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96-476: From 1886 to 1891, the Society of Missionaries of Africa had founded catholic missions at the north and south ends of Lake Tanganyika . Léopold Louis Joubert , a French soldier and armed auxiliary, was dispatched by Archbishop Charles Lavigerie 's Society of Missionaries of Africa to protect the missionaries. The missionaries abandoned three of the new stations due to attacks by Tippu Tip and Rumaliza. By 1891

192-409: A condenser . Some alchemists called this zinc oxide lana philosophica , Latin for "philosopher's wool", because it collected in wooly tufts, whereas others thought it looked like white snow and named it nix album . The name of the metal was probably first documented by Paracelsus , a Swiss-born German alchemist, who referred to the metal as "zincum" or "zinken" in his book Liber Mineralium II , in

288-428: A gamma ray . Zn has three excited metastable states and Zn has two. The isotopes Zn , Zn , Zn and Zn each have only one excited metastable state. The most common decay mode of a radioisotope of zinc with a mass number lower than 66 is electron capture . The decay product resulting from electron capture is an isotope of copper. The most common decay mode of

384-656: A religious institute , whether " order " or " congregation ". Instead, they are a society of apostolic life . They may retain their own property; but they may expend it in the society only at the direction of the superiors. The White Fathers, meaning the members of the international Missionary Society of priest and brothers,  were: At present, in 2021, the Society is constituted as follows:   -1,144 Missionaries of Africa – fully professed priests , deacons and brothers: -467 are living and working in Europe -120 in

480-464: A tropical savanna climate ( Köppen : Aw ). Kalemie serves as an important town in the Katanga province , Manufactures include cement , food products, and textiles. The town consequently serves as a distribution centre for such minerals as copper , cobalt , zinc , Gold , tin , and coal . The town is served by Kalemie Airport , with flights to other airports in the country. Kalemie lies at

576-518: A by-product of smelting sulfide ores. Zinc in such remnants in smelting ovens was usually discarded as it was thought to be worthless. The manufacture of brass was known to the Romans by about 30 BC. They made brass by heating powdered calamine (zinc silicate or carbonate), charcoal and copper together in a crucible. The resulting calamine brass was then either cast or hammered into shape for use in weaponry. Some coins struck by Romans in

672-400: A half-life of 243.66 days, is the least active radioisotope, followed by Zn with a half-life of 46.5 hours. Zinc has 10 nuclear isomers , of which Zn has the longest half-life, 13.76 h. The superscript m indicates a metastable isotope. The nucleus of a metastable isotope is in an excited state and will return to the ground state by emitting a photon in the form of

768-527: A large number of Algerian orphans, and the education and Christian instruction of these children was the occasion of the founding of the society in Maison-Carrée (now El-Harrach ) near Algiers ; but from its inception the founder had in mind the conversion of the Arabs and the peoples of Central Africa. Lavigerie instructed his missionaries to speak the language of the people, eat the same food, and wear

864-572: A light material, which suits the weather conditions. To accompany this was a long white cloak known as a burnous . These men would wear a rosary around their neck to show that they were men of religion and prayer, and the rosary resembled the misbaha of the Marabouts .   The official archives of the Missionaries of Africa (‘The White Fathers’) are in Rome, Italy . This archival collection

960-515: A metal which, when oxidized, produces pushpanjan , thought to be zinc oxide. Zinc mines at Zawar, near Udaipur in India, have been active since the Mauryan period ( c.  322 and 187 BCE). The smelting of metallic zinc here, however, appears to have begun around the 12th century AD. One estimate is that this location produced an estimated million tonnes of metallic zinc and zinc oxide from

1056-417: A metal–carbon sigma bond . Cobalticyanide paper (Rinnmann's test for Zn) can be used as a chemical indicator for zinc. 4 g of K 3 Co(CN) 6 and 1 g of KClO 3 is dissolved on 100 ml of water. Paper is dipped in the solution and dried at 100 °C. One drop of the sample is dropped onto the dry paper and heated. A green disc indicates the presence of zinc. Various isolated examples of

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1152-505: A mission in French Sudan (now Mali ) was founded. These now form the present Lakes Archdioceses of Kampala , Gitega , Tabora , and the dioceses of Kigoma , Lilongwe , and Kalemie-Kirungu . The society is composed of missionary priests and brothers. The members are bound by an oath engaging them to labour for the conversion of Africa according to the constitutions of their society. The missionaries are not, strictly speaking,

1248-510: A process in 1758 for calcining zinc sulfide into an oxide usable in the retort process. Prior to this, only calamine could be used to produce zinc. In 1798, Johann Christian Ruberg improved on the smelting process by building the first horizontal retort smelter. Jean-Jacques Daniel Dony built a different kind of horizontal zinc smelter in Belgium that processed even more zinc. Italian doctor Luigi Galvani discovered in 1780 that connecting

1344-596: A quantity of what he called "calay" (from the Malay or Hindi word for tin) originating from Malabar off a cargo ship captured from the Portuguese in the year 1596. Libavius described the properties of the sample, which may have been zinc. Zinc was regularly imported to Europe from the Orient in the 17th and early 18th centuries, but was at times very expensive. Metallic zinc was isolated in India by 1300 AD. Before it

1440-401: A radioisotope of zinc with mass number higher than 66 is beta decay (β ), which produces an isotope of gallium . Zinc has an electron configuration of [Ar]3d 4s and is a member of the group 12 of the periodic table . It is a moderately reactive metal and strong reducing agent . The surface of the pure metal tarnishes quickly, eventually forming a protective passivating layer of

1536-435: A year, containing information about the mission and their work in the surrounding area and community. The Rapports Annuales consisted of a variety of statistics, including, number of missionaries; catechists ; neophytes; catechumans; baptisms of various categories; marriages ; confessions ; confirmations; and the number of boys and girls attending school for each mission station. Within these recordings and reports, education

1632-686: A young slave, Adrien Atiman , and arranged for his education. Atiman subsequently became a medical catechist with the White Fathers at Karema , and was responsible for a significant autobiographical account of his enslavement, subsequent freedom and integration into the White Fathers' mission. In 1882, at the request of the Holy See, the White Fathers established St. Anne's Seminary at Jerusalem to train Greek Melchite clergy of that rite. The seminary would operate until 1967. In 1894

1728-495: A zinc atom in the reactive center are widespread in biochemistry, such as alcohol dehydrogenase in humans. Consumption of excess zinc may cause ataxia , lethargy , and copper deficiency . In marine biomes, notably within polar regions, a deficit of zinc can compromise the vitality of primary algal communities, potentially destabilizing the intricate marine trophic structures and consequently impacting biodiversity. Brass , an alloy of copper and zinc in various proportions,

1824-403: Is a chalcophile , meaning the element is more likely to be found in minerals together with sulfur and other heavy chalcogens , rather than with the light chalcogen oxygen or with non-chalcogen electronegative elements such as the halogens . Sulfides formed as the crust solidified under the reducing conditions of the early Earth's atmosphere. Sphalerite , which is a form of zinc sulfide,

1920-475: Is a chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is a slightly brittle metal at room temperature and has a shiny-greyish appearance when oxidation is removed. It is the first element in group 12 (IIB) of the periodic table . In some respects, zinc is chemically similar to magnesium : both elements exhibit only one normal oxidation state (+2), and the Zn and Mg ions are of similar size. Zinc

2016-557: Is a dialect of Kiswahili found in Tanzania . This dialect, known as Kingwana , is spoken along the east side of Congo (including the provinces of North Kivu , South Kivu , Maniema , Katanga and Oriental , Western Kasai and Eastern Kasai ) and almost all the way across to the Katangan border with Angola . Lubumbashi is home to football clubs Tanganyika , FC Etoile Jaune (Yellow Stars) and many more. The port at Kalemie

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2112-546: Is being smelted. In Britain, John Lane is said to have carried out experiments to smelt zinc, probably at Landore , prior to his bankruptcy in 1726. In 1738 in Great Britain, William Champion patented a process to extract zinc from calamine in a vertical retort -style smelter. His technique resembled that used at Zawar zinc mines in Rajasthan , but no evidence suggests he visited the Orient. Champion's process

2208-793: Is deemed essential to those researching African history as it contains a wide availability of resources. However, many are unaware of the regional ‘White Fathers’ archives that exist within Africa itself. The archive at the ‘White Fathers’ headquarters in Lusaka, Zambia , was most recently updated in 2001, overseen by Father Hugo Hinfelaar. The collections had been held until 1996 at the Ilondola missions ‘Language Learning Centre’, which had been an open facility for researchers since 1960. The collections were mainly created and catalogued by Father Louis Oger until he died in 1996. These included materials detailing

2304-670: Is deemed private. However, researchers can gain access on request. They are currently managed by the General Secretariat of the Society, and their archivist is Father Dominique Arnauld. Whilst today the official languages of the society are French and English , most records and the limited electronic collection are organised in the French language . The archives hold a variety of materials ranging from correspondence, reports, general administration and publications from their founder Cardinal Lavigerie . This centralised archive

2400-527: Is hard and brittle at most temperatures but becomes malleable between 100 and 150 °C. Above 210 °C, the metal becomes brittle again and can be pulverized by beating. Zinc is a fair conductor of electricity . For a metal, zinc has relatively low melting (419.5 °C) and boiling point (907 °C). The melting point is the lowest of all the d-block metals aside from mercury and cadmium ; for this reason among others, zinc, cadmium, and mercury are often not considered to be transition metals like

2496-464: Is implicated by the formation of a yellow diamagnetic glass by dissolving metallic zinc in molten ZnCl 2 . The [Zn 2 ] core would be analogous to the [Hg 2 ] cation present in mercury (I) compounds. The diamagnetic nature of the ion confirms its dimeric structure. The first zinc(I) compound containing the Zn–Zn bond, (η -C 5 Me 5 ) 2 Zn 2 . Binary compounds of zinc are known for most of

2592-547: Is in regard to community life in the missions, each house being obliged to contain at least three members. At the head of the society is a General-Superior, elected every six years by the chapter. He resides in Rome at the Generalate house on Via Aurelia. Those desiring to become priests or brothers are admitted to the novitiate after their philosophical studies. After the novitiate they spent two years of missionary training on

2688-410: Is known as Special High Grade, often abbreviated SHG , and is 99.995% pure. Worldwide, 95% of new zinc is mined from sulfidic ore deposits, in which sphalerite (ZnS) is nearly always mixed with the sulfides of copper, lead and iron. Zinc mines are scattered throughout the world, with the main areas being China, Australia, and Peru. China produced 38% of the global zinc output in 2014. Zinc metal

2784-545: Is necessary for prenatal and postnatal development. It is the second most abundant trace metal in humans after iron and it is the only metal which appears in all enzyme classes . Zinc is also an essential nutrient element for coral growth as it is an important cofactor for many enzymes. Zinc deficiency affects about two billion people in the developing world and is associated with many diseases. In children, deficiency causes growth retardation, delayed sexual maturation, infection susceptibility, and diarrhea . Enzymes with

2880-524: Is necessary for the leaching process. If deposits of zinc carbonate , zinc silicate , or zinc-spinel (like the Skorpion Deposit in Namibia ) are used for zinc production, the roasting can be omitted. For further processing two basic methods are used: pyrometallurgy or electrowinning . Pyrometallurgy reduces zinc oxide with carbon or carbon monoxide at 950 °C (1,740 °F) into

2976-727: Is operated by the railway company SNCC which also operates the railways in DR Congo (except for the Matadi-Kinshasa line) as well as boat services on the eastern waterways in the country. Kalemie maintains partnership links with the following places: The Lake Tanganyika earthquake struck on December 5, 2005. The epicentre was approximately 10 km (6.2 mi) below the surface of Lake Tanganyika , some 55 km (34 mi) south-east of Kalemie. At least dozens of houses were destroyed. White Fathers The White Fathers ( French : Pères Blancs ), officially known as

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3072-437: Is produced using extractive metallurgy . The ore is finely ground, then put through froth flotation to separate minerals from gangue (on the property of hydrophobicity ), to get a zinc sulfide ore concentrate consisting of about 50% zinc, 32% sulfur, 13% iron, and 5% SiO 2 . Roasting converts the zinc sulfide concentrate to zinc oxide: The sulfur dioxide is used for the production of sulfuric acid, which

3168-642: Is the 24th most abundant element in Earth's crust and has five stable isotopes . The most common zinc ore is sphalerite (zinc blende), a zinc sulfide mineral. The largest workable lodes are in Australia, Asia, and the United States. Zinc is refined by froth flotation of the ore, roasting , and final extraction using electricity ( electrowinning ). Zinc is an essential trace element for humans, animals, plants and for microorganisms and

3264-532: Is the most heavily mined zinc-containing ore because its concentrate contains 60–62% zinc. Other source minerals for zinc include smithsonite (zinc carbonate ), hemimorphite (zinc silicate ), wurtzite (another zinc sulfide), and sometimes hydrozincite (basic zinc carbonate ). With the exception of wurtzite, all these other minerals were formed by weathering of the primordial zinc sulfides. Identified world zinc resources total about 1.9–2.8 billion tonnes . Large deposits are in Australia, Canada and

3360-615: The Missionaries of Africa ( Latin : Missionarii Africae ) and abbreviated MAfr , are a Roman Catholic society of apostolic life of Pontifical Right (for Men) founded in 1868 by then Archbishop of Algiers Charles-Martial Allemand-Lavigerie . The society focuses on evangelism and education , mostly in Africa . In 2021, there were 1,428 members of the Missionaries of Africa of 36 nationalities, working in 42 countries, in 217 communities. The cholera epidemic of 1867 left

3456-637: The Smithsonian , which provide images of the missions and the Africans living near them in Rwanda and Burundi . Similar photographs exist in the University of Birmingham archives and detail a variety of missionary work in several African countries. Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "White Fathers"  . Catholic Encyclopedia . New York: Robert Appleton Company. Zinc Zinc

3552-469: The metalloids and all the nonmetals except the noble gases . The oxide ZnO is a white powder that is nearly insoluble in neutral aqueous solutions, but is amphoteric , dissolving in both strong basic and acidic solutions. The other chalcogenides ( ZnS , ZnSe , and ZnTe ) have varied applications in electronics and optics. Pnictogenides ( Zn 3 N 2 , Zn 3 P 2 , Zn 3 As 2 and Zn 3 Sb 2 ),

3648-518: The spinal cord of a freshly dissected frog to an iron rail attached by a brass hook caused the frog's leg to twitch. He incorrectly thought he had discovered an ability of nerves and muscles to create electricity and called the effect " animal electricity ". The galvanic cell and the process of galvanization were both named for Luigi Galvani, and his discoveries paved the way for electrical batteries , galvanization, and cathodic protection . Galvani's friend, Alessandro Volta , continued researching

3744-506: The ‘evangelising' of the African continent and the presence of Islam in the world. The different areas in which the White Fathers have been predominately active since their foundation by leader, Charles- Martial Allemand- Lavigerie , include: the establishment and development of new Christian communities in Africa; the formation of laity and clergy; social works; the struggle for justice within these African countries; rural development; and

3840-403: The 12th to 16th centuries. Another estimate gives a total production of 60,000 tonnes of metallic zinc over this period. The Rasaratna Samuccaya , written in approximately the 13th century AD, mentions two types of zinc-containing ores: one used for metal extraction and another used for medicinal purposes. Zinc was distinctly recognized as a metal under the designation of Yasada or Jasada in

3936-619: The 16th century. The word is probably derived from the German zinke , and supposedly meant "tooth-like, pointed or jagged" (metallic zinc crystals have a needle-like appearance). Zink could also imply "tin-like" because of its relation to German zinn meaning tin. Yet another possibility is that the word is derived from the Persian word سنگ seng meaning stone. The metal was also called Indian tin , tutanego , calamine , and spinter . German metallurgist Andreas Libavius received

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4032-422: The 24th most abundant element. It also makes up 312 ppm of the solar system, where it is the 22nd most abundant element. Typical background concentrations of zinc do not exceed 1 μg/m in the atmosphere; 300 mg/kg in soil; 100 mg/kg in vegetation; 20 μg/L in freshwater and 5 μg/L in seawater. The element is normally found in association with other base metals such as copper and lead in ores . Zinc

4128-569: The Americas -510 in Africa -16 in Asia   -31 in the Generalate in Rome   Although there are 460 students now at various stages of preparation, many of these White Fathers are retired because of age or ill health. It raises the question of the future of the Society which is disappearing in Europe. Presently, the process to become a White Father is much longer than before. To complete

4224-874: The Arab slave traders had control of the entire western shore of the lake, apart from the region defended by Joubert around Mpala and St Louis de Mrumbi . The anti-slavery expedition under Captain Alphonse Jacques —financed by the Belgian Anti-Slavery Society —came to the relief of Joubert on 30 October 1891. When the Jacques expedition arrived Joubert's garrison was down to about two hundred men, poorly armed with "a most miscellaneous assortment of chassepots , Remingtons and muzzle-loaders, without suitable cartridges." He also had hardly any medicine left. Captain Jacques asked Joubert to remain on

4320-634: The Bemba to Christianity . However, Britain, which wanted to exercise indirect colonial power in this area, refused to allow the French White Fathers to set up missions before 1900. But, by the 1930s, the White Fathers oversaw twenty missions located in the eastern provinces of Zambia. Following the request of Zambia authorities for the bones of Joseph Dupont, the bishop's bones were reburied at Chilubula mission on 15 December 2000. This event was, rather unusual, in that it happened 88 years after

4416-657: The Chilubula mission by the bishop of Nayasa Vicariate, Joseph Dunpont , in 1898, marked the beginning of the White Fathers’ colonisation of Lubemba. This allowed the missionary society to extend their work further than any other missionary society in Northern Rhodesia. By the mid-1930s, the White Fathers had around twenty missions, all of them located in present-day Northern Luapula and, to a lesser extent, Eastern provinces of Zambia. In addition, many of

4512-570: The Christian era are made of what is probably calamine brass. The oldest known pills were made of the zinc carbonates hydrozincite and smithsonite. The pills were used for sore eyes and were found aboard the Roman ship Relitto del Pozzino , wrecked in 140 BC. The Berne zinc tablet is a votive plaque dating to Roman Gaul made of an alloy that is mostly zinc. The Charaka Samhita , thought to have been written between 300 and 500 AD, mentions

4608-525: The Regional House outside Mwanza in Tanzania, allow an insight into the research done in those areas in which the White Fathers lived and worked. Within the archives there are Rapports Annuales and a full set of Chronique Trimestrielle detailing the White Fathers’ progress of the pursuit of their aims from the 1880s through to the late 1950s. The Chronique Trimestrielle was published four times

4704-478: The United States, with the largest reserves in Iran . The most recent estimate of reserve base for zinc (meets specified minimum physical criteria related to current mining and production practices) was made in 2009 and calculated to be roughly 480 Mt. Zinc reserves, on the other hand, are geologically identified ore bodies whose suitability for recovery is economically based (location, grade, quality, and quantity) at

4800-536: The White Father missionaries were usually pure white and, in some cases, black. The design was also different as it resembled more of a cassock , the traditional clerical attire for in Catholicism. However, the climate across Africa meant that wearing a cassock would not be suitable, so robes were designed with inspiration from a gandoura , which is a popular article of clothing in Africa made from cotton and

4896-526: The attempted conversion of believers of other faiths, especially in opposition to Islam. The White Fathers lived in Regional Houses, with each house being obliged to contain three members. The General-Superior is at the head of the society and is selected every six years by the chapter. There are often archives found within these Regional Houses which tell of the progress and aims in which the White Fathers wished to pursue. The archives to be found in

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4992-419: The basic zinc carbonate , Zn 5 (OH) 6 (CO 3 ) 2 , by reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide . Zinc burns in air with a bright bluish-green flame, giving off fumes of zinc oxide . Zinc reacts readily with acids , alkalis and other non-metals. Extremely pure zinc reacts only slowly at room temperature with acids. Strong acids, such as hydrochloric or sulfuric acid , can remove

5088-516: The centre of railway lines to Nyunzu , Kindu , Kasai , Kabalo , Kamina and Lubumbashi . The construction of a railway Kalemie to Bukavu through the town of Baraka to open up the Kivu region was proposed. Kalemie lies at the centre of water lines to Kigoma, Tanzania , Mpulungu, Zambia , Uvira, DRC and Bujumbura, Burundi . Although French is the official language, the main language in Kalemie

5184-420: The chromate ZnCrO 4 (one of the few colored zinc compounds) are a few examples of other common inorganic compounds of zinc. Organozinc compounds are those that contain zinc– carbon covalent bonds. Diethylzinc ( (C 2 H 5 ) 2 Zn ) is a reagent in synthetic chemistry. It was first reported in 1848 from the reaction of zinc and ethyl iodide , and was the first compound known to contain

5280-668: The council and gains leadership is elected, with the next election due in 2022. The table below lists all the General Superiors from 1874 until the present day: The White fathers were once the largest missionary society in Zambia . In 1891, the White Fathers established their first station among the Mambwe , an ethnic group from northeastern Zambia, in the Tanganyika-Malawi corridor. This establishment makes them

5376-534: The cranes are not functional, and vessels cannot reach the wharf due to silting up of the lake next to it. The buildings of the port also require rehabilitation. Moreover, the railway line for 100 km (62 mi) west of Kalemie is 'very degraded' and not fully operational. Kalemie Port is also used by boat services to the northern Lake Tanganyika ports of Kalundu-Uvira and Bujumbura in Burundi , and southwards to Moba and Mpulungu in Zambia . Kalemie Port

5472-659: The defensive while his expedition moved north. On 30 December 1891 Captain Alphonse Jacques ' anti-slavery expedition founded the military post of Albertville on the shores of Lake Tanganyika and tried to put an end to the Arab slave trade in the region. Albertville was located 15 km (9.3 mi) south of the Lukuga River . Sergeant Alexis Vrithoff was killed on 5 April 1892 when defending Albertville against an attack by Arab slavers under Rumaliza . His troops, based at Kataki , surrounded Albertville on that day and besieged

5568-796: The documentations of the language of Luganda , spoken in Uganda , such as grammars, dictionaries and individual articles are in English or French . This can all be traced back to the French Catholic Missionary Congregation of the White Fathers and their impact on colonial history , between 1885 and 1921. The White Fathers who arrived at Lake Victoria region in 1879, published six Luganda grammars and dictionaries in French. White Father missionaries in Algeria ransomed

5664-697: The earliest to settle in the country, even before the effective inception of British rule after the Berlin Conference in 1885 which gave the Zambia territory to the British power.   In 1895 Joseph Dupont took over the Mambwe mission. He directed his effort toward the dominant ethnic group in Northern Zambia, the Bemba .   Joseph Dupont then contacted the Bemba royalty. This action

5760-569: The effect and invented the Voltaic pile in 1800. Volta's pile consisted of a stack of simplified galvanic cells , each being one plate of copper and one of zinc connected by an electrolyte . By stacking these units in series, the Voltaic pile (or "battery") as a whole had a higher voltage, which could be used more easily than single cells. Electricity is produced because the Volta potential between

5856-461: The field and four years of theology . This training can be slightly different for brother candidates. The theological studies are spent in scholasticate presently located in Abidjan ( Ivory Coast ), Nairobi ( Kenya ), Merrivale (Devon) , South Africa and Jerusalem . The society admits persons of all nationalities. The Missionaries of Africa society claims that, from its origins, it has aimed for

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5952-439: The formation of Zn 2 Cl 2 , a zinc compound with a +1 oxidation state. No compounds of zinc in positive oxidation states other than +1 or +2 are known. Calculations indicate that a zinc compound with the oxidation state of +4 is unlikely to exist. Zn(III) is predicted to exist in the presence of strongly electronegative trianions; however, there exists some doubt around this possibility. But in 2021 another compound

6048-461: The hydroxide Zn(OH) 2 forms as a white precipitate . In stronger alkaline solutions, this hydroxide is dissolved to form zincates ( [Zn(OH) 4 ] ). The nitrate Zn(NO 3 ) 2 , chlorate Zn(ClO 3 ) 2 , sulfate ZnSO 4 , phosphate Zn 3 (PO 4 ) 2 , molybdate ZnMoO 4 , cyanide Zn(CN) 2 , arsenite Zn(AsO 2 ) 2 , arsenate Zn(AsO 4 ) 2 ·8H 2 O and

6144-582: The largest missionary society to operate in Zambia, as well as one of the earliest to settle in the country. Their first station was among the Mambwe , in the Tanganyika- Malawi corridor, established in 1891 (prior to the establishment of British rule). The Mambwe had been harassed by the politically and linguistically stronger ethnic group of Northern Zambia , the Bemba , towards whom the White Fathers directed subsequent efforts. The establishment of

6240-649: The leader of the General Council is the Superior General , Father Stanley Lubungo from Zambia , and he has four assistant councillors: Didier Sawadogo ( Burkina Faso ), Francis Barnes ( British ), Martin Grenier ( Canadian ), and Ignatius Anipu ( Ghanaian ). These individuals have specific areas of responsibility such as which countries they interact with which allows them to travel visiting various regions before returning to Rome. Everyone who serves in

6336-459: The medical Lexicon ascribed to the Hindu king Madanapala (of Taka dynasty) and written about the year 1374. Smelting and extraction of impure zinc by reducing calamine with wool and other organic substances was accomplished in the 13th century in India. The Chinese did not learn of the technique until the 17th century. Alchemists burned zinc metal in air and collected the resulting zinc oxide on

6432-568: The members of the ‘White Fathers’ had left Zambia. It shows the influence the White Fathers had at the time and still have in Zambia to this day.   Even today, Lusaka , is home to the ‘White Fathers’ headquarters, where the archivale collection remains, and was updated in 2001 by Father Hugo Hinfelaar. Africa is a continent with high levels of Islamic worship which meant that the White Fathers would wear robes that resembled those of Algerian Arabs . Algerian Arab robes were ones filled with colours and patterns which were known as kaftans , while

6528-677: The north of the Lukuga, the site of present-day Kalemie. In 1914 Albertville was the base for the Belgo-Congolese forces in the East African campaign. The railway reached Albertville in 1915, and in 1916 the port was constructed and the coalworks at Greinerville opened. At the end of 1940 a military base was established at Albertville, initially South African and later British , to manage troops in Kenya and Abyssinia . Albertville

6624-420: The organic laboratory. Zinc is a bluish-white, lustrous, diamagnetic metal, though most common commercial grades of the metal have a dull finish. It is somewhat less dense than iron and has a hexagonal crystal structure , with a distorted form of hexagonal close packing , in which each atom has six nearest neighbors (at 265.9 pm) in its own plane and six others at a greater distance of 290.6 pm. The metal

6720-414: The outpost for several months, from 16 August 1892 until 1 January 1893. Eventually, Rumaliza's forces had to retreat because of the arrival of the Long-Duvivier-Demol Anti-Slavery expedition, a relief column sent from Brussels at captain Alphonse Jacques's aide. After the Arabs left the territory, the original Albertville was gradually abandoned, and the name became attached to the military post of M'Toa to

6816-525: The passivating layer and the subsequent reaction with the acid releases hydrogen gas. The chemistry of zinc is dominated by the +2 oxidation state. When compounds in this oxidation state are formed, the outer shell s electrons are lost, yielding a bare zinc ion with the electronic configuration [Ar]3d . In aqueous solution an octahedral complex, [Zn(H 2 O) 6 ] is the predominant species. The volatilization of zinc in combination with zinc chloride at temperatures above 285 °C indicates

6912-406: The peroxide ( ZnO 2 ), the hydride ( ZnH 2 ), and the carbide ( ZnC 2 ) are also known. Of the four halides , ZnF 2 has the most ionic character, while the others ( ZnCl 2 , ZnBr 2 , and ZnI 2 ) have relatively low melting points and are considered to have more covalent character. In weak basic solutions containing Zn ions,

7008-463: The process of preparation, the candidates must first spend one year in a preparatory centre. Then comes the study of Philosophy for 3 or 4 years. The next step is the Spiritual Year which takes place in one of 3 centres in Africa. Two are English-speaking, one is French-speaking. The final period of study of 4 years takes place in Africa or Jerusalem . One of the chief points in the rule

7104-399: The remainder, have been found that are 2,500 years old. A possibly prehistoric statuette containing 87.5% zinc was found in a Dacian archaeological site. Strabo writing in the 1st century BC (but quoting a now lost work of the 4th century BC historian Theopompus ) mentions "drops of false silver" which when mixed with copper make brass. This may refer to small quantities of zinc that is

7200-541: The reserve lifetime for zinc has remained unchanged. About 346 million tonnes have been extracted throughout history to 2002, and scholars have estimated that about 109–305 million tonnes are in use. Five stable isotopes of zinc occur in nature, with Zn being the most abundant isotope (49.17% natural abundance ). The other isotopes found in nature are Zn (27.73%), Zn (4.04%), Zn (18.45%), and Zn (0.61%). Several dozen radioisotopes have been characterized. Zn , which has

7296-497: The rest of the d-block metals. Many alloys contain zinc, including brass. Other metals long known to form binary alloys with zinc are aluminium , antimony , bismuth , gold , iron, lead , mercury, silver , tin , magnesium , cobalt , nickel , tellurium , and sodium . Although neither zinc nor zirconium is ferromagnetic , their alloy, ZrZn 2 , exhibits ferromagnetism below 35  K . Zinc makes up about 75  ppm  (0.0075%) of Earth's crust , making it

7392-529: The same crystal structure , and in other circumstances where ionic radius is a determining factor, the chemistry of zinc has much in common with that of magnesium. In other respects, there is little similarity with the late first-row transition metals. Zinc tends to form bonds with a greater degree of covalency and much more stable complexes with N - and S - donors. Complexes of zinc are mostly 4- or 6- coordinate , although 5-coordinate complexes are known. Zinc(I) compounds are very rare. The [Zn 2 ] ion

7488-455: The same clothing. They therefore adopted North African dress for their vestments : the gandoura for the cassock , the burnous for the mantle , and even the chechia for the Zucchetto . They wore their rosary with crucifix as a necklace and token of their religion, in imitation of the misbaha of the marabouts . The nickname "White Fathers" derives from their garb. A novitiate

7584-598: The second known zinc-containing enzyme in 1955. Zinc is the fourth most common metal in use, trailing only iron , aluminium , and copper with an annual production of about 13 million tonnes. The world's largest zinc producer is Nyrstar , a merger of the Australian OZ Minerals and the Belgian Umicore . About 70% of the world's zinc originates from mining, while the remaining 30% comes from recycling secondary zinc. Commercially pure zinc

7680-495: The society's administration, history and personnel. By moving the collections to Lusaka, Zambia , the archive has become much more accessible, and they are actively seeking to expand their collections. A similar regional archive exists in Mwanza, Tanzania and details the activities of the ‘White Fathers’ who worked in this area. Although small, it provides a valuable insight into the societies missions and contains documents such as

7776-533: The time of determination. Since exploration and mine development is an ongoing process, the amount of zinc reserves is not a fixed number and sustainability of zinc ore supplies cannot be judged by simply extrapolating the combined mine life of today's zinc mines. This concept is well supported by data from the United States Geological Survey (USGS), which illustrates that although refined zinc production increased 80% between 1990 and 2010,

7872-423: The two metal plates makes electrons flow from the zinc to the copper and corrode the zinc. The non-magnetic character of zinc and its lack of color in solution delayed discovery of its importance to biochemistry and nutrition. This changed in 1940 when carbonic anhydrase , an enzyme that scrubs carbon dioxide from blood, was shown to have zinc in its active site . The digestive enzyme carboxypeptidase became

7968-498: The use of impure zinc in ancient times have been discovered. Zinc ores were used to make the zinc–copper alloy brass thousands of years prior to the discovery of zinc as a separate element. Judean brass from the 14th to 10th centuries BC contains 23% zinc. Knowledge of how to produce brass spread to Ancient Greece by the 7th century BC, but few varieties were made. Ornaments made of alloys containing 80–90% zinc, with lead, iron, antimony , and other metals making up

8064-451: The ‘Reports Annuels’. The latter compiles statistics related to the ‘White Fathers’ work, ranging from the number of Sisters to baptisms . Records such as this are not available in Rome, demonstrating the importance of seeking various archival sources and not solely those from the central archive. Photographic archives related to the ‘White Fathers missionary work from throughout the 20th century can be found in various archives such as in

8160-729: Was attacked by mercenaries under Major Mike Hoare during operations against the Simba Rebellion in August 1964. In the late 1960s and early 1970s under the regime of Mobutu Sese Seko the Zairianization policy was implemented, this included numerous changes to the state and to private life, including the renaming of the Congo and its cities, as well as an eventual mandate that Zairians were to abandon their Christian names for more "authentic" ones. In addition, Western-style attire

8256-460: Was banned and replaced with the Mao-style tunic labeled the " abacost " and its female equivalent. The policy began to wane in the late 1970s and had mostly been abandoned by 1990. In 1971, as a result of the Zairianization , Albertville changed its name to Kalemie. The Town of Kalemie also hosts the major University of Kalemie , which maintains the largest library in the region. Kalemie has

8352-719: Was built to connect the Great Lakes rail line (from the Kabalo junction on the Lualaba River) to the Tanzanian lake port and railhead at Kigoma , from where the Tanzanian Central Railway Line runs to the seaport of Dar es Salaam . The port was built with a 130 m (430 ft) wharf and 3 mobile cranes, giving it a capacity of 500 t (550 short tons) per day with two shifts. Currently,

8448-547: Was established in 1868. Missionary posts were established in Kabylie and in the Sahara . In 1876 three missionaries on their way to Timbuktu were killed by desert nomads. In 1878 ten missionaries left Algiers to establish posts at Lakes Victoria , Nyassa and Tanganyika . In 1878, a caravan of several missionaries arrived at the port of Mombasa , and after a three-month trek reached Lake Victoria . The White Fathers were

8544-488: Was in line with Lavigerie 's instructions. The founding Cardinal believed in the ‘Clovis Model’: this model was a strategy of conversion in order to Christianise the indigenous people from Zambia. The strategy consisted of the idea that you needed to persuade the King to convert first and then the population will follow and convert to Christianism as well. The White Fathers claimed to be successful in converting at least some of

8640-540: Was isolated in Europe, it was imported from India in about 1600 CE. Postlewayt 's Universal Dictionary , a contemporary source giving technological information in Europe, did not mention zinc before 1751 but the element was studied before then. Flemish metallurgist and alchemist P. M. de Respour reported that he had extracted metallic zinc from zinc oxide in 1668. By the start of the 18th century, Étienne François Geoffroy described how zinc oxide condenses as yellow crystals on bars of iron placed above zinc ore that

8736-477: Was known to the ancient Romans and Greeks. The mines of Rajasthan have given definite evidence of zinc production going back to the 6th century BC. The oldest evidence of pure zinc comes from Zawar, in Rajasthan, as early as the 9th century AD when a distillation process was employed to make pure zinc. Alchemists burned zinc in air to form what they called " philosopher's wool " or "white snow". The element

8832-485: Was one of the main aims. From 1874 under the leadership of Archbishop (later Cardinal) Charles-Martial Allemand-Lavigerie , General Superiors served the role of being in overall charge of the Society. After the death of Charles-Martial Allemand-Lavigerie in 1892, the Superior General's position changed to one of ultimate leadership as their work was no longer overseen by a Cardinal or Archbishop . Today

8928-786: Was probably named by the alchemist Paracelsus after the German word Zinke (prong, tooth). German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is credited with discovering pure metallic zinc in 1746. Work by Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta uncovered the electrochemical properties of zinc by 1800. Corrosion -resistant zinc plating of iron ( hot-dip galvanizing ) is the major application for zinc. Other applications are in electrical batteries , small non-structural castings, and alloys such as brass. A variety of zinc compounds are commonly used, such as zinc carbonate and zinc gluconate (as dietary supplements), zinc chloride (in deodorants), zinc pyrithione (anti- dandruff shampoos), zinc sulfide (in luminescent paints), and dimethylzinc or diethylzinc in

9024-421: Was reported with more evidence that had the oxidation state of +3 with the formula ZnBeB 11 (CN) 12 . Zinc chemistry is similar to the chemistry of the late first-row transition metals, nickel and copper, though it has a filled d-shell and compounds are diamagnetic and mostly colorless. The ionic radii of zinc and magnesium happen to be nearly identical. Because of this some of the equivalent salts have

9120-539: Was used as early as the third millennium BC in the Aegean area and the region which currently includes Iraq , the United Arab Emirates , Kalmykia , Turkmenistan and Georgia . In the second millennium BC it was used in the regions currently including West India , Uzbekistan , Iran , Syria , Iraq, and Israel . Zinc metal was not produced on a large scale until the 12th century in India, though it

9216-507: Was used through 1851. German chemist Andreas Marggraf normally gets credit for isolating pure metallic zinc in the West, even though Swedish chemist Anton von Swab had distilled zinc from calamine four years previously. In his 1746 experiment, Marggraf heated a mixture of calamine and charcoal in a closed vessel without copper to obtain a metal. This procedure became commercially practical by 1752. William Champion's brother, John, patented

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