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66-589: Kalawan (originally meaning "The caves") is the name of an archaeological site in the area of Taxila in Pakistan, where it is one of the largest Buddhist establishment. It is located about 2 km from the Dharmarajika stupa. Kalawan has a vihara monastery, which is the largest in northern India. An inscription, recording the enshrinement of relics as a gift to the Sarvastivadin School,

132-460: A Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who visited the city via the Silk Road , had given its name's meaning as "cut-off head". With the help of a Jataka , he had interpreted it to be the place where Gautama Buddha —during a previous birth as Pusa or Chandaprabha —cut off his head to feed a hungry lion. This tradition still persists with the area in front of Sirkap (also meaning "cut-off head"), which

198-561: A World Heritage Site . By some accounts, the University of ancient Taxila is considered to be one of the earliest universities or education centre in South Asia. Other scholars do not consider it to have been a university in the modern sense, in that the teachers living there may not have had official membership of particular colleges, and there did not seem to have existed purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters in

264-747: A Strategic Affiliation. The affiliation aims to create a more resilient, inclusive, and sustainable future for cultural heritage protection worldwide. GHF’s two active projects, Dali Dong Village in Guizhou , China , and La Ciudad Perdida in Colombia , joined WMF’s project portfolio. Global Heritage Fund has worked with over one hundred partners worldwide, including local community boards, NGOs, private sector companies, and local and national governmental bodies. Global Heritage Fund partners include Google Arts & Culture , American Express , Intrepid Foundation (the not-for-profit entity of Intrepid Travel ),

330-796: A battle since the city was immediately surrendered to the Macedonian Empire . This was followed successively by the Maurya Empire (~317 - ~200 BCE), the Indo-Greek Kingdom (~200 BCE - ~55 BCE), the Indo-Scythians (~80 BCE - ~30 CE), and the Kushan Empire (~ 30 CE - ~375 CE), who destroyed the existing city, in the first century CE, to build their own on a site to the north of the ruins. Owing to its strategic location, Taxila has changed hands many times over

396-526: A blow from which the city would never recover. From 500 CE to 540 CE, the city languished after falling under the control of the Hunnic Empire ruled by Mihirakula . Mihirakula presided over some destruction of Buddhist sites, monasteries and Hindu temples across northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent. Xuanzang visited India between 629 and 645 CE. Taxila which was desolate and half-ruined

462-671: A clear technological change from the Period I material. Seven radiocarbon dates were also taken from the earlier and later Period II/Kot Diji, and seem to show this phase dates from the mid-late 3rd to early 2nd millennium BCE. Gandhara was an ancient Indo-Aryan kingdom of western South Asia whose existence was attested during the Iron Age . The capital of the kingdom was in Taxila. The first major settlement at Taxila, in Hathial mound,

528-508: A distinctive type of highly burnished pottery that shows clear signs of the use of woven baskets in the manufacturing process and the application of a slurry to the exterior surface. Periods IA and II at Sarai Khola seem to show continuity from Period I, with the appearance of red burnished wares. However, Kot Diji -style wares were found in greater numbers, and the Kot Diji-style forms show signs of having been wheel-thrown, marking

594-484: A great centre of learning with world-famous teachers. The Jatakas mention non-Buddhist institutions and teachers in Taxila. They show the predominance of Vedic and technical disciplines including law, medicine, and military science. The Takkasila Jataka, more commonly known as the Telapatta Jataka, tells the tale of a prince of Benares who is told that he would become the king of Takkasila if he could reach

660-594: A gymnastic and equestrian contest there. On Alexander's death, in 323 BCE, the province and much of the once Achaemenid territories would pass to his general Seleucus I Nicator and founder of the successor Seleucid Empire . By 303 BCE, the Seleucid Empire's satraps in South Asia had been formally annexed by the expanding Mauryan empire, following the Seleucid–Mauryan war , with the provincial capital and center of higher education at of Taxila now under

726-888: A man". The Kidarites , vassals of the Hephthalite Empire are known to have invaded Taxila in c. 450 CE. Though repelled by the Gupta Emperor Skandagupta , the city would not recover- probably on account of the strong Hunnic presence in the area, breakdown of trade as well as the three-way war among Persia, the Kidarite State, and the Huns in Western Gandhara . The White Huns and Alchon Huns swept over Gandhāra and Punjab around 470 CE, causing widespread devastation and destruction of Taxila's famous Buddhist monasteries and stupas ,

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792-475: A number of monuments and other historical places of note in the area besides the four settlements at Bhir, Saraikala, Sirkap, and Sirsukh. They number 18 in all: In a 2010 report, Global Heritage Fund identified Taxila as one of 12 worldwide sites most "on the Verge" of irreparable loss and damage, citing insufficient management, development pressure, looting, and war and conflict as primary threats. In 2017, it

858-435: A pair of sandals, or an umbrella. In cases of poor students being unable to afford even that, they could approach the king, who would then step in and provide something. Not providing a poor student a means to supply his Guru's Dakshina was considered the greatest slur on a King's reputation. Examinations were treated as superfluous, and not considered part of the requirements to complete one's studies . The process of teaching

924-849: A report titled Saving Our Vanishing Heritage: Safeguarding Endangered Cultural Heritage Sites in the Developing World . The report listed 500 major archaeological and heritage sites in developing countries, evaluating their current loss and destruction, conservation and development. It identified nearly 200 of these sites as "At Risk” or “Under Threat,” and 12 as “On the Verge” of irreparable loss and destruction. The Vanishing report stated that there were five accelerating man-made threats facing global heritage sites in developing countries: development pressures, unsustainable tourism, insufficient management, looting, and war and conflict. In 2023, Global Heritage Fund and World Monuments Fund announced

990-526: Is a UNESCO World Heritage Site , being one of the oldest settlements in South Asia. It has a population of over 136,900, as of 2023 ; and is administratively located in the Taxila Tehsil of Rawalpindi District , lying approximately 25 kilometres (16 mi) northwest of the Islamabad–Rawalpindi metropolitan area and immediately south of Haripur District , Khyber Pakhtunkhwa . Old Taxila

1056-547: Is based on a number of factors, including cultural significance of site, need of country or region in question, and high potential for sustainable preservation through community involvement. Global Heritage Fund has current or past projects in the following locations: (* indicates a UNESCO World Heritage Site ) Global Heritage Fund registered as a charity in England and Wales in 2006, extending Global Heritage Fund's network of members, staff, and technical experts throughout

1122-478: Is during this time that the city heavily features in classical Indian literature – both as a centre of culture as well as a militarised border city. Taxila's university remained in existence during the travels of Chinese pilgrim Faxian, who visited Taxila around 400 CE. He wrote that Taxila's name translated as "the Severed Head", and was the site of a story in the life of Buddha "where he gave his head to

1188-511: Is found in the Hathial section, which yielded pottery shards that date from as early as the late 2nd millennium BCE to the 6th century BCE. The Bhir Mound ruins at the site date from the 6th century BCE, and are adjacent to Hathial. The ruins of Sirkap date to the 2nd century BCE, and were built by the region's Greco-Bactrian kings who ruled in the region following Alexander the Great's invasion of

1254-403: Is identified with kingdom of Taxila by some authors. By some accounts, Taxila was considered to be one of the earliest (or the earliest) universities in the world. The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where the religious instruction was provided on an individualistic basis. Others do not consider it a university in the modern sense, in that

1320-524: Is most famous for ruins of several settlements, the earliest dating from around 1000 BCE. It is also known for its collection of Buddhist religious monuments, including the Dharmarajika stupa , the Jaulian monastery, and the Mohra Muradu monastery. The main ruins of Taxila include four major cities, each belonging to a distinct time period, at three different sites. The earliest settlement at Taxila

1386-476: Is said to have been enthroned at Takshashila. The Ramayana describes Takshashila as a magnificent city famed for its wealth which was founded by Bharata, the younger brother of Rama . Bharata, who also founded nearby Pushkalavati , installed his two sons, Taksha and Pushkala, as the rulers of the two cities. In the Buddhist Jatakas, Taxila is described as the capital of the kingdom of Gandhara and

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1452-493: Is specific to Lebanon and managed by the DGA. In 2010, Global Heritage Fund launched Global Heritage Network (GHN) , an early warning and threats monitoring system that uses satellite imaging technology and ground reporting to enable international experts and local conservation leaders to clearly identify and solve imminent threats within the legal core and protected areas of each site. In October 2010, Global Heritage Fund produced

1518-822: The Indian Ocean from the mouth of the Indus to the Suez . Darius then returned to Persia via the Bolan Pass . The region continued under Achaemenid suzerainty under the reign of Xerxes I, and continued under Achaemenid rule for over a century. Taxila was sometimes ruled as part of the Gandhara kingdom (whose capital was Pushkalavati), particularly after the Achaemenid period, but Taxila sometimes formed its own independent district or city-state. During his invasion of

1584-477: The Indus Valley , Alexander the Great was able to gain control of Taxila ( Ancient Greek : Τάξιλα ) in 326 BCE without a battle, as the city was surrendered by its ruler, king Omphis (Āmbhi). Greek historians accompanying Alexander described Taxila as "wealthy, prosperous, and well governed". Arrian writes that Alexander was welcomed by the citizens of the city, and he offered sacrifices and celebrated

1650-612: The Tirthankaras , visited Taxila millions of years ago. His footprints were subsequently consecrated by Bahubali who erected a throne and a dharmachakra ('wheel of the law') over them several miles in height and circumference. The region around Taxila was settled by the Neolithic era, with some ruins at Taxila dating to 1000 BCE. Ruins dating from the Early Harappan period around 1300 BCE have also been discovered in

1716-405: The 7th-century Buddhist monk. Unlike Pliny, these sources noted that the journey to Taxila from the Indus took three days and not two. Cunningham's subsequent explorations in 1863–64 of a site at Shah-dheri convinced him that his hypothesis was correct. Now as Hwen Thsang, on his return to China, was accompanied by laden elephants, his three days' journey from Takhshasila [ sic ] to

1782-617: The Apostle visited Gondophares IV around 46 CE, possibly at Taxila given that city was Gondophares' capital city. Around the year 50 CE, the Greek Neopythagorean philosopher Apollonius of Tyana allegedly visited Taxila, which was described by his biographer, Philostratus , writing some 200 years later, as a fortified city laid out on a symmetrical plan, similar in size to Nineveh . Modern archaeology confirms this description. Inscriptions dating to 76 CE demonstrate that

1848-550: The Global Heritage Fund mission to transform local communities by investing in global heritage. Global Heritage Fund Asia Board of Directors members include Angus Forsyth, Nada Hosking, and Daniel K. Thorne. Global Heritage Fund developed AMAL in Heritage in partnership with ICOMOS-ICORP, ICCROM, and other conservation institutions to document site-specific risk in the cultural heritage sector by providing state of

1914-436: The Indus at Utakhanda , or Ohind, must necessarily have been of the same length as those of modern days, and, consequently, the site of the city must be looked for somewhere in the neighbourhood of Kâla-ka-sarâi . This site is found near Shah-dheri , just one mile to the north-east of Kâla-ka-sarâi , in the extensive ruins of a fortified city, around which I was able to trace no less than 55 stupas, of which two are as large as

1980-542: The Sanskrit language. It is perhaps best known for its association with Chanakya, also known as Kautilya , the strategist who guided Chandragupta Maurya and assisted in the founding of the Mauryan empire. The Ayurvedic healer Charaka also studied at Taxila. He also started teaching at Taxila in the later period. Pāṇini, the grammarian who codified the rules that would define Classical Sanskrit , has also been part of

2046-557: The Taxila area, though the area was eventually abandoned after the collapse of the Indus Valley civilisation. The earliest settled occupation in Taxila Valley was found at Sarai Khola , located 2 km to the south-west of Taxila Museum , where three radiocarbon dates from Period I suggest the site was first occupied between the late 4th and early 3rd millennium BCE, with deposits of polished stone celts, chert blades and

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2112-654: The United Kingdom and Europe. Global Heritage Fund UK shares the Global Heritage Fund mission to transform local communities by investing in global heritage. Global Heritage Fund UK Board of Trustees members include Patrick Franco, James Hooper, Nada Hosking, and Princess Alia Al-Senussi. Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester, KG, GCVO is the Royal Patron of Global Heritage Fund and Global Heritage Fund UK. Based in Hong Kong, Global Heritage Fund Asia shares

2178-478: The age of eight), and their secondary education in the Ashrams (between the ages of eight and twelve), and therefore came to Taxila chiefly to reach the ends of knowledge in specific disciplines. The sites of a number of important cities noted in ancient Indian texts were identified by scholars early in the 19th century. The lost city of Taxila, however, was not identified until later, in 1863-64. Its identification

2244-460: The art tools for preparedness, response, and recovery. The AMAL in Heritage mobile app launched in August 2017. By monitoring sites before and in the immediate aftermath of a disaster, AMAL preserves crucial information that can be used to repair or reconstruct historic structures. The user-friendly technology also supports locals around heritage sites where access to expertise is challenging. In

2310-617: The centuries, with many empires vying for its control. In the 2nd century BCE, Taxila was annexed by the Indo-Greek kingdom of Bactria . Indo-Greeks built a new capital, Sirkap, on the opposite bank of the river from Taxila. During this new period of Bactrian Greek rule, several dynasties (like Antialcidas ) likely ruled from the city as their capital. During lulls in Greek rule, the city managed profitably on its own, to independently control several local trade guilds, who also minted most of

2376-460: The centuries, with many polities vying for its control. When the great ancient trade routes connecting these regions ceased to be important, the city sank into insignificance and was finally destroyed in the 5th century by the invading Hunas . In mid-19th century British India , ancient Taxila's ruins were rediscovered by British archaeologist Alexander Cunningham and extensively excavated by Sir John Marshall . In 1980, UNESCO designated Taxila as

2442-718: The city had come under Kushan rule by that time, after the city was captured from the Parthians by Kujula Kadphises , founder of the Kushan Empire . The great Kushan ruler Kanishka later founded Sirsukh , the most recent of the ancient settlements at Taxila. In the mid-fourth century CE, the Gupta Empire occupied the territories in Eastern Gandhara, establishing a Kumaratya's post at Taxila. The city became well known for its trade links, including silk, sandalwood, horses, cotton, silverware, pearls, and spices. It

2508-505: The city was founded by Bharata , the younger brother of the Hindu deity Rama , and named in honour of Bharata's son, Taksha. The city's modern name, however, is derived from the ancient Greek rendering noted in Ptolemy 's Geography . The Greek-language transcription of Taxila became universally favoured over time, and both the Sanskrit and Pali names fell out of use. Faxian ,

2574-583: The city within seven days without falling prey to the yakshinis who waylaid travellers in the forest. According to the Dipavamsa , one of Taxila's early kings was a Kshatriya named Dipankara who was succeeded by twelve sons and grandsons. Kuñjakarṇa , mentioned in the Avadanakalpalata , is another king associated with the city. In the Jain tradition, it is said that Rishabha , the first of

2640-623: The city's autonomous coinage. In about the 1st century BCE or 1st century CE, an Indo-Scythian king named Azilises had three mints, one of which was at Taxila, and struck coins with obverse legends in Greek and Kharoṣṭhī . The last Greek king of Taxila was overthrown by the Indo-Scythian chief Maues around 90 BCE. Gondophares , founder of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom , conquered Taxila around 20 BCE, and made Taxila his capital. According to early Christian legend, Thomas

2706-612: The city. In a 2010 report, the Global Heritage Fund identified Taxila as one of 12 worldwide sites that were "on the verge" of irreparable loss and damage, citing insufficient management, development pressure, looting, and armed conflict as primary threats. However, significant preservation efforts have since been carried out by the Pakistani government , which has resulted in the site's recategorization as "well-preserved" by different international publications. Because of

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2772-821: The community at Taxila. Jīvaka , the court physician of the Magadha emperor Bimbisara who once cured the Buddha, and the Buddhism-supporting ruler of Kosala, Prasenajit, are some important personalities mentioned in Pali texts who studied at Taxila. No external authorities like kings or local leaders subjected the scholastic activities at Taxila to their control. Each teacher formed his own institution, enjoying complete autonomy in work, teaching as many students as he liked and teaching subjects he liked without conforming to any centralised syllabus. Study terminated when

2838-650: The control of Chandragupta Maurya . His advisor, Kautilya/Chanakya , was said to have taught at Taxila's university. Under the reign of Ashoka the Great , Chandragupta's grandson, the city was made a great seat of Buddhist learning, though the city was home to a minor rebellion during this time. Taxila was founded in a strategic location along the ancient "Royal Highway" that connected the Mauryan capital at Pataliputra in Bihar , with ancient Peshawar, Puṣkalāvatī, and onwards towards Central Asia via Kashmir , Bactria, and Kāpiśa . Taxila thus changed hands many times over

2904-564: The extensive preservation efforts and upkeep, Taxila is one of Punjab's popular tourist spots , attracting up to one million tourists every year. In ancient times, Taxila was known as Takṣaśilā in Sanskrit (per IAST ) and as Takkhasilā in Pali . The city's Sanskrit name translates to "City of Cut Stone" or "Rock of Taksha" in reference to a story in the Ramayana that states that

2970-475: The great Manikyala tope, twenty eight monasteries, and nine temples. Taxila's archaeological sites lie near modern Taxila about 35 km (22 mi) northwest of the city of Rawalpindi . The sites were first excavated by John Marshall , who worked at Taxila over a period of twenty years from 1913. The vast archaeological site includes neolithic remains dating to 3360 BCE, and Early Harappan remains dating to 2900–2600 BCE at Sarai Kala . Taxila, however,

3036-445: The long and arduous journey they had to undergo, on account of the excellence of the learned teachers there, all recognised as authorities on their respective subjects. The admission to Takshashila was not only limited to the students belonging to the elite class, some evidence mentions the sons of kings, nobles, merchants, tailors, and even fishermen getting education at Takshashila. Taxila had great influence on Hindu culture and

3102-787: The old world until the destruction of the city in the 5th century. It has been suggested that at its height, Taxila exerted a sort of "intellectual suzerainty " over other centres of learning in India and its primary concern was not with elementary, but higher education. Generally, a student entered Taxila at the age of sixteen. The ancient and the most revered scriptures, and the Eighteen Silpas or Arts, which included skills such as archery, hunting, and elephant lore, were taught, in addition to its law school, medical school, and school of military science . Students came to Taxila from far-off places such as Kashi , Kosala and Magadha, in spite of

3168-612: The prototype for the later development of monasteries with shrines in Devnimori , Ajanta , Aurangabad , Ellora , Nalanda , Ratnagiri and others. Taxila Taxila ( Punjabi , Urdu : ٹيکسلا ; Punjabi pronunciation: [ʈɛksɪlaː] ), historically known as Takshashila , is a historic city, located on the Pothohar Plateau , in Punjab, Pakistan . Founded as a group of proper settlements around 1000 BCE, it

3234-490: The region in 326 BCE. The third and most recent settlement is that of Sirsukh , which was built by rulers of the Kushan empire, who ruled from nearby Purushapura (modern Peshawar ). Taxila was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980 in particular for the ruins of the four settlement sites which "reveal the pattern of urban evolution on the Indian subcontinent through more than five centuries". The serial site includes

3300-545: The region of Gandhara . In later Buddhist texts, the 4th - 3rd century BCE Jatakas , it is specified that Taxila was the city where Aruni and his son Shvetaketu each had received their education. One of the earliest mentions of Taxila is in Pāṇini 's Aṣṭādhyāyī , a Sanskrit grammar treatise dated to the 4th century BCE. Much of the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata , is a conversation between Vaishampayana (a pupil of

3366-536: The rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BCE. In 516 BCE, Darius I embarked on a campaign to conquer Central Asia , Ariana and Bactria , before marching onto what is now Afghanistan and northern Pakistan . Emperor Darius spent the winter of 516-515 BCE in the Gandhara region surrounding Taxila, and prepared to conquer the Indus Valley , which he did in 515 BCE, after which he appointed Scylax of Caryanda to explore

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3432-539: The sage, Vyasa ) and King Janamejaya . It is traditionally believed that the story was first recited by Vaishampayana at the behest of Vyasa during the snake sacrifice performed by Janamejaya at Takshashila. The audience also included Ugrashravas , an itinerant bard, who would later recite the story to a group of priests at an ashram in the Naimisha Forest from where the story was further disseminated. The Kuru Kingdom 's heir, Parikshit (grandson of Arjuna)

3498-435: The social, intellectual and moral atmosphere there. Knowledge was considered too sacred to be bartered for money, and hence any stipulation that fees ought to be paid was vigorously condemned . Financial support came from the society at large, as well as from rich merchants and wealthy parents . Though the number of students studying under a single Guru sometimes numbered in the hundreds, teachers did not deny education even if

3564-408: The student was poor; free boarding and lodging was provided, and students had to do manual work in the household . Paying students, such as princes, were taught during the day, while non-paying ones were taught at night. Gurudakshina was usually expected at the completion of a student's studies, but it was essentially a mere token of respect and gratitude - many times being nothing more than a turban,

3630-432: The teacher was satisfied with the student's level of achievement. In general, specialisation in a subject took around eight years, though this could be lengthened or shortened in accordance with the intellectual abilities and dedication of the student in question. In most cases the "schools" were located within the teachers' private houses, and at times students were advised to quit their studies if they were unable to fit into

3696-461: The teachers living there may not have had official membership of particular colleges, and there did not seem to have existed purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters in Taxila, in contrast to the later Nalanda university in eastern India. Taxila became a noted centre of learning (including the religious teachings of Historical Vedic Religion and Buddhism ) at least several centuries BCE, and continued to attract students from around

3762-685: The wake of the August 2020 port explosion in Lebanon, Global Heritage Fund launched a campaign to deliver AMAL in Heritage to the people of Beirut in partnership with the Lebanese Department of Antiquities (DGA). A local team recorded and assessed over 200 buildings in two days using the AMAL toolkit. This information was passed to a copy of Oxford University ’s Endangered Archaeology in the Middle East and North Africa (EAMENA) Project that

3828-756: Was announced that Thailand would assist in conservation efforts at Taxila, as well as at Buddhist sites in the Swat Valley . Taxila is located 32 km (20 mi) north-west of the Pakistani capital Islamabad . The city is located approximately 549 metres (1,801 ft) above sea level . Taxila features a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen : Cwa) Global Heritage Fund To date, it has partnered with over 100 public and private organizations at 28 sites across 19 countries, investing over $ 30 million and securing $ 25 million in co-funding to carry out heritage preservation and socio-economic development. Projects are selected by Global Heritage Fund's Senior Advisory Board. Global Heritage Fund states that selection

3894-440: Was critical and thorough- unless one unit was mastered completely, the student was not allowed to proceed to the next . No convocations were held upon completion, and no written "degrees" were awarded, since it was believed that knowledge was its own reward. Using knowledge for earning a living or for any selfish end was considered sacrilegious. Students arriving at Taxila usually had completed their primary education at home (until

3960-430: Was established around 1000 BCE. By 900 BCE, the city was already involved in regional commerce, as the discovered pottery shards reveal trading ties between the city and Puṣkalāvatī . Later, Taxila was inhabited at Bhir Mound , dated to some time around the period 800-525 BCE with these early layers bearing grooved red burnished ware. Archaeological excavations show that the city may have grown significantly during

4026-403: Was for a time the capital city of ancient Gandhāra , situated on the eastern shore of the Indus River —the pivotal junction of the Indian subcontinent and Central Asia ; it was possibly founded around 1000 BCE. The city was part of the Achaemenid empire's Hindush colony, between ~550 - 326 BCE. In 326 BCE, the city was conquered by Alexander the Great who gained control of the city without

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4092-418: Was found in a chaitya hall mentioning the date of "the 134th year of Azes ," which corresponds to 77 CE. Small stupas were found inside the monasteries. The Kalawan monastery, together with the Dharmarajika display an original kind of architectural arrangement in which an image shrine is built opposite the entrance. It is thought that this architectural pattern was initiated in the northwest and then became

4158-403: Was known in the 19th century as Babur Khana ('House of Tiger'), alluding to the place where Gautama Buddha had offered his head. In addition, a hill range to south of the Taxila Valley is called Margala ( lit.   ' cut-off throat ' ). In Vedic texts such as the Shatapatha Brahmana , it is mentioned that the Vedic philosopher Uddalaka Aruni (c. 7th century BCE) had travelled to

4224-452: Was made difficult partly due to errors in the distances recorded by Pliny in his Naturalis Historia which pointed to a location somewhere on the Haro river , two days march from the Indus . Alexander Cunningham , the founder and the first director-general of the Archaeological Survey of India , noticed that this position did not agree with the descriptions provided in the itineraries of Chinese pilgrims and in particular, that of Xuanzang,

4290-408: Was replaced by the Hindu Shahi dynasty which was overthrown by Mahmud of Ghazni with the defeat of Trilochanpala . Al-Usaifan's king during the reign of Al-Mu'tasim is said to have converted to Islam by Al-Biladhuri and abandoned his old faith due to the death of his son despite having priests of a temple pray for his recovery. Said to be located between Kashmir, Multan and Kabul, al-Usaifan

4356-418: Was visited by him in 630 CE, and found most of its sangharamas still ruined and desolate. Only a few monks remained there. He adds that the kingdom had become a dependency of Kashmir with the local leaders fighting amongst themselves for power. He noted that it had some time previously been a subject of Kapisa . By the ninth century, it became a dependency of the Kabul Shahis. The Turki Shahi dynasty of Kabul

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