57-479: Kale ( / k eɪ l / ), also called leaf cabbage , belongs to a group of cabbage ( Brassica oleracea ) cultivars primarily grown for their edible leaves . It has also been used as an ornamental plant . Kale plants have green or purple leaves, and the central leaves do not form a head (as with headed cabbage ). The name kale originates from Northern Middle English cale (compare Scots kail and German Kohl ) for various cabbages . The ultimate origin
114-822: A 100 g ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 oz) serving, raw kale provides 207 kilojoules (49 kilocalories) of food energy and a large amount of vitamin K at 3.7 times the Daily Value (DV). It is a rich source (20% or more of the DV) of vitamin A , vitamin C , vitamin B6 , folate , and manganese (see table "Kale, raw"). Kale is a good source (10–19% DV) of thiamin , riboflavin , pantothenic acid , vitamin E , and several dietary minerals , including iron , calcium , magnesium , potassium , and phosphorus . Boiling raw kale diminishes most of these nutrients, while values for vitamins A, C, and K and manganese remain substantial. Kale
171-426: A G protein-coupled receptor that functions as a taste receptor, mediated by ligands such as PROP and phenylthiocarbamide that bind to the receptor and initiate signaling that confers various degrees of taste perception. Vegetables in the brassica family, such as collard greens, kale, broccoli, cabbage, and Brussels sprouts, contain glucosinolates and isothiocyanates , which resemble PROP , and therefore much of
228-481: A base for a traditional diet that the word in some Scots dialects is synonymous with food. To be "off one's kail" is to feel too ill to eat. In Ireland, kale is mixed with mashed potatoes to make the traditional dish colcannon . It is popular on Halloween , when it may be served with sausages. In the United Kingdom , the cultivation of kale (and other vegetables) was encouraged during World War II via
285-501: A complex of water-soluble micronutrients essential to life, all of which he presumed to be amines . When this presumption was later determined not to be true, the "e" was dropped from the name, hence "vitamin". Vitamin nomenclature was alphabetical, with Elmer McCollum calling these fat-soluble A and water-soluble B. Over time, eight chemically distinct, water-soluble B vitamins were isolated and numbered, with pantothenic acid as vitamin B 5 . The essential nature of pantothenic acid
342-505: A curly-leaved, a smooth-leaved, and a wild-type. He reports the antipathy of the cabbage and the grape vine, for the ancients believed cabbages grown near grapes would impart their flavour to the wine. Through artificial selection for various phenotype traits, the emergence of variations of the plant with drastic differences in appearance occurred over centuries. Preference for leaves, terminal buds, lateral buds, stems, and inflorescences resulted in selection of varieties of wild cabbage into
399-522: A dietary supplement which could prevent or treat graying of hair in humans (despite the lack of any human trial evidence). Pantothenic acid status can be assessed by measuring either whole blood concentration or 24-hour urinary excretion. In humans, whole blood values less than 1 μmol/L are considered low, as is urinary excretion of less than 4.56 mmol/day. Calcium pantothenate and dexpanthenol (D-panthenol) are European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) approved additives to animal feed. Supplementation
456-512: A long list of claimed uses, but there is insufficient scientific evidence to support any of them. As a dietary supplement, pantothenic acid is not the same as pantethine , which is composed of two pantothenic acid molecules linked by a disulfide bridge. Sold as a high-dose supplement (600 mg), pantethine may be effective for lowering blood levels of LDL cholesterol – a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases – but its long-term effects are unknown, so use should be supervised by
513-574: A physician. Dietary supplementation with pantothenic acid does not have the cholesterol-lowering effect as pantethine. According to the Global Fortification Data Exchange, pantothenic acid deficiency is so rare that no countries require that foods be fortified. When found in foods, most pantothenic acid is in the form of CoA or bound to acyl carrier protein (ACP). For the intestinal cells to absorb this vitamin, it must be converted into free pantothenic acid. Within
570-432: Is Latin caulis 'cabbage'. Derived from wild mustard , kale is considered to be closer to wild cabbage than most domesticated forms of B. oleracea . Kale is usually a biennial plant grown from seed with a wide range of germination temperatures. It is hardy and thrives in wintertime, and can survive in temperatures as low as −15 °C (5 °F). Kale can become sweeter after a heavy frost. Kale originated in
627-582: Is 7 mg/day. For infants up to 12 months, the AI is 1.8 mg/day. For children ages 1–13 years, the AI increases with age from 2 to 4 mg/day. Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs). While for many nutrients, the US Department of Agriculture uses food composition data combined with food consumption survey results to estimate average consumption,
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#1732780080827684-645: Is a hardy plant with a high tolerance for salt and lime and low tolerance to competition from other plants. According to the Triangle of U theory, B. oleracea is very closely related to five other species of the genus Brassica . A 2021 study suggests that Brassica cretica , native to the Eastern Mediterranean, particularly Greece and the Aegean Islands , was the closest living relative of cultivated B. oleracea , thus supporting
741-479: Is a source of the carotenoids , lutein and zeaxanthin . As with broccoli and other cruciferous vegetables , kale contains glucosinolate compounds, such as glucoraphanin , which contributes to the formation of sulforaphane , a compound under preliminary research for its potential to affect human health beneficially. Boiling kale decreases the level of glucosinate compounds, whereas steaming , microwaving , or stir frying does not cause significant loss. Kale
798-689: Is a winter tradition known as " Kohlfahrt " ("kale trip"), where a group of people will go on a hike through the woods during the day before gathering at an inn or private residence where kale is served, usually with bacon and Kohlwurst ("kale sausage"). Kale is considered a Northern German staple and comfort food . In Italy, cavolo nero kale is an ingredient of the Tuscan soup ribollita . A traditional Portuguese soup, caldo verde , combines pureed potatoes, very finely sliced kale, olive oil and salt. Additional ingredients can include broth and sliced, cooked spicy sausage . In Scotland, kale provided such
855-610: Is also impaired; therefore, neurological symptoms can also appear in deficiency; they include sensation of numbness in hands and feet, paresthesia and muscle cramps. Additional symptoms could include restlessness, malaise, sleep disturbances, nausea, vomiting and abdominal cramps. In animals, symptoms include disorders of the nervous, gastrointestinal, and immune systems, reduced growth rate, decreased food intake, skin lesions and changes in hair coat, and alterations in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. In rodents, there can be loss of hair color, which led to marketing of pantothenic acid as
912-563: Is called " hungry gap " after the period in winter in traditional agriculture when little else could be harvested. An extra-tall variety is known as Jersey kale or cow cabbage . Kai-lan or Chinese kale is a cultivar often used in Chinese cuisine. In Portugal, the bumpy-leaved kale is mostly called "couve galega" (Galician kale or Portuguese Cabbage). Many varieties of kale and cabbage are grown mainly for ornamental leaves that are brilliant white, red, pink, lavender, blue, or violet in
969-455: Is converted to its cyanohydrin derivative. which is cyclised to give racemic pantolactone. This sequence of reactions was first published in 1904. Synthesis of the vitamin is completed by resolution of the lactone using quinine , for example, followed by treatment with the calcium or sodium salt of β-alanine. The term vitamin is derived from the word vitamine , which was coined in 1912 by Polish biochemist Casimir Funk , who isolated
1026-576: Is converted to pantothenic acid once consumed. Calcium pantothenate – a salt – may be used in manufacturing because it is more resistant than pantothenic acid to factors that deteriorate stability, such as acid, alkali or heat. The amount of pantothenic acid in dietary supplement products may contain up to 1,000 mg (200 times the Adequate Intake level for adults), without evidence that such large amounts provide any benefit. According to WebMD , pantothenic acid supplements have
1083-559: Is high in oxalic acid , the levels of which can be reduced by cooking. Kale contains high levels of polyphenols , such as ferulic acid , with levels varying due to environmental and genetic factors. Kale chips have been produced as a potato chip substitute. In the Netherlands , a traditional winter dish called " boerenkoolstamppot " is a mix of curly kale and mashed potatoes, sometimes with fried bacon, and served with rookworst ("smoked sausage"). In Northern Germany , there
1140-487: Is no UL, as there is no human data for adverse effects from high doses. The EFSA also reviewed the safety question and reached the same conclusion as in the United States – that there was not sufficient evidence to set a UL for pantothenic acid. For US food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For pantothenic acid labeling purposes, 100% of
1197-457: Is of hard-heading cabbage in the 13th century. Records in 14th-century England distinguish between hard-heading cabbage and loose-leaf kale. Russian traders introduced Russian kale into Canada and then into the United States in the 19th century. USDA botanist David Fairchild is credited with introducing kale (and many other crops) to Americans, having brought it back from Croatia , although Fairchild himself disliked cabbages, including kale. At
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#17327800808271254-691: Is on the order of 8–20 mg/kg for pigs, 10–15 mg/kg for poultry, 30–50 mg/kg for fish and 8–14 mg/kg feed for pets. These are recommended concentrations, designed to be higher than what are thought to be requirements. There is some evidence that feed supplementation increases pantothenic acid concentration in tissues, i.e., meat, consumed by humans, and also for eggs, but this raises no concerns for consumer safety. No dietary requirement for pantothenic acid has been established in ruminant species. Synthesis of pantothenic acid by ruminal microorganisms appears to be 20 to 30 times more than dietary amounts. Net microbial synthesis of pantothenic acid in
1311-428: Is only one chemical compound. It is a starting compound in the synthesis of coenzyme A (CoA), a cofactor for many enzyme processes. Pantothenic acid is a precursor to CoA via a five-step process. The biosynthesis requires pantothenic acid, cysteine, and four equivalents of ATP (see figure). This pathway is suppressed by end-product inhibition , meaning that CoA is a competitive inhibitor of pantothenate kinase,
1368-447: Is replaced by a keto- moiety to yield α-ketoisovalerate , which, in turn, forms α-ketopantoate following transfer of a methyl group, then D-pantoate (also known as pantoic acid) following reduction. β-alanine and pantoic acid are then condensed to form pantothenic acid (see figure). The industrial synthesis of pantothenic acid starts with the aldol condensation of isobutyraldehyde and formaldehyde . The resulting hydroxypivaldehyde
1425-492: Is required for fatty acid synthesis. Its synthesis also connects with other vitamins such as thiamin and folic acid. The US Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for B vitamins in 1998. At that time, there was not sufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs for pantothenic acid. In instances such as this, the Board sets Adequate Intakes (AIs), with
1482-418: Is saturated, some pantothenic acid may also be additionally absorbed via passive diffusion. As a whole, when intake increases 10-fold, absorption rate decreases to 10%. Pantothenic acid is excreted in urine. This occurs after its release from CoA. Urinary amounts are on the order of 2.6 mg/day, but decreased to negligible amounts when subjects in multi-week experimental situations were fed diets devoid of
1539-555: Is told in which a neighbouring village offered to pay a generous price for some kale seeds, an offer too good to turn down. The locals agreed, but a gentle roasting on a shovel over a coal fire ensured the seeds never germinated. Brassica oleracea Brassica oleracea is a plant species from the family Brassicaceae that includes many common cultivars used as vegetables , such as cabbage , broccoli , cauliflower , kale , Brussels sprouts , collard greens , Savoy cabbage , kohlrabi , and gai lan . The uncultivated form of
1596-733: The Acephala ("non-heading") group remains most like the natural wild cabbage in appearance. 'Brassica' was Pliny the Elder 's name for several cabbage-like plants. Its specific epithet oleracea means "vegetable/herbal" in Latin and is a form of holeraceus ( oleraceus ). Its uncultivated form, wild cabbage , native to coastal southern and western Europe, is a hardy plant with high tolerance for salt and lime . However, its intolerance of competition from other plants typically restricts its natural occurrence to limestone sea cliffs, like
1653-507: The Dig for Victory campaign. The vegetable was easy to grow and provided important nutrients missing from a diet because of rationing . In Sri Lanka, it is known as kola gova or ela gova. It is cultivated for edible use. A dish called 'kale mallung' is served almost everywhere on the island, along with rice. For most of the 20th century, kale was primarily used in the U.S. for decorative purposes; it became more popular as an edible vegetable in
1710-655: The TAS2R38 gene – rs713598 , rs1726866 , and rs10246939 – are in high linkage disequilibrium in most populations and result in amino acid coding changes that lead to a range of bitter taste perception phenotypes. The PAV haplotype is dominant; therefore, individuals with at least one copy of the PAV allele perceive molecules in vegetables that resemble PROP as tasting bitter, and consequently may develop an aversion to bitter vegetables. In contrast, individuals with two AVI haplotypes are bitter non-tasters. PAV and AVI haplotypes are
1767-418: The lumen of the intestine, CoA and ACP are hydrolyzed into 4'-phosphopantetheine. The 4'-phosphopantetheine is then dephosphorylated into pantetheine . Pantetheinase , an intestinal enzyme, then hydrolyzes pantetheine into free pantothenic acid. Free pantothenic acid is absorbed into intestinal cells via a saturable, sodium-dependent active transport system. At high levels of intake, when this mechanism
Kale - Misplaced Pages Continue
1824-612: The 18th century. According to the Royal Botanic Gardens (Kew Species Profiles) the species has eight cultivar groups . Each cultivar group has many cultivars , like 'Lacinato' kale or 'Belstar' broccoli. A 2024 study compares 704 B. oleracea sequences and establishes a phylogenetic tree of cultivars. The authors find large-scale changes in gene expression and gene presence. Some genes are putatively linked to certain traits such as arrested inflorescence (typical of cauliflower and broccoli). The TAS2R38 gene encodes
1881-534: The 1990s due to its nutritional value. The Kailyard school of Scottish writers, which included J. M. Barrie (creator of Peter Pan ), consisted of authors who wrote about traditional rural Scottish life ( kailyard = 'kale field'). In Cuthbertson's book Autumn in Kyle and the charm of Cunninghame , he states that Kilmaurs in East Ayrshire was famous for its kale, which was an important foodstuff. A story
1938-746: The Daily Value was 10 mg, but as of May 2016 it was revised to 5 mg to bring it into agreement with the AI. Compliance with the updated labeling regulations was required by January 2020 for manufacturers with US$ 10 million or more in annual food sales, and by January 2021 for manufacturers with lower volume food sales. A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake . Food sources of pantothenic acid include animal-sourced foods, including dairy foods and eggs. Potatoes, tomato products, oat-cereals, sunflower seeds, avocado are good plant sources. Mushrooms are good sources, too. Whole grains are another source of
1995-557: The US. For women and men over age 11, the Adequate Intake (AI) is set at 5 mg/day. AI for pregnancy is 5 mg/day, for lactation 7 mg/day. For children ages 1–10 years, the AI is 4 mg/day. These AIs are similar to the US AIs. As for safety, the IOM sets Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of pantothenic acid, there
2052-479: The chalk cliffs on both sides of the English Channel . B. oleracea has become established as an important human food crop plant, used because of its large food reserves, which are stored over the winter in its leaves. It has been bred into a wide range of cultivars , including cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, collards, and kale, some of which are hardly recognizable as being members of
2109-425: The cycle. CoA is also required for acylation and acetylation, which, for example, are involved in signal transduction , and various enzyme functions. In addition to functioning as CoA, this compound can act as an acyl group carrier to form acetyl-CoA and other related compounds; this is a way to transport carbon atoms within the cell. CoA is also required in the formation of acyl carrier protein (ACP), which
2166-510: The eastern Mediterranean and Anatolia , where it was cultivated for food beginning by 2000 BCE at the latest. Curly-leaved varieties of cabbage already existed along with flat-leaved varieties in Greece in the 4th century BC. These forms, which were referred to by the Romans as Sabellian kale, are considered to be the ancestors of modern kales. The earliest record of cabbages in western Europe
2223-493: The enzyme responsible for the first step. Coenzyme A is necessary in the reaction mechanism of the citric acid cycle . This process is the body's primary catabolic pathway and is essential in breaking down the building blocks of the cell such as carbohydrates , amino acids and lipids , for fuel. CoA is important in energy metabolism for pyruvate to enter the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle) as acetyl-CoA, and for α-ketoglutarate to be transformed to succinyl-CoA in
2280-470: The fifth century BC, the formation of what is now known as kale had developed. Preference led to further artificial selection of kale plants with more tightly bunched leaves or terminal buds. Around the first century AD, the phenotype variation of B. oleracea known as cabbage emerged. Phenotype selection preferences in Germany resulted in a new variation from the kale cultivar. By selecting for wider stems,
2337-504: The form commonly used is calcium pantothenate, because chemically it is more stable, and hence makes for longer product shelf-life, than sodium pantothenate and free pantothenic acid. Pantothenic acid is a water-soluble vitamin , one of the B vitamins . It is synthesized from the amino acid β-alanine and pantoic acid (see biosynthesis and structure of coenzyme A figures). Unlike vitamin E or vitamin K , which occurs in several chemically related forms known as vitamers , pantothenic acid
Kale - Misplaced Pages Continue
2394-437: The interior of the rosette. The different types of ornamental kale are peacock kale, coral prince, kamone coral queen, color up kale, and chidori kale. Ornamental kale is as edible as any other variety, but potentially not as palatable . Kale leaves are increasingly used as an ingredient for vegetable bouquets and wedding bouquets . Raw kale is composed of 84% water, 9% carbohydrates , 4% protein , and 1% fat (table). In
2451-420: The many forms known today. The wild plant (and its ancestors) originated in the eastern Mediterranean region of Europe. Estimated from Sanskrit writings 4,000 years ago, as well as Greek writings from the sixth century BC, plant cultivation may have occurred. The preference for eating the leaves led to the selection of plants with larger leaves being harvested and their seeds planted for the next growth. Around
2508-431: The most common, though other haplotypes exist that confer intermediate bitter taste sensitivity (AAI, AAV, AVV, and PVI). This taste aversion may apply to vegetables in general. Pantothenic acid Pantothenic acid ( vitamin B 5 ) is a B vitamin and an essential nutrient . All animals need pantothenic acid in order to synthesize coenzyme A (CoA), which is essential for cellular energy production and for
2565-605: The perceived "bitterness" of these vegetables is mediated through TAS2R38 . Bitter taste receptors in the TS2R family are also found in gut mucosal and pancreatic cells in humans and rodents. These receptors influence release of hormones involved in appetite regulation, such as peptide YY and glucagon-like peptide-1 , and therefore may influence caloric intake and the development of obesity. Thus, bitter taste perception may affect dietary behaviors by influencing both taste preferences and metabolic hormonal regulation. Three variants in
2622-422: The rumen of steer calves has been estimated to be 2.2 mg/kg of digestible organic matter consumed per day. Supplementation of pantothenic acid at 5 to 10 times theoretical requirements did not improve growth performance of feedlot cattle. Bacteria synthesize pantothenic acid from the amino acids aspartate and a precursor to the amino acid valine. Aspartate is converted to β-alanine . The amino group of valine
2679-460: The same genus, let alone species. The historical genus of Crucifera , meaning "cross-bearing" in reference to the four-petaled flowers, may be the only unifying feature beyond taste. Researchers believe it has been cultivated for several thousand years, but its history as a domesticated plant is not clear before Greek and Roman times, when it was a well-established garden vegetable. Theophrastus mentions three kinds of rhaphanos (ῤάφανος):
2736-491: The species, wild cabbage , is native to southwest Europe. Wild B. oleracea is a tall biennial plant that forms a stout rosette of large leaves in the first year. The leaves are fleshier and thicker than other Brassica species—an adaptation that helps it store water and nutrients in its difficult growing environment. In its second year, it uses the stored nutrients to produce a flower spike 1 to 2 metres (3–7 ft) tall with numerous yellow flowers. Wild cabbage
2793-403: The surveys and reports do not include pantothenic acid in the analyses. Less formal estimates of adult daily intakes report about 4 to 7 mg/day. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL are defined the same as in
2850-460: The synthesis and degradation of proteins , carbohydrates , and fats . Pantothenic acid is the combination of pantoic acid and β-alanine . Its name comes from the Greek πάντοθεν pantothen , meaning "from everywhere", because pantothenic acid, at least in small amounts, is in almost all foods. Deficiency of pantothenic acid is very rare in humans. In dietary supplements and animal feed,
2907-520: The time, kale was widely grown in Croatia mostly because it was easy to grow and inexpensive, and could desalinate soil. One may differentiate between kale varieties according to the low, intermediate, or high length of the stem, along with the variety of leaf types. The leaf colours range from light green to green, dark green, violet-green, and violet-brown. Classification by leaf type: Because kale can grow well into winter, one variety of rape kale
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#17327800808272964-411: The understanding that at some later date, AIs may be replaced by more exact information. The current AI for teens and adults ages 14 and up is 5 mg/day. This was based in part on the observation that for a typical diet, urinary excretion was approximately 2.6 mg/day, and that bioavailability of food-bound pantothenic acid was roughly 50%. AI for pregnancy is 6 mg/day. AI for lactation
3021-542: The variant plant known as kohlrabi emerged around the first century AD. European preference emerged for eating immature buds, selection for inflorescence . Early records in 15th century AD, indicate that early cauliflower and broccoli heading types were found throughout southern Italy and Sicily, although these types may not have been resolved into distinct cultivars until about 100 years later. Further selection in Belgium in lateral bud led to Brussels sprouts in
3078-487: The view that its cultivation originated in the Eastern Mediterranean region, with later admixture from other Brassica species. Genetic analysis of nine wild populations on the French Atlantic coast indicated their common feral origin, deriving from domesticated plants escaped from fields and gardens. The cultivars of B. oleracea are grouped by developmental form into several major cultivar groups , of which
3135-407: The vitamin, but milling to make white rice or white flour removes much of the pantothenic acid, as it is found in the outer layers of whole grains. In animal feeds, the most important sources are alfalfa, cereal, fish meal, peanut meal, molasses, rice bran, wheat bran, and yeasts. Dietary supplements of pantothenic acid commonly use pantothenol (or panthenol ), a shelf-stable analog , which
3192-546: The vitamin. Pantothenic acid deficiency in humans is very rare and has not been thoroughly studied. In the few cases where deficiency has been seen (prisoners of war during World War II, victims of starvation, or limited volunteer trials), nearly all symptoms were reversed with orally administered pantothenic acid. Symptoms of deficiency are similar to other vitamin B deficiencies. There is impaired energy production, due to low CoA levels, which could cause symptoms of irritability, fatigue , and apathy . Acetylcholine synthesis
3249-510: Was discovered by Roger J. Williams in 1933 by showing it was required for the growth of yeast. Three years later Elvehjem and Jukes demonstrated that it was a growth and anti-dermatitis factor in chickens. Williams dubbed the compound "pantothenic acid", deriving the name from the Greek word pantothen , which translates as "from everywhere". His reason was that he found it to be present in almost every food he tested. Williams went on to determine
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