Kuki tribes and clans from 1404 onwards. The largest of the Kuki tribes, the Thadous , lived in the southern hills of the present-day Manipur, which was ungoverned territory for most of the historical period. The Manipuris referred to them as "Khongjais". The naming
3960-730: The Lushai Hills , and Manipur as well. The British East India Company seized control of the administration of Myanmar after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century, and the country became a British colony . After a brief Japanese occupation , Myanmar was reconquered by the Allies. On 4 January 1948, Myanmar declared independence under the terms of the Burma Independence Act 1947 . Myanmar's post-independence history has been checkered by continuing unrest and conflict to this day. The coup d'état in 1962 resulted in
4092-510: The Manipuri prince Gambhir Singh evicted the Burmese from the Kabaw valley, but the Burmese contested the Manipuri claim to it. After receiving input from the British envoy to Burma, Major Henry Burney, the British were persuaded to hand the valley back to Burma in 1834. The British compensated Manipur for the loss of territory by an annual subsidy. The Kale–Kabaw Valley is to the west of
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4224-533: The North Cachar Hills , Manipur and Tripura . Further, the Changsan–Thadou combine was believed to have been in turn forced out by newer tribes in the 19th century, and then followed the same routes as the earlier tribes. The first two groups were referred to as Old Kukis and New Kukis by the British administrators, which did not receive endorsement from Soppitt. Modern scholars also disapprove
4356-537: The Northeastern Indian states of Manipur , Nagaland , Assam , Meghalaya , Tripura and Mizoram , as well as the neighbouring countries of Bangladesh and Myanmar . The Kukis form one of the largest hill tribe communities in this region. In Northeast India, they are present in all states except Arunachal Pradesh . The Chin people of Myanmar and the Mizo people of Mizoram are kindred tribes of
4488-659: The Pagan Kingdom in the 1050s, the Burmese language , culture , and Theravada Buddhism slowly became dominant in the country. The Pagan Kingdom fell to Mongol invasions , and several warring states emerged. In the 16th century, reunified by the Taungoo dynasty , the country became the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia for a short period. The early 19th-century Konbaung dynasty ruled over an area that included modern Myanmar and briefly controlled Assam ,
4620-878: The Rohingya Muslims and the government and non-government groups in Rakhine State ; and a conflict between the Shan , Lahu , and Karen minority groups, and the government in the eastern half of the country. In addition, al-Qaeda signalled an intention to become involved in Myanmar. Armed conflict between ethnic Chinese rebels and the Myanmar Armed Forces resulted in the Kokang offensive in February 2015. The conflict had forced 40,000 to 50,000 civilians to flee their homes and seek shelter on
4752-471: The State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared martial law after widespread protests. The military government finalised plans for People's Assembly elections on 31 May 1989. SLORC changed the country's official English name from the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" to the "Union of Myanmar" on 18 June 1989 by enacting the adaptation of the expression law. In May 1990,
4884-447: The military government officially changed the English translations of many names dating back to Burma's colonial period or earlier, including that of the country itself: Burma became Myanmar . The renaming remains a contested issue. Many political and ethnic opposition groups and countries continue to use Burma because they do not recognise the legitimacy or authority of the military government. The country's official full name
5016-671: The register used and is either Bama ( pronounced [bəmà] ) or Myamah ( pronounced [mjəmà] ). Official United States foreign policy retains Burma as the country's name although the State Department 's website lists the country as Burma (Myanmar) . The United Nations uses Myanmar , as does the ASEAN and as do Australia , Russia , Germany , China , India , Bangladesh , Norway , Japan , Switzerland , Canada and Ukraine . Most English-speaking international news media refer to
5148-490: The "Lushais". The Manipuris used the term " Khongjai " to refer to the tribes to the south and southwest of the Imphal Valley , a usage witnessed from 1508. This appears to have been a geographical term. The "Old Kuki" tribes in Manipur were referred to by their individual names, which were also partly of geographical origin. Some Kuki and Chin tribes reject both of these terms as being of colonial origin, and use
5280-431: The 1947 Constitution, successive military governments construed the use of the term ' federalism ' as being anti-national, anti-unity and pro-disintegration. On 2 March 1962, the military led by General Ne Win took control of Burma through a coup d'état , and the government had been under direct or indirect control by the military since then. Between 1962 and 1974, Myanmar was ruled by a revolutionary council headed by
5412-593: The 19th century, Burmese rulers sought to maintain their traditional influence in the western areas of Assam, Manipur and Arakan. Pressing them, however, was the British East India Company, which was expanding its interests eastwards over the same territory. Over the next 60 years, diplomacy, raids, treaties and compromises, known collectively as the Anglo-Burmese Wars , continued until Britain proclaimed control over most of Burma. With
Kabaw Valley - Misplaced Pages Continue
5544-471: The 9th century, several city-states had sprouted across the land: the Pyu in the central dry zone, Mon along the southern coastline and Arakanese along the western littoral. The balance was upset when the Pyu came under repeated attacks from Nanzhao between the 750s and the 830s. In the mid-to-late 9th century the Bamar people founded a small settlement at Bagan . It was one of several competing city-states until
5676-488: The Ango Ching range. The valley used to have three principalities based at Thaungdut (known as "Samjok" in Manipur), Khampat , and Kale . Thaungdut/Samjok and Khampat were jointly invaded by the king Kiyamba of Manipur and the king of Pong in 1467 CE, and divided among themselves. Kale appears to have remained independent, at least for a time. Thus the name "Kabaw Valley" applies to the valley north of Khampat, while
5808-831: The British in the First Anglo-Burmese War . In 1852, the British easily seized Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War . King Mindon Min tried to modernise the kingdom and in 1875 narrowly avoided annexation by ceding the Karenni States . The British, alarmed by the consolidation of French Indochina , annexed the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885. Konbaung kings extended Restored Toungoo's administrative reforms and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. For
5940-690: The Burmese name for the tribes inhabiting the Northern Arakan Yomas , who are called " Kukis " on the Indian side of the border. After their victory, the two kings divided the conquered land among themselves, with Khampat and some part of Thaungdut (possibly the northern part of the Kabaw Valley) going to Manipur, and Thaungdut in the Chindwin River valley going to Pong. Thaungdut, a Shan principality, appears to have remained for
6072-486: The Burmese occupied Assam and started threatening the states bordering British Bengal , the British declared war on Burma in 1824. Gambhir Singh , one of the four sons, was provided funding to raise a 'Manipur Levy' from Manipuri expatriates, with the objective of driving the Burmese out of Manipur. It eventually consisted of 2000 men and was commanded by a British officer, Major F. J. Grant with Captain R. B. Pemberton as his assistant. The British proceeded on two fronts:
6204-584: The Chairmanship – effectively the position of Myanmar's top ruler – from General Saw Maung in 1992 and held it until 2011. On 23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. On 27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana in November 2005, officially named the new capital Naypyidaw , meaning "city of
6336-449: The Chindits into the Burmese jungle in 1943. Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945. The battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma with 1,700 prisoners taken. Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese as part of the Burma Independence Army, many Burmese, mostly from
6468-445: The Chinese side of the border. During the incident, the government of China was accused of giving military assistance to the ethnic Chinese rebels. Clashes between Burmese troops and local insurgent groups have continued, fuelling tensions between China and Myanmar. The military-backed Government had promulgated a "Roadmap to Discipline-flourishing Democracy" in 1993, but the process appeared to stall several times, until 2008 when
6600-501: The Government published a new draft national constitution, and organised a (flawed) national referendum which adopted it. The new constitution provided for election of a national assembly with powers to appoint a president, while practically ensuring army control at all levels. A general election in 2010 - the first for twenty years - was boycotted by the NLD . The military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party declared victory, stating that it had been favoured by 80 per cent of
6732-494: The Kabaw Valley are mentioned in the chronicles. In 1804, chiefs of fourteen outlying villages, including Tamu and Thaungdut, are said to have paid tribute to Bhagyachandra after a gap of 41 years. After Bhagyachandra's death, his sons quarreled for the throne, inviting Burmese interference. Marjit Singh , who wanted to usurp the throne from his brother Chourjit Singh , went to the Burmese King Bodawpaya , taking gifts and seeking his help. In 1813, Bodawpaya moved forward bases into
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#17327732623636864-476: The Kabaw Valley but returned without entering into hostilities. Gambhir Singh submitted the matter to the decision of the British Government. Henry Burney , who was sent as the British envoy to Ava, was charged with discussing the matter with the Burmese. He ascertained that the Burmese had no wish to claim suzerainty over Manipur. However, they did not accept Manipur's claim to the Kabaw Valley, and wanted it returned. Burney found that tensions were rather high over
6996-405: The Kabaw Valley, ousted Chourjit Singh from Manipur and installed Marjit Singh as the king of Manipur. In return Marjit Singh ceded Kabaw Valley to Burma. Marjit Singh's insubordination to Bodawpaya's successor Bagyidaw in 1819 led to a final Burmese conquest of Manipur, and changed the Burmese policy from a demand for tribute to indirect administration through a puppet ruler. A permanent garrison
7128-403: The Kabaw Valley. In the eventual memorandum sent to the British Governor-General, he stated that the Kabaw Valley was in the possession of Burmese kings since 1370, and that, for 12 years prior to the outbreak of the war, it was in continuous Burmese possession. Further, he interpreted the Treaty of Yandabo to mean that Manipur was entitled to recover only those territories that it possessed before
7260-411: The Kale valley, is watered by the Myittha River flowing north, which breaks through Ango Ching near Kale . The 1913 Burma Gazetteer describes the valley as being "unhealthy but exceedingly fertile", which is "imperfectly cultivated". It also mentions that the paddy grown in the valley could not be easily taken to the market (in the Chindwin valley or beyond) due to the difficulty of transport through
7392-426: The Kuki fought with the Imperial Japanese Army and the Indian National Army led by Subhas Chandra Bose but the success of the Allied forces over the Axis group dashed their hopes. On 31 January 1860, Kuki Riang led the Kukis of Hill Tippera in raiding the Chhagalnaiya plains (then under the administration of the Twipra Kingdom ) which was inhabited by ethnic Bengalis and British officers. The Kukis looted
7524-409: The Kuki king is praised along with the Meitei king. The term came into British usage in 1777, when the chief of Chittagong appealed to the British governor general Warren Hastings for help against Kuki raids from the hills. The same collection of tribes were called " Chins " by the Burmese (spelt "Khyangs" in the original Burmese spelling). The British also used the term "Lushais" to refer to
7656-454: The Kuki people was the Kuki Rebellion of 1917–19 , also known as the Anglo-Kuki War, after which their territory was subjugated by the British. Until their defeat in 1919, the Kukis had been an independent people ruled by their chieftains. The Dobashi, Lengjang Kuki was credited as responsible for preventing the Kukis of the Naga Hills from joining the Kuki Rebellion of Manipur. During World War II, seeing an opportunity to regain independence,
7788-416: The Kuki population of Manipur as 69,855, that in Assam as 18,200, and that in Tripura as 3,428. The 21 Kuki tribes of Manipur (as per the nomenclature used in the British colonial times) gathered together in 1948 to form an organisation called Kuki Company . They also contributed to the construction of Kuki Inn in Imphal, to serve as the office for the organisation. Soon afterwards, frictions developed over
7920-428: The Kukis had already fled to the jungles of the princely state and they never returned to Chhagalnaiya ever again. The Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) (Part C States) Order, 1951 included "any Kuki tribe", "any Lushai tribe" and "any Naga tribe" (as umbrella terms among the scheduled tribes in Assam, Manipur, and Tripura. Among the "any Kuki" classification, it listed 39 subtribes/clans. The 1951 census recorded
8052-545: The Kukis to the Christian God of the British, who was thought of as the victor. This led them to rapidly convert to Christianity. Conversion to Christianity has transformed their ideas, mentality and social practices at the cost of their traditions and customs. The majority of Kukis are now Christians , with most belonging to Protestant denominations, especially Baptist . Since the late 20th century, some of these peoples have begun following Messianic Judaism . The Bnei Menashe ( Hebrew : בני מנשה , "Sons of Menasseh ") are
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#17327732623638184-425: The Kukis' "migration from south", because they had inadequate knowledge of the Kukis already present in the hills of Manipur. In addition, some of the larger tribes such as Thadous are said to have been native to the southern hills (Churachandpur and Chandel districts) that were later added to Manipur territory in the 1890s. An important landmark in the history of the Kuki people was the arrival of missionaries and
8316-460: The Kukis. Collectively, they are termed the Zo people . Some fifty tribes of Kuki peoples in India are recognised as scheduled tribes in India, based on the dialect spoken by that particular Kuki community as well as their region of origin. The term "Kuki" is an exonym : it was used by Bengalis to refer to the tribes inhabiting Patkai–Arakan Yomas , the eastern extension of the Himalayas running north–south between India and Myanmar. The term
8448-519: The Restored Hanthawaddy, and by 1759 he had reunited all of Myanmar and Manipur and driven out the French and the British, who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy. By 1770, Alaungpaya's heirs had subdued much of Laos and fought and won the Burmese–Siamese War against Ayutthaya and the Sino-Burmese War against Qing China . With Burma preoccupied by the Chinese threat, Ayutthaya recovered its territories by 1770 and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776. Burma and Siam went to war until 1855, but all resulted in
8580-420: The Shan states were all multi-ethnic polities. Despite the wars, cultural synchronisation continued. This period is considered a golden age for Burmese culture . Burmese literature "grew more confident, popular, and stylistically diverse", and the second generation of Burmese law codes as well as the earliest pan-Burma chronicles emerged. Hanthawaddy monarchs introduced religious reforms that later spread to
8712-408: The Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former secretary to the prime minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations , a position he held for ten years. When the non-Burman ethnic groups pushed for autonomy or federalism, alongside having a weak civilian government at the centre, the military leadership staged a coup d'état in 1962. Though incorporated in
8844-409: The Union of Myanmar and also rendered Burma (the official English form until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia . It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and has a population of about 55 million. It is bordered by India to its west, Bangladesh to its southwest, China to its northeast, Laos and Thailand to its east and southeast, and the Andaman Sea and
8976-540: The area of Bakhshganj and murdered Kamal Poddar of Basantpur. They then proceeded to molest Poddar's women until Guna Ghazi and Jakimal waged war against them in the village of Kulapara. Whilst the Kukis abducted 700 women, Munshi Abdul Ali informed the British authorities of the atrocities. 185 Britons were assassinated, 100 of them were kidnapped and the Kukis remained in the plains for one or two days. British troops and policemen were finally despatched from Noakhali , Tipperah (Comilla) and Chittagong to suppress them but
9108-421: The border of the Manipur state to include the southern hills. The term "Kuki" to refer to these tribes was introduced by the British in the 1820s. By 1850s, they imported the terminology of "New Kuki" for the Khongjai tribes and "Old Kuki" for the other Kuki tribes such as Kom and Aimol . The scholars of Kuki Research Forum consider the terminology misleading because the historical record does not justify such
9240-544: The charges against her are "politically motivated" according to independent observers. Myanmar is a member of the East Asia Summit , Non-Aligned Movement , ASEAN , and BIMSTEC , but it is not a member of the Commonwealth of Nations despite once being part of the British Empire . Myanmar is a Dialogue Partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization . The country is very rich in natural resources , such as jade , gems , oil , natural gas , teak and other minerals , as well as also endowed with renewable energy , having
9372-425: The clause concerning Manipur was rather limited. It stipulated that "should Gumbheer Sing desire to return to that country, he shall be recognised by the King of Ava as Raja thereof". He was not explicitly recognised as an independent ruler. Nor was any territory or boundary mentioned. However, it became immediately clear that the Kabaw Valley was contested. After the conclusion of the treaty, some Burmese troops entered
9504-605: The co-tribe Biate in one class, and Changsan along with the co-tribe Thadou in the other class. Each of them was grouped with several subtribes. Soppitt suggested that, by the 16th century, the Hrangkhols and Biate inhabited the Lushai Hills region (currently divided between Mizoram and Chin State ). He believed that they were pushed out by Changsan, who moved in from the east along with Thadou, forcing them to move to
9636-463: The command of the chief of Thaungdut (Samjok). They were ensconced in two stockades, one at Tamu and another on the right bank of the Chindwin River. Both were easily defeated. By February 1826, the Burmese agreed to all the British terms and signed the Treaty of Yandabo . By the treaty, they relinquished control over all the states bordering British India, including Manipur. It was later recognized that
9768-576: The community. It was also another learning institution. Every Lawm has a Lawm-upa (a senior member), a To’llai-pao (an overseer or superintendent) and a Lawm-tangvo (assistant superintendent). Besides being a source of traditional learning, the institution of the Lawm also facilitated the transmission of both technical as well as practical knowledge to its members, especially with regard to particular methods of farming , hunting , fishing and sporting activities such as Kung–Kal (high jump, especially over
9900-611: The country by the name Myanmar , including the BBC , CNN , Al Jazeera , Reuters , and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation ( ABC )/ Radio Australia . Myanmar is known by a name deriving from Burma in Spanish , Italian , Romanian , and Greek . French-language media consistently use Birmanie . There are at least nine different pronunciations of the English name Myanmar , and no single one
10032-562: The critical days following this disaster, Myanmar's isolationist government was accused of hindering United Nations recovery efforts. Humanitarian aid was requested, but concerns about foreign military or intelligence presence in the country delayed the entry of United States military planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies. In early August 2009, a conflict broke out in Shan State in northern Myanmar. For several weeks, junta troops fought against ethnic minorities including
10164-543: The emergence of iron-working settlements in an area south of present-day Mandalay . Evidence also shows the presence of rice-growing settlements of large villages and small towns that traded with their surroundings as far as China between 500 BCE and 200 CE. Iron Age Burmese cultures also had influences from outside sources such as India and Thailand , as seen in their funerary practices concerning child burials. This indicates some form of communication between groups in Myanmar and other places, possibly through trade. Around
10296-559: The empire sent levies to defend it. The Manipuris also acquired horsemanship from the Burmese during this period, and refined their skills by playing Polo as a regular pastime. During the reign of Garib Niwaz ( r. 1714–1754 ), when the Toungoo empire became considerably weak, the Manipuris raided all the way to Sagaing , opposite the capital Ava , burnt villages and monasteries and carried off captives. Retribution to Manipur
10428-670: The ethnic minorities, served in the British Burma Army. The Burma National Army and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944 but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945. Overall, 170,000 to 250,000 Burmese civilians died during World War II. Following World War II, Aung San negotiated the Panglong Agreement with ethnic leaders that guaranteed the independence of Myanmar as
10560-562: The ethnically Bamar central districts of the country serving as the primary geographical setting of conflict. Foreign journalists and visitors require a special travel permit to visit the areas in which Myanmar's civil wars continue. In October 2012, the ongoing conflicts in Myanmar included the Kachin conflict , between the Pro-Christian Kachin Independence Army and the government; a civil war between
10692-486: The fall of Mandalay, all of Burma came under British rule, being annexed on 1 January 1886. Throughout the colonial era, many Indians arrived as soldiers, civil servants, construction workers and traders and, along with the Anglo-Burmese community, dominated commercial and civil life in Burma. Rangoon became the capital of British Burma and an important port between Calcutta and Singapore . Burmese resentment
10824-664: The first Prime Minister and Premier of Burma. Ba Maw was an outspoken advocate for Burmese self-rule, and he opposed the participation of Britain, and by extension Burma, in World War II . He resigned from the Legislative Assembly and was arrested for sedition. In 1940, before Japan formally entered the war , Aung San formed the Burma Independence Army in Japan. As a major battleground, Burma
10956-422: The first time in history, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy valley. The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theatre continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females). Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism. In
11088-604: The form of cave paintings in Padah-Lin Caves . The Bronze Age arrived c. 1500 BCE when people in the region were turning copper into bronze, growing rice and domesticating poultry and pigs; they were among the first people in the world to do so. Human remains and artefacts from this era were discovered in Monywa District in the Sagaing Region . The Iron Age began around 500 BCE with
11220-596: The four-century-old kingdom in 1287. Pagan's collapse was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century. Like the Burmans four centuries earlier, Shan migrants who arrived with the Mongol invasions stayed behind. Several competing Shan States came to dominate the entire northwestern to eastern arc surrounding the Irrawaddy valley. The valley too was beset with petty states until
11352-408: The funeral of U Thant. Student protests in 1975, 1976, and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force. In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the 8888 Uprising . Security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and General Saw Maung staged a coup d'état and formed
11484-455: The garments and making the beds. The best students were recommended to the King's or the Chief's service, and eventually would achieve the office of Semang and Pachong (ministers) in their courts, or gal –lamkai (leaders, warriors) in the army. Lawm (a traditional type of youth club) was an institution in which boys and girls engaged in social activities for the benefit of the individual and
11616-589: The general. Almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were nationalised or brought under government control under the Burmese Way to Socialism , which combined Soviet-style nationalisation and central planning . A new constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma was adopted in 1974. Until 1988, the country was ruled as a one-party system , with the general and other military officers resigning and ruling through
11748-641: The government held free multiparty elections for the first time in almost 30 years, and the National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won earning 392 out of a total 492 seats (i.e., 80% of the seats). However, the military junta refused to cede power and continued to rule the nation, first as SLORC and, from 1997, as the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) until its dissolution in March 2011. General Than Shwe took over
11880-501: The highest solar power potential compared to other countries of the Great Mekong Subregion. However, Myanmar has long suffered from instability , factional violence, corruption , poor infrastructure, as well as a long history of colonial exploitation with little regard to human development . In 2013, its GDP (nominal) stood at US$ 56.7 billion and its GDP ( PPP ) at US$ 221.5 billion. The income gap in Myanmar
12012-590: The hill tracts" in large numbers, according to the Residents, driving away the older inhabitants. The Residents believed that these Khongjais were driven north by stronger tribes from the south, and hence settled all around the Imphal Valley. Scholar Pum Khan Pau notes that, around 1830, when the British established a political agency in Manipur, the area to the south of present-day Manipur ( Tonzang and Tedim townships of present-day Chin State ) witnessed
12144-479: The issue. King Bogyidaw was firm in his demand for the Kabaw Valley and was quite prepared to renew hostilities for its sake. Several years of negotiations followed. Burney found the Burmese empire compiling the historical chronicles of all the Burmese kingdoms, which were made available to him to study. Based on his own studies, in addition to the Burmese arguments, Burney became convinced of the Burmese claim to
12276-479: The king of the Pong kingdom jointly conquered the Kabaw Valley in the 15 century, and the valley was divided between the two kings. It was under Manipuri control for a considerable period, though it was frequently occupied by the Burmese kings from Bayinnaung onwards. Finally it was ceded to Burma by the king Marjit Singh in return for Burmese help in his accession to the throne. During the First Anglo-Burmese War ,
12408-577: The kings". In August 2007, an increase in the price of fuel led to the Saffron Revolution led by Buddhist monks that were dealt with harshly by the government. The government cracked down on them on 26 September 2007, with reports of barricades at the Shwedagon Pagoda and monks killed. There were also rumours of disagreement within the Burmese armed forces, but none was confirmed. The military crackdown against unarmed protesters
12540-627: The late 10th century, when it grew in authority and grandeur. Pagan gradually grew to absorb its surrounding states until the 1050s–1060s when Anawrahta founded the Pagan Kingdom, the first ever unification of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Pagan Empire and the Khmer Empire were two main powers in mainland Southeast Asia. The Burmese language and culture gradually became dominant in
12672-646: The late 14th century when two sizeable powers, Ava Kingdom and Hanthawaddy Kingdom , emerged. In the west, a politically fragmented Arakan was under competing influences of its stronger neighbours until the Kingdom of Mrauk U unified the Arakan coastline for the first time in 1437. The kingdom was a protectorate of the Bengal Sultanate at different time periods. In the 14th and 15th centuries, Ava fought wars of unification but could never quite reassemble
12804-474: The late 20th century, an Israeli rabbi investigating their claims named them Bnei Menashe, based on their account of descent from Menasseh . Of the 3.7 million people living in these two northeast states only about 9,000 belong to the Bnei Menashe, several thousands have emigrated to Israel. Some have supported other movements to separate from India. Due to the close proximity to Muslim-majority Bengal ,
12936-476: The lost empire. Having held off Ava, the Mon -speaking Hanthawaddy entered its golden age, and Arakan went on to become a power in its own right for the next 350 years. In contrast, constant warfare left Ava greatly weakened, and it slowly disintegrated from 1481 onward. In 1527, the Confederation of Shan States conquered Ava and ruled Upper Myanmar until 1555. Like the Pagan Empire, Ava, Hanthawaddy and
13068-583: The name "Kamhau-Sukte" and became "one of the most dreaded powers in Manipur, Lushai Hills and the Kale-Kabaw Valley". The domain of the Kamhau-Sukte tribes extended all the way to the south of the Manipur valley, encompassing major portions of the present-day Churachandpur and Chandel districts, driving the tribes in these districts further north. Their movement threatened the Naga tribes to
13200-512: The nation became an independent republic, under the terms of the Burma Independence Act 1947 . The new country was named the Union of Burma , with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first president and U Nu as its first prime minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, Burma did not become a member of the Commonwealth . A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of
13332-462: The north end of the valley, lies the Manipuri town of Humine , with the first Burmese town being Zedi. Moreh, India is the border town in the Manipur, India side while Tamu is in Myanmar. Both are being referred to as the twin border towns of trade in the border region. Myanmar in ASEAN (dark grey) – [ Legend ] Myanmar , officially the Republic of
13464-483: The north, in particular the Kabuis to the west of the Manipur valley. McCulloch arranged for a line of Kuki settlements to the south of their area to serve as a buffer and armed the settlers. These villages came to be known as "sepoy villages". According to McCulloch, sepoy villages were also set up along the southern frontier of the Manipur valley. According to modern scholars, the British administrators overemphasized
13596-419: The north. His prestige was so great that the Manipur kingdom is said to have become a tributary. Some time after Bayinnaung, Manipur declared independence, but the relations with Burma continued as late as 1704, when Manipur offered a princess in marriage to the Toungoo emperor. Border raids in both the directions occurred during the intervening period. In 1647 and 1692, Manipur is said to have raided Thaungdut and
13728-460: The old classification of "any Kuki tribe" remained. In 2003, the term "any Kuki tribes" was re-added to the list in Manipur as well. The land of the Kukis has a number of customs and traditions . Sawm, a community centre for boys – was the centre of learning in which the Sawm-upa (an elder) did the teaching, while Sawm-nu took care of chores, such as combing of the boy's hair, washing of
13860-486: The plains of Cachar had 6,000 people. The Gazetteer of Manipur (1886), based on the same census, noted that the Kukis of Manipur wee composed of approximately 8,000 "Old Kukis" and 17,000 "New Kukis". Borders of Manipur were expanded after this date to include the Kuki-inhabited southern parts of the present Churachandpur and Chandel districts, adding further Kuki populations to the state of Manipur. During
13992-407: The region now known as Myanmar as early as 750,000 years ago, with no more erectus finds after 75,000 years ago. The first evidence of Homo sapiens is dated to about 25,000 BP with discoveries of stone tools in central Myanmar. Evidence of Neolithic age domestication of plants and animals and the use of polished stone tools dating to sometime between 10,000 and 6,000 BCE has been discovered in
14124-476: The rest of the country. Political unification returned in the mid-16th century, through the efforts of Taungoo , a former vassal state of Ava. Taungoo's young, ambitious King Tabinshwehti defeated the more powerful Hanthawaddy in the Toungoo–Hanthawaddy War . His successor Bayinnaung went on to conquer a vast swath of mainland Southeast Asia including the Shan states, Lan Na , Manipur, Mong Mao ,
14256-457: The rise of a powerful Sukte chieftain called Khan Thuam. Along with his son Kam Hau, he embarked upon a territorial expansion, pushing the less powerful tribes towards the border of Manipur. But many tribesmen also submitted to the Suktes, paid tribute, and participated in the expansion process. This period witnessed many raids from the south on the border of Manipur, which was roughly in line with
14388-600: The second century BCE the first-known city-states emerged in central Myanmar. The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu people, the earliest inhabitants of Myanmar of whom records are extant, from present-day Yunnan . The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organisation. By
14520-585: The self-designation " Zo ", which is a generic term that has variants in most Kuki-Chin dialects. " Zomi " (meaning "Zo people") is also used. The term "Kuki" is still enthusiastically adopted by the Thadou language -speaking clans. Thus, "Kuki" is sometimes used in this narrow sense to refer to the Thadou-speaking Kukis, with even the Thadou language referred to as the "Kuki language". By 2023,
14652-442: The southern boundary of the Manipur valley. A popular folk song summarised the position of Khan Thuam: What I rule extends to Manipur in the north, and ends at Falam in the south; Manipur to the north and Falam to the south, I am the tiger in the middle. After Khan Thuam's death, his dominion came to be divided between his elder son Kam Hau, based at Mualpi and the younger son Za Pau, based at Tedim . The combined tribe earned
14784-400: The southern valley retains the name "Kale". The two are jointly referred to as "Kale-Kabaw Valley". After a 1758 invasion by emperor Alaungpaya of Burma, a market and town appear to have developed at Tamu , overshadowing Khampat. By the end of the 19th century, when the British took over Burma, the " Tamu Township " was considered synonymous with the Kabaw Valley. To the northwest of Tamu,
14916-447: The spread of Christianity among them. Missionary activity had considerable social, cultural and political ramifications while the acceptance of Christianity marked a departure from the traditional religion of the Kuki peoples as well as their ancestral customs and traditions. The spread of English education introduced the Kuki people to the "modern era". William Pettigrew , the first foreign missionary, came to Manipur on 6 February 1894 and
15048-525: The state of Mogaung ) conquered together the principalities of Thaungdut and Khampat: [King Kiyamba] was victorious over the Kyangs of Kapo. Meetingu Kyampa and Choupha Khekkhompa, the king of Pong, made an alliance and fought (against the Kyangs). ... They attacked together Kyang Khampat of Kapo. They defeated Kyang. Captured in battle Mung of Takhen, Khamset, Khamkhai and Hokham. "Kyangs" refers to " Chins ",
15180-563: The surge in violence post-coup, with more than 3 million people in dire need of humanitarian assistance. The name of the country has been a matter of dispute and disagreement, particularly in the early 21st century, focusing mainly on the political legitimacy of those using Myanmar versus Burma . Both names derive from the earlier Burmese Mranma or Mramma , an ethnonym for the majority Burman ethnic group, of uncertain etymology. The terms are also popularly thought to derive from Sanskrit Brahma Desha , 'land of Brahma '. In 1989,
15312-674: The terminology of "Old Kukis" and "New Kukis", but it does appear that the two groups followed different migration routes and thus developed significant cultural differences. Per the 1881 census, the Kukis are estimated to have numbered 20,000 in the North Cachar Hills (present-day Dima Hasao district ), 15,000 in the Naga Hills (present-day Nagaland ), 30,000–40,000 in Manipur and 6,000 in Tipperah ( Tripura ). In addition,
15444-499: The treaty of 1834, "It is to be distinctly understood that should any circumstance here after arise by which the portion of territory lately made over to Ava again reverts to Munnipore, the allowance now granted by the British Government will cease from the date of such reversion." Consequently, Manipuri considered it as lease to Burma, and as per James Johnstone, Kabaw Valley was in British possession in December 1885. At
15576-507: The tribes inhabiting the Lushai Hills region to the south of the Manipur valley , eventually dividing it into separate "Lushai Hills" in India and "Chin Hills" in Burma. Over time, the British came to distinguish the tribes currently called "Kukis" from the remaining "Lushais". An Intelligence Branch report from 1907 listed Ralte , Paite , Thadou , Lakher , Hmar and Poi tribes among Kukis. It stated that each of these tribes had its own language, and these languages were unintelligible to
15708-514: The upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing the Pyu , Mon and Pali norms by the late 12th century. Theravada Buddhism slowly began to spread to the village level, although Tantric , Mahayana , Hinduism , and folk religion remained heavily entrenched. Pagan's rulers and wealthy built over 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Pagan capital zone alone. Repeated Mongol invasions in the late 13th century toppled
15840-572: The use of the Thadou language for the business of the organisation. As a result, almost all the tribes other than Thadou Kukis left the Kuki Company, and formed a separate Khulmi National Union . In 1950s, ten Old Kuki tribes changed their affiliation to 'Naga', induced to do so by the Tangkhuls . Seven New Kuki tribes eventually adopted the Zomi identity in the 1990s. In the 1950s, when
15972-541: The village and the community. Prior to conversion in the early 20th century to Christianity by Welsh Baptist missionaries, the Chin, Kuki, and Mizo peoples were animists ; among their practices were ritual headhunting . Christian missionaries entered Manipur in the late 19th century but did not yet make inroads into the tribal areas. The victory of the British in Anglo-Kuki War of 1917–1919 opened up their mind of
16104-614: The votes; fraud, however, was alleged. A nominally civilian government was then formed, with retired general Thein Sein as president. A series of liberalising political and economic actions – or reforms – then took place. By the end of 2011 these included the release of pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest, the establishment of the National Human Rights Commission , the granting of general amnesties for more than 200 political prisoners, new labour laws that permitted labour unions and strikes,
16236-526: The war. However, Burney's report helped the Burmese claim and the Governor-General acceded to the demand to restore Kabaw Valley to Burma. The transfer took place on 9 January 1834. Grant and Pemberton were dispatched to define the boundary between Manipur and Burma along the Yomadong range, where it still lies. Manipur was compensated by the British government for the loss of its territory by an annual payment of Rs. 6,000, which state clearly as per
16368-426: The world's longest-running ongoing civil wars . The United Nations and several other organisations have reported consistent and systemic human rights violations in the country. In 2011, the military junta was officially dissolved following a 2010 general election , and a nominally civilian government was installed. Aung San Suu Kyi and political prisoners were released and the 2015 Myanmar general election
16500-471: Was apparently based on a village called "Khongchai" in the Tuipui river valley, with the surrounding hills also referred to as Khongjai Hills. The Manipur ruler Ching-Thang Khomba (also known as Bhagyachandra and Jai Singh) made war on this region in 1786, and subjugated the Kuki chieftain in the central village. Other regions in southern hills remained relatively untouched until 1894 when the British defined
16632-800: Was delivered after the Toungoo dynasty was replaced by the Konbaung dynasty in Burma, with Alaungpaya coming to the throne in 1752. Alaungpaya personally invaded Manipur in 1758, causing considerable damage. He left after thirteen days, leaving forces permanently garrisoned at Tamu and Thaungdut. A more devastating invasion was made by his successor Hsinbyushin in 1764 capturing numerous captives. The ruler Bhagyachandra fled to Assam, where he remained for four years. Further raids continued till 1782 and Bhagyachandra's efforts to regain his throne were repeatedly repulsed. After 1782, Manipur appears to have been left alone in Bhagyachandra's hands, but raids on
16764-586: Was devastated during World War II by the Japanese invasion . Within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon, and the British administration had collapsed. A Burmese Executive Administration headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942. Wingate 's British Chindits were formed into long-range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines. A similar American unit, Merrill's Marauders , followed
16896-503: Was held, leading to improved foreign relations and eased economic sanctions , although the country's treatment of its ethnic minorities , particularly in connection with the Rohingya conflict , continued to be a source of international tension and consternation. Following the 2020 Myanmar general election , in which Aung San Suu Kyi’s party won a clear majority in both houses, the Burmese military (Tatmadaw) again seized power in
17028-772: Was sponsored by the American Baptist Mission Union . He, along with Dr. Crozier, worked in the North and the Northeast of Manipur. In the south, Watkins Robert of the Welsh Presbytery mission organised the Indo-Burma Thadou-Kuki Pioneer Mission in 1913. To have a broader scope, the mission's name was changed to North East India General Mission (NEIGM) in 1924. The first resistance to British hegemony by
17160-408: Was stationed in Manipur to back the installed administration. The Burmese occupation lasted seven years and ended only with the First Anglo-Burmese War . During the Burmese occupation, the four sons of Bhagyachandra ensconced themselves in the neighbouring kingdom of Cachar , whose ruler Gonvinda Chandra was their relative. From there, they sought British help to oust the Burmese from Manipur. After
17292-425: Was strong, and was vented in violent riots that periodically paralysed Rangoon until the 1930s. Some of the discontent was caused by a disrespect for Burmese culture and traditions. Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement. U Wisara , an activist monk, died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike. On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony of Britain, and Ba Maw became
17424-712: Was widely condemned as part of the international reactions to the Saffron Revolution and led to an increase in economic sanctions against the Burmese Government . In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis caused extensive damage in the densely populated rice-farming delta of the Irrawaddy Division . It was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history with reports of an estimated 200,000 people dead or missing, damages totalled to 10 billion US dollars, and as many as 1 million were left homeless. In
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