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73-709: Upon arrival in the lower Volga region in 1630, the Oirats encamped on land that was once part of the Astrakhan Khanate , but was then claimed by the Tsarist government . The region was lightly populated, from south of Saratov to the Russian garrison at Astrakhan, and on both the east and the west banks of the Volga River. The Tsarist government was not ready to colonize the area and was in no position to prevent

146-765: A fifth of the population is thought to have perished during and immediately after the deportation. Around half (97–98,000) of the Kalmyk people deported to Siberia died before being allowed to return home in 1957. The government of the Soviet Union forbade teaching the Kalmyk language during the deportation. Mongolian leader Khorloogiin Choibalsan attempted to arrange migration of the deportees to Mongolia and he met them in Siberia during his visit to Russia. Under

219-719: A force of 1,700 Soviet soldiers in Durvud province of Kalmykia, but the Oirat state was destroyed by the Soviet Army later that year. The Mongolian government suggested to accept the Mongols of the Soviet Union, including Kalmyks, but the Soviets rejected the proposal. In 1943, the entire population of 120,000 Kalmyks were deported to Siberia by Stalin , accused of supporting invading Axis armies attacking Stalingrad ( Volgograd );

292-509: A minority, principally in the northern part of the region, numbering 194,500 in 2010, about 50,000 of which are Dongxiangs . They are primarily descendants of the surviving Torghuts and Khoshuts who returned from Kalmykia , and of the Chakhar stationed there as garrison soldiers in the 18th century. The emperor had sent messages asking the Kalmyks to return, and erected a smaller copy of

365-720: The Bargut , Buzava , Keraites , and Naiman tribes as comprising part of the Dörben Öörd; some tribes may have joined the original four only in later years. This name may however reflect the Kalmyks' remaining Buddhist rather than converting to Islam ; or the Kalmyks' remaining in the Altay region when the Turkic tribes migrated further west. After the fall of the Yuan dynasty , Oirat and Eastern Mongols had developed separate identities to

438-576: The Borjigin family, fled Syria , then under the Mamluks , as they were despised by both Muslim Mongols and local Turks . They were well-received by Egypt 's Sultan , Al-Adil Kitbugha , himself of Oirat origin. Ali Pasha, the governor of Baghdad and head of an Oirat ruling family, went on to murder Ilkhan Arpa Keun , resulting in the disintegration of Mongol Persia. Since the Oirats were near both

511-664: The Chagatai Khanate and the Golden Horde , they had strong ties with them, and many Mongol khans had Oirat wives. After the expulsion of the Yuan dynasty from China, the Oirats reconvened as a loose alliance of the four major western Mongolian tribes (Mongolian: дөрвөн ойрд , дөрвөн ойрaд ). The alliance grew, taking power in the remote region of the Altai Mountains , northwest of Hami oasis . Gradually, they spread eastwards, annexing territories then under

584-636: The Crimean Khanate , itself a vassal or ally of Ottoman Turks . Smaller groups of Nogais sought the protection of the Russian garrison at Astrakhan . The remaining nomadic tribes became vassals of the Oirats. At first, an uneasy relationship existed between the Russians and the Oirats. Mutual raiding by the Oirats of Russian settlements and by the Cossacks and the Bashkirs (Muslim vassals of

657-808: The Dzungar Khanate and Mongolian independence. As C. D. Barkman notes, "It is quite clear that the Torghuts had not intended to surrender to the Chinese, but had hoped to lead an independent existence in Dzungaria". Ubashi Khan sent his 30,000 cavalry to the Russo-Turkish War in 1768–1769 to gain weapons before the migration. The Empress Catherine the Great ordered the Russian army, Bashkirs and Kazakhs to exterminate all migrants and Catherine

730-501: The Dzungars in the 1750s and proclaimed rule over the Oirats through a Manchu-Mongol alliance (a series of systematic arranged marriages between princes and princesses of Manchu with those of Khalkha Mongols and Oirat Mongols, which was set up as a royal policy carried out over 300 years), as well as over Khoshut-controlled Tibet. In 1723 Lobzang Danjin, another descendant of Güshi Khan, took control of Amdo and tried to assume rule over

803-854: The Kazakhs , subjugated the Mangyshlak Turkmens , and made multiple expeditions against the highlanders of the North Caucasus . These campaigns highlighted the strategic importance of the Kalmyk Khanate which functioned as a buffer zone, between Russia and the Muslim world, as Russia fought wars in Europe. To encourage the release of Oirat cavalrymen in support of its military campaigns, the Tsarist government increasingly relied on

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876-616: The Kuban River . Many other nomadic peoples in the Eurasian steppes subsequently became vassals of the Kalmyk Khanate, part of which is in the area of present-day Kalmykia . The Kalmyks became allies of Russia and a treaty to protect southern Russian borders was signed between the Kalmyk Khanate and Russia. Later they became nominal, then full subjects of the Russian Tsar. In 1724 the Kalmyks came under control of Russia . By

949-821: The Mongol campaign against the Nizaris in Iran. The Ilkhan Hulagu and his successor, Abagha , resettled them in Turkey. Then, they took part in the Second Battle of Homs , where the Mongols were defeated. The majority of the Oirats, who were left behind, supported Ariq Böke against Kublai in the Toluid Civil War . Kublai defeated his younger brother, and they entered the service of the victor. In 1295, more than 10,000 Oirats under Targhai Khurgen, son-in-law of

1022-835: The Oirat language from Mongolian . The Clear Script remained in use in Kalmykia until the mid-1920s when it was replaced by a Latin alphabet , and later the Cyrillic script . It can be seen in some public signs in the Kalmyk capital, Elista , and is superficially taught in schools. In Mongolia it was likewise replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet in 1941. Some Oirats in China still use the Clear Script as their primary writing system, as well as Mongolian script. A monument of Zaya Pandita

1095-863: The Potala in Jehol ( Chengde ), (the country residence of the Manchu Emperors ) to mark their arrival. A model copy of that "Little Potala" was made in China for the Swedish explorer Sven Hedin , and was erected at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. It is now in storage in Sweden , where there are plans to re-erect it. Some of the returnees did not come that far and still live, now as Muslims, at

1168-604: The Qing government, thus in 1686, the Emperor permitted them to reside in Alasha. In 1697, Alasha Mongols were administered in 'khoshuu' and 'sum' units. A khoshuu with eight sums was created, Batur Erkh Jonon Khoroli was appointed Beil (prince), and Alasha was thus a 'zasag-khoshuu'. Alasha was however like an 'aimag' and never administered under a 'chuulgan'. In 1707, when Batur Erkh Jonon Khoroli died, his son Abuu succeeded him. He

1241-711: The Rouran and Tobgach empires were YELÜ -T Mongolic speakers. Although these two empires encompassed multilingual populations, the language of diplomacy, trade, and culture was an ÖLÜ (YELÜ) dialect of ancient Mongolic descent. When the Tobgach destroyed the Rouran Empire, the Mongolic-speaking Avar people escaped into the Caspian steppes. This displacement triggered a series of events. Settling in

1314-439: The " forest people " in the 13th century. An opinion believes the name derives from Mongolian word oirt meaning "close (as in distance)," as in "close/nearer ones." The name Oirat may derive from a corruption of the group's original name Dörben Öörd , meaning "The Allied Four". Perhaps inspired by the designation Dörben Öörd, other Mongols at times used the term "Döchin Mongols" for themselves ("Döchin" meaning forty), but there

1387-976: The Caucasus around 558, the Mongolic Avars intervened in Germanic tribal conflicts, forming alliances such as with the Lombards to overthrow the Gepidae, who were Byzantine allies. Between 550 and 575, they solidified their presence by establishing the Khanate of the Mongolic Avars (6th to 8th century) in the Caspian and Hungarian steppes. The modern Kalmyks of Kalmykia on the Caspian Sea in southeastern Europe are Oirats. The name derives from Mongolic oi < * hoi ("forest, woods") and ard < * harad ("people"), and they were counted among

1460-598: The Chinese border and invaded Ming China , defeating and destroying the Ming defences at the Great Wall , along with the reinforcements sent to intercept his cavalry. In the process, the Zhengtong Emperor was captured at Tumu . The following year, Esen returned the emperor after an unsuccessful ransom attempt. After claiming the title of Khan (something which only blood descendants of Genghis Khan could do), Esen

1533-580: The Dalai Lama in Tibet. 1812 to 1814 Kalmyks received 477 awards and 246 people were awarded medals " For the capture of Paris ". Historically, the West Mongolian tribes identified themselves by their respective tribal names. Most likely in the 15th century, the four major West Mongolian tribes formed an alliance, adopting " Dörbet Oirat " as their collective name. After the alliance dissolved,

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1606-664: The Eastern Mongols who all gathered near the Tarbagatai Mountains in Dzungaria to resolve their differences and to unite under the banner of the Gelugpa sect. Although the goal of unification was not met, the summit leaders did ratify the Code, which regulated all aspects of nomadic life. In securing their position, the Oirats became a borderland power, often allying themselves with the Tsarist government against

1679-501: The Great abolished the Kalmyk Khanate. The Kazakhs attacked them near Balkhash Lake . About 100,000–150,000 Kalmyks who settled on the west bank of the Volga River could not cross the river because the river did not freeze in the winter of 1771 and Catherine the Great executed their influential nobles. After seven months of travel, only one third (66,073) of the original group reached Dzungaria (Balkhash Lake, western border of

1752-729: The Han banner garrison in Guangzhou. In the 1780s after the Muslim rebellion in Gansu started by Zhang Wenqing (張文慶) was defeated, Muslims like Ma Jinlu (馬進祿) were exiled to the Han Banner garrison in Guangzhou to become slaves to Han Banner officers. The Qing code regulating Mongols in Mongolia sentenced Mongol criminals to exile and slavery under Han bannermen in Han Banner garrisons in China proper. The region bordering Gansu and west of

1825-434: The Irgay River is called Alxa or Alaša, Alshaa and Mongols who moved there are called Alasha Mongols. Törbaih Güshi Khan 's fourth son, Ayush, was opposed to the Khan's brother Baibagas. Ayush's eldest son is Batur Erkh Jonon Khoroli. After the battle between Galdan Boshigt Khan and Ochirtu Sechen Khan, Batur Erkh Jonon Khoroli moved to Tsaidam with his 10,000 households. The fifth Dalai Lama wanted land for them from

1898-460: The Khoshut Khanate. He fought against a Manchu- Qing Dynasty army, and was defeated only in the following year and 80,000 people from his tribe were executed by Manchu army due to his "rebellion attempt". By that period, the Upper Mongolian population reached 200,000 and were mainly under the rule of Khalkha Mongol princes who were in a marital alliance with Manchu royal and noble families. Thus, Amdo fell under Manchu domination. The 17th century saw

1971-457: The Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 "On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples" repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as an act of genocide , although many Russian historians treat this and similar deportations as an attempt to prevent local Russian populations and the Soviet army from lynching the entire ethnic group, many of whom supported Germany . Today Kalmyks are trying to revive their language and religion, but

2044-479: The Manchu Qing Empire). The Qing Empire resettled the Kalmyks in five different areas to prevent their revolt and several Kalmyk leaders were soon killed by the Manchus. Following the Russian revolution their settlement was accelerated, Buddhism stamped out and herds collectivised. Kalmykian nationalists and Pan-Mongolists attempted to migrate from Kalmykia to Mongolia in the 1920s when a serious famine gripped Kalmykia. On January 22, 1922, Mongolia proposed to accept

2117-454: The Manchu against the Dzungars. In the 17th century, the Dzungar pioneered the local manifestation of the 'Military Revolution' in central Eurasia after perfecting a process of manufacturing indigenously created gunpowder weapons. They also created a mixed agro-pastoral economy, as well as complementary mining and manufacturing industries on their lands. Additionally, the Zunghar managed to enact an empire-wide system of laws and policies to boost

2190-559: The Ming defeated the Qubilaid Öljei Temür and the Borjigid power was weakened. The Borjigid Khans were displaced from power by the Oirats (with Ming help), ruling as puppet-khans until the alliance between the Ming and Oirats ended, and the Yongle Emperor launched a campaign against them. The greatest ruler of the Oirat Confederacy was Esen Taishi ; he led the Oirats from 1438 to 1454, a time in which he unified Mongolia (both Inner and Outer) under his puppet-khan Taisun Khan . In 1449, Esen Tayisi and Taisun Khan mobilised their cavalry along

2263-657: The Oirat tayishis, noyons and zaisangs. Fred Adelman described this era as the Frontier Period, lasting from the advent of the Torghut under Kho Orluk in 1630 to the end of the great Khanate of Kho Orluk's descendant, Ayuka Khan, in 1724, a phase accompanied by little discernible acculturative change (Adelman, 1960:14–15): During the era of Ayuka Khan, the Kalmyk Khanate reached its peak of military and political power. The Khanate experienced economic prosperity from free trade with Russian border towns, Qing China, and their Muslim neighbors. During this era, Ayuka Khan also kept close contact with his Oirat kinsmen in Dzungaria, as well as

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2336-414: The Oirats and the Yenisei Kyrgyz ; the Great Khan gave those peoples to his son, Jochi, and had one of his daughters, Checheygen, marry chief Bäki (or his son). There were notable Oirats in the Mongol Empire , such as Arghun Agha and his son, Nowruz . In 1256, a group of the Oirats under Bukha-Temür (Mongolian: Буха-Төмөр, Бөхтөмөр) joined Hulagu's expedition against the Abbasids and participated in

2409-411: The Oirats from encamping in the region, but it had a direct political interest in ensuring that the Oirats would not become allied with their Turkic-speaking neighbors. The Oirats quickly consolidated their position by expelling the majority of the native inhabitants, the Nogai Horde . Large groups of Nogais fled southeast to the northern Caucasian plain and west to the Black Sea steppe, lands claimed by

2482-399: The Oirats under Bäki fought against Genghis but were defeated. The Oirats would then fully submit to Mongol rule after their ally, Jamukha , Genghis' childhood friend and later rival, was killed. Subject to the Khan , the Oirats turned themselves into a loyal and formidable faction of the Mongol war machine. In 1207, Jochi , the eldest son of Genghis, subjugated the forest tribes, including

2555-431: The Onginsk "rune" inscriptions dated in the sixth century. In early modern times, Kho Orlok , tayishi of the Torghuts , and Dalai Tayishi of Dorbets , led their people (200,000–250,000 people, mainly Torghuts) west to the ( Volga River ) in 1607 where they established the Kalmyk Khanate. By some accounts this move was precipitated by internal divisions or by the Khoshut tribe; other historians believe it more likely that

2628-407: The Qing ruler, the Kangxi Emperor , let them stay there for some years and later organized a 'khoshuu' for them in a place called Sertei, and made Rabjur the governor. In 1716, the Kangxi Emperor sent him and his people to Hami , near the border of Qing China and the Zunghar Khanate, for intelligence-gathering purposes against the Oirats. When Rabjur died, his eldest son, Denzen, succeeded him. He

2701-403: The Qing sought to protect its northern border by continuing the divide-and-rule policy their Ming predecessors had successfully instituted against the Mongols. The Manchu consolidated their rule over the Eastern Mongols of Manchuria . They then persuaded the Eastern Mongols of Inner Mongolia to submit themselves as vassals . Finally, the Eastern Mongols of Outer Mongolia sought the protection of

2774-464: The Russians) of Oirat encampments were commonplace. Numerous oaths and treaties were signed to ensure the Oirat's loyalty and military assistance. Although the Oirats became subjects of the Tsar, such allegiance by the Oirats was deemed to be nominal. In reality, the Oirats governed themselves pursuant to a document known as the Great Code of the Nomads (Iki Tsaadzhin Bichig). The Code was promulgated in 1640 by them, their brethren in Dzungaria and some of

2847-405: The Volga River to Dzungaria. Approximately five-sixths of the Torghut tribe followed Ubashi Khan. Most of the Khoshuts, Choros and Khoits accompanied the Torghuts on their journey to Dzungaria. The Dörbet tribe, by contrast, elected not to go at all. The Kalmyks who resettled in Qing territory became known as Torghuts . While the first phase of their movement became the Old Torghuts, the Qing called

2920-420: The West Mongolian tribes were simply called "Oirat." In the early 17th century, a second great Oirat State emerged, called the Dzungar Khanate . While the Dzungars (initially Choros, Dörbet and Khoit tribes) were establishing their empire in Western Inner Asia, the Khoshuts were establishing the Khoshut Khanate in Tibet, protecting the Gelugpa sect from its enemies, and the Torghuts formed the Kalmyk Khanate in

2993-510: The autonomy of the Kalmyk Khanate. The policies of Saint Petersburg, for instance, encouraged the establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures the Kalmyks used to roam and to feed their livestock. In addition, the Russian government imposed a council on the Kalmyk Khan, thereby diluting his authority, while continuing to expect the Kalmyk Khan to provide cavalry units to fight on behalf of Russia. The Russian Orthodox Church , by contrast, pressured many Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy . By

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3066-401: The control of the Eastern Mongols. They hoped to reestablish a unified, nomadic rule under their banner of the Four Oirats (the Keraites, Naiman, Barghud, and old Oirats). The only Borjigid ruling tribe was the Khoshuts; the others' rulers were not descendants of Genghis. The Ming dynasty of China had helped the Oirats' rise over the Mongols during the Yongle Emperor's reign after 1410, when

3139-402: The date of departure, consulted the astrological chart and set the return date, but at the moment of departure, the weakening of the ice on the Volga River permitted only those Kalmyks who roamed on the eastern bank to leave. Those on the right bank were forced to stay behind. Under Ubashi Khan's leadership , approximately 200,000 Kalmyks began the journey from their pastures on the left bank of

3212-405: The early 18th century, there were approximately 300,000–350,000 Kalmyks and 15,000,000 Russians. Russia gradually reduced the autonomy of the Kalmyk Khanate. Policies encouraged establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures where the Kalmyks formerly roamed and fed their livestock. The Russian Orthodox church , by contrast, pressed Buddhist Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy. In January 1771

3285-402: The fall of the Dzungar Khanate , became small ethnic groups. Kalmyks live on the Caspian steppe. Their settlement and relationship with the Caspian steppes has a long history. In early medieval times, the Mongolic-speaking Elut people established here a powerful khanate of the Avar Elut in the sixth century. The first documented reference to Elut and Yelut ( Chinese : 厄魯特, Èlǔtè ) was in

3358-432: The immigration of the Kalmyks but the Russian government refused. Some 71–72,000 (around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the famine. The Kalmyks revolted against Russia in 1926, 1930 and 1942–1943. In March 1927, Soviets deported 20,000 Kalmyks to Siberia, and Karelia . The Kalmyks founded the sovereign Republic of Oirat-Kalmyk on March 22, 1930. The Oirat state had a small army and 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated

3431-476: The later Torghut immigrants "New Torghut". Various estimates put the size of the departing group at about 169 000 humans, with perhaps as many as six million animals (cattle, sheep, horses, camels and dogs). Beset by raids, thirst, cold and starvation, approximately 70,000 survivors made it to Dzungaria. After her forces failed to stop the flight, the Russian Empress Catherine II abolished the Kalmyk Khanate in October 1771, transferring all governmental powers over

3504-445: The lower Volga region. After encamping, the Oirats began to identify themselves as "Kalmyk." This name was supposedly given to them by their Muslim Kazakh neighbors and later used by the Russians to describe them. The Oirats used this name in their dealings with outsiders, viz., their Russian and Muslim neighbors. But they continued to refer to themselves by their tribal, clan, or other internal affiliations. The name Kalmyk, however,

3577-412: The markets of Russian border towns, where the Oirats were permitted to barter their herds and the goods they had obtained from Asia and their Muslim neighbors for Russian goods. Trade also occurred with neighboring Turkish tribes under Russian control, such as the Tatars and the Bashkirs, with whom intermarriage became common. This trading arrangement provided substantial benefits, monetary and otherwise, to

3650-411: The mid-17th century, Kalmyks were increasingly disillusioned with settler encroachment and interference in their internal affairs. In the winter of 1770–1771, Ubashi Khan , the great-grandson of Ayuka Khan and the last Kalmyk Khan, decided to return his people to their ancestral homeland, Dzungaria , then under control of the Qing dynasty . The Dalai Lama , contacted to request his blessing and to set

3723-402: The migrating clans were seeking pastureland for their herds, scarce in the central Asian highlands. Some of the Khoshut and Ölöt tribes joined the migration almost a century later. The Kalmyk migration had reached as far as the steppes of southeastern Europe by 1630. At the time, that area was inhabited by the Nogai Horde . But under pressure from Kalmyk warriors, the Nogais fled to Crimea and

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3796-438: The name Kalmyk, irrespective of their locations, viz., Astrakhan , the Don Cossack region, Orenburg , Stavropol, the Terek and the Urals. Another generally accepted name is Ulan Zalata , or the "red buttoned ones" (Adelman, 1960:6). After the death of Ayuka Khan in 1724, the political situation among the Kalmyks became unstable as various factions sought the office of Khan. The Tsarist government also gradually chipped away at

3869-400: The neighboring Muslim population. During the era of Ayuka Khan , the Oirats rose to political and military prominence as the Tsarist government sought the increased use of Oirat cavalry in support of its military campaigns against the Muslim powers in the south, such as Persia , the Ottoman Empire , the Nogays and the Kuban Tatars and Crimean Khanate . Ayuka Khan also waged wars against

3942-400: The oppression of czarist administration forced a larger part of Kalmyks (33,000 households or approximately 170,000 individuals) to migrate to Dzungaria. 200,000 (170,000) Kalmyks began the migration from their pastures on the left bank of the Volga River to Dzungaria, through the territories of their Bashkir and Kazakh enemies. The last Kalmyk khan Ubashi led the migration to restore

4015-424: The point where Oirats called themselves "Four Oirats" while they used the term "Mongols" for those under the Khagans in the east. One of the earliest mentions of the Oirat people, in a historical text, can be found in the Secret History of the Mongols , a 13th century chronicle of Genghis Khan 's rise to power. In "The Secret History", the Oirats are counted among the "forest people", and are said to live under

4088-404: The provision of monetary payments and dry goods to the Oirat Khan and the Oirat nobility. In that respect, the Tsarist government treated the Oirats as it did the Cossacks. The provision of monetary payments and dry goods, however, did not stop the mutual raiding, and in some instances, both sides failed to fulfil their promises. The Tsarist government provided the Oirats with tariff-free access to

4161-679: The remaining Kalmyks to the governor of Astrakhan . The title of Khan was abolished. The highest native governing office remaining was the Vice-Khan, also recognized by the government as the highest ranking Kalmyk prince. By appointing the Vice-Khan, the Tsarist government was now permanently the decisive force in Kalmyk government and affairs. Oirats Oirats ( / ˈ ɔɪ r æ t / ; Mongolian : Ойрад [ˈɞe̯ɾə̆t] ) or Oirds (Mongolian: Ойрд [ˈɞe̯ɾə̆t] ; Kalmyk : Өөрд [ˈøːɾə̆t] ), formerly known as Eluts and Eleuths ( / ɪ ˈ l uː t / or / ɪ ˈ l j uː θ / ; Chinese : 厄魯特 , Èlǔtè ), are

4234-434: The request of the Gelug school, in 1637, Güshi Khan , the leader of the Khoshuts in Koko Nor, defeated Choghtu Khong Tayiji , the Khalkha prince who supported the Karma Kagyu school, and conquered Amdo (present-day Qinghai ). The unification of Tibet followed in the early 1640s, with Güshi Khan proclaimed Khan of Tibet by the 5th Dalai Lama and the establishment of the Khoshut Khanate . The title " Dalai Lama " itself

4307-400: The rise of another Oirat empire in the east, known as the Khanate of Dzungaria , which stretched from the Great Wall of China to present-day eastern Kazakhstan , and from present-day northern Kyrgyzstan to southern Siberia . It was the last empire of nomads , and was ruled by Choros noblemen. The Transition from Ming to Qing dynasties in China occurred in the mid-17th century, and

4380-429: The rule of a shaman-chief known as bäki . They lived in Tuva and the Mongolian Khövsgöl Province ; the Oirats moved south in the 14th century. In one famous passage, the Oirat chief Qutuqa Beki used a yada , or 'thunder stone', to unleash a powerful storm on Genghis' army. The magical ploy backfired, however, when an unexpected wind blew the storm back towards him. During the early stages of Genghis' rise to power,

4453-441: The shift towards the Russian language continues. According to the Russian 2010 Census there were 176,800 Kalmyks, of whom only 80,546 could speak the Kalmyk language, a serious decline from the level of the 2002 Census , in which the number of speakers was 153,602 (with a total number of 173,996 people). The Soviet 1989 Census showed 156,386 Kalmyk-speakers with a total number of 173,821 Kalmyks. The Mongols of Xinjiang form

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4526-492: The southwestern end of Lake Issyk-kul in present-day Kyrgyzstan . In addition to exiling Han criminals to Xinjiang to be slaves of the Banner garrisons there, the Qing also practiced reverse exile, exiling Inner Asian (Mongol, Russian and Muslim criminals from Mongolia and Inner Asia) to China proper where they would serve as slaves in Han Banner garrisons in Guangzhou. Russian, Oirats and Muslims (Oros. Ulet. Hoise jergi weilengge niyalma) such as Yakov and Dmitri were exiled to

4599-419: The use of the Oirat language in the region. Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the Dzungar population was wiped out by a combination of warfare and disease during the Manchu Qing conquest of Dzungaria in 1755–1757 . The Zunghar population reached 600,000 in 1755. Most of the Choros, Olot , Khoid , Baatud , and Zakhchin Oirats who battled against the Qing were killed by Manchu soldiers and, after

4672-433: The westernmost group of the Mongols , whose ancestral home is in the Altai region of Siberia , Xinjiang and western Mongolia . The first documented reference to Elut and Yelut was in the Onginsk "rune" inscriptions dated in the sixth century. Historically, the Oirats were composed of four major tribes: Dzungar (Choros or Olots / Elut / Yelut / Èlǔtè ), Torghut , Dörbet and Khoshut . The political elite of

4745-413: The word Kalmyk to describe the Oirats in a derogatory manner. But the Oirats of China and Mongolia have regarded that name as a term of abuse (Haslund, 1935:214–215). Instead, they use the name Oirat or go by their respective tribal names, e.g., Khoshut, Dörbet, Choros, Torghut, Khoit, Bayid, Mingat, etc. (Anuchin, 1914:57). Over time, the descendants of the Oirat migrants in the lower Volga region embraced

4818-414: Was a campaign medal of the Russian Empire . It was established on 30 August 1814 by decree of Emperor Alexander I of Russia . The medal was intended for those who participated in the taking of Paris in 1814 , from soldiers to generals. The medal was not awarded until 1826 as after the restoration of the French monarchy Alexander I considered it undiplomatic to award a medal that would remind France of

4891-496: Was afraid of the Zunghar and wanted the Qing government to allow them to move away from the border. They were settled in Dalan Uul–Altan. When Denzen died in 1740, his son Lubsan Darjaa succeeded him and became Beil. In 1753, they were settled on the banks of the Ejin River and the Ejin River Torghut 'khoshuu' was thus formed. Medal %22For the Capture of Paris%22 The Medal "For the Capture of Paris on 19 March 1814" ( Russian : Медаль «За взятие Парижа 19 марта 1814 года» )

4964-435: Was bestowed upon the third lama of the Gelug tulku lineage by Altan Khan (not to be confused with the Altan Khans of the Khalkha ), and means, in Mongolian, "Ocean of Wisdom". Amdo, meanwhile, became home to the Khoshuts. In 1717, the Dzungars invaded Tibet and killed Lha-bzang Khan (or Khoshut Khan ), a grandson of Güshi Khan and the fourth Khan of Tibet, and conquered the Khoshut Khanate . The Qing Empire defeated

5037-531: Was in Beijing from his youth, served as bodyguard of the Emperor, and a princess (of the Emperor) was given to him, thus making him a 'Khoshoi Tavnan', i.e. Emperor's groom. In 1793, Abuu became Jün Wang. There are several thousand Muslim Alasha Mongols. Mongols who lived along the Ejin River ( Ruo Shui ) descended from Rabjur, a grandson of Torghut Ayuka Khan from the Volga River. In 1698, Rabjur, with his mother, younger sister and 500 people, went to Tibet to pray. While they were returning via Beijing in 1704,

5110-413: Was killed; shortly afterwards, Oirat power declined. From the 14th until the middle of the 18th century, the Oirats were often at war with the Eastern Mongols , but reunited with them during the rule of Dayan Khan and Tümen Zasagt Khan . The Oirats converted to Tibetan Buddhism around 1615, and it was not long before they participated in the conflict between the Gelug and Karma Kagyu schools. At

5183-563: Was not immediately accepted by all of the Oirat tribes in the lower Volga region. As late as 1761, the Khoshut and Dzungars (refugees from the Qing Empire ) referred to themselves and the Torghuts exclusively as Oirats. The Torghuts, by contrast, used the name Kalmyk for themselves as well as the Khoshut and Dzungars. Generally, European scholars have identified all West Mongolians collectively as Kalmyks, regardless of their location ( Ramstedt , 1935: v–vi). Such scholars (e.g. Sebastian Muenster ) have relied on Muslim sources who traditionally used

5256-493: Was rarely as great a degree of unity among larger numbers of tribes as among the Oirats. In the 17th century, Zaya Pandita , a Gelug monk of the Khoshut tribe, devised a new writing system called Clear Script for use by Oirats. This system was developed on the basis of the older Mongolian script , but had a more developed system of diacritics to preclude misreading and reflected some lexical and grammatical differences of

5329-740: Was unveiled on the 400th anniversary of Zaya Pandita's birth, and on 350th anniversary of his creation of the Clear Script. The Oirats share some history, geography, culture and language with the Eastern Mongols , and were at various times united under the same leader as a larger Mongol entity, whether that ruler was of Oirat descent or of Chingissids . Comprising the Khoshut ( Mongolian : "хошууд", hošuud ), Choros or Ölöt ("өөлд", Ööld ), Torghut ("торгууд", Torguud ), and Dörbet ("дөрвөд", Dörvöd ) ethnic groups, they were dubbed Kalmyk or Kalmak, which means "remnant" or "to remain", by their western Turkic neighbours. Various sources also list

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