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103-711: During the Democratic Kampuchea days, the 68,000-member Khmer Rouge -dominated KPNLAF ( Khmer People's National Liberation Armed Forces ) force, which completed its conquest of Phnom Penh , capital of Cambodia in April 1975, was renamed the RAK (Revolutionary Army of Kampuchea). This name dated back to the peasant uprising that broke out in the Samlout District of Battambang province in 1967. Under its long-time commander and then Minister of Defense Son Sen ,

206-624: A 24-hour curfew and announced that the battle would continue. That afternoon Takhmau, the capital of the Kandal Province and 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) south of Phnom Penh, fell to the Khmer Rouge. The loss of this key point in the FANK defense perimeter had a demoralizing effect. Several counterattacks were initiated but to no avail. Soon a fierce battle was in progress in the southern suburbs. The U.S. aerial resupply into Pochentong

309-627: A backbone force of 17 American-made Swift class patrol boats (seven of which were sunk in May 1975 by U.S. air attack during the Mayaguez incident ). Additionally the Navy also possessed 2 submarine chasers E311 and E312 ( PC-461-class ), 3 LCUs and 1 LCM and a number of small river boats. The Air Force of the Revolutionary Army of Kampuchea ( Khmer : កងទ័ពអាកាសនៃកងទ័ពរំដោះកម្ពុជា , AFLAK)

412-421: A concentration camp. Despite the ideological commitment to radical equality, CPK members, local-level leaders of poor peasant backgrounds who collaborated with Angkar, and the armed forces constituted a clearly recognizable elite. They had a higher standard of living and received special privileges not enjoyed by the rest of the population. Refugees agree that, even during times of severe food shortages, members of

515-449: A contributing factor in hardening the population against such violence and simultaneously increasing their tolerance and hunger for it. Early explanations for the Khmer Rouge brutality suggest that the Khmer Rouge had been radicalised during the war years and later turned this radical understanding of society and violence onto their countrymen. This backdrop of violence and brutality arguably also affected everyday Cambodians, priming them for

618-563: A helicopter and were flown out, as was KAF commander Ea Chhong. Meanwhile, Long Boret boarded another helicopter which failed to take off. Four helicopters flew to Kampong Thom to refuel, arriving at 09:30. Establishing radio contact with Phnom Penh, Sak learned that the Khmer Rouge had penetrated into the General Staff Headquarters. General Mey Sichan addressed the nation and the troops in Sak's name asking them to hoist

721-808: A seemingly coherent pattern. Villages were also subdivided into 'groups' ( ក្រុម krŏm ) of 15–20 households who were led by a group leader ( មេក្រុម mé krŏm ). The Khmer Rouge dismantled the legal and judicial structures of the Khmer Republic. There were no courts, judges, laws or trials in Democratic Kampuchea. The "people’s courts" stipulated in Article 9 of the constitution were never established. The old legal structures were replaced by re-education, interrogation and security centres where former Khmer Republic officials and supporters as well as others were detained and executed. After

824-560: A shock to many in the Khmer Republic leadership, because Phnom Penh and almost all provincial capitals (except those in the east occupied by the North Vietnamese ) were in government hands, packed with millions of refugees. Estimates put the population under government control at six million, and those under Khmer Rouge control at one million. At 08:30, the Council of Ministers met in the office of Prime Minister Long Boret . It

927-648: A small number of civilian dependents on board to safe havens in neighbouring Thailand. At 02:00 on 17 April the Cabinet agreed that, as its peace offer had not been accepted, it would move the Cabinet, the Supreme Committee and even members of the Assembly from Phnom Penh to the north to the capital of Oddar Meanchey Province on the Thai border in order to continue resistance from there. The only way to leave

1030-517: A three-person committee. The committee chairman was selected by the CPK. This grassroots leadership was required to note the social origin of each family under its jurisdiction and to report it to persons higher up in the Angkar hierarchy. The number of "new people" may initially have been as high as 2.5 million. The "new people" were treated as forced labourers. They were constantly moved, were forced to do

1133-558: Is absolutely no unemployment in Democratic Kampuchea" rings true in light of the regime's massive use of force. The constitution defined Democratic Kampuchea's foreign policy principles in Article 21, the document's longest, in terms of "independence, peace, neutrality, and nonalignment ." It pledged the country's support to anti-imperialist struggles in the Third World . In light of the regime's aggressive attacks against Vietnamese , Thai , and Lao territory during 1977 and 1978,

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1236-526: The khum , assumed local government responsibilities in some areas. In January 1976, the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK) promulgated the Constitution of Democratic Kampuchea. The constitution provided for a Kampuchean People's Representative Assembly (KPRA) to be elected by secret ballot in direct general elections and a State Praesidium to be selected and appointed every five years by

1339-707: The Cambodian state from 1976 to 1979, under the totalitarian dictatorship of Pol Pot and the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK), commonly known as the Khmer Rouge . The Khmer Rouge's capture of the capital Phnom Penh in 1975 effectively ended the United States-backed Khmer Republic of Lon Nol . From 1975 to 1979, the Khmer Rouge's one-party regime killed millions of its own people through mass executions, forced labour, and starvation, in an event which has come to be known as

1442-610: The Cambodian genocide . The killings ended when the Khmer Rouge were ousted from Phnom Penh by the Vietnamese army . The Khmer Rouge subsequently established a government-in-exile in neighbouring Thailand and retained Kampuchea's seat at the United Nations (UN). In response, Vietnamese-backed communists created a rival government, the People's Republic of Kampuchea , but failed to gain international recognition. In 1982,

1545-495: The Great Leap Forward . Khieu Samphan and Khieu Thirith "just smiled an incredulous and superior smile." Khieu Samphan and Son Sen later boasted to Sihanouk that "we will be the first nation to create a completely communist society without wasting time on intermediate steps." Although conditions varied from region to region, a situation that was, in part, a reflection of factional divisions that still existed within

1648-653: The National United Front of Kampuchea (FUNK), to Phnom Penh. Sihanouk rejected the request the following morning. With the situation worsening in Phnom Penh, on 12 April the American embassy initiated Operation Eagle Pull , the evacuation of all US personnel. Ambassador Dean invited the members of the government to be evacuated, but all refused except for acting President Saukham Khoy, who left without telling his fellow leaders. The evacuation came as

1751-629: The Olympic Stadium where they were executed; senior government and military leaders were forced to write confessions prior to their executions. The Khmer Rouge ordered the evacuation of Phnom Penh, emptying the city except for expatriates who took refuge in the French embassy until 30 April, when they were transported to Thailand. At the beginning of 1975, the Khmer Republic , a United States-supported military government, controlled only

1854-521: The United States government evacuated US nationals and allied Cambodians on 12 April 1975. On 17 April, the Khmer Republic government evacuated the city, intending to establish a new government center close to the Thai border to continue resistance. Later that day, the last defences around Phnom Penh were overrun and the Khmer Rouge occupied Phnom Penh. Captured Khmer Republic forces were taken to

1957-562: The "Unconditional Divisions", were a privileged group within the military. The Khmer Rouge regime was also characterized by "totalitarian puritanism" with any sex before marriage being punishable by death in many cooperatives and zones. Fall of Phnom Penh American intervention 1965 1966 1967 Tet Offensive and aftermath Vietnamization 1969–1971 1972 Post- Paris Peace Accords (1973–1974) Spring 1975 Air operations Naval operations Lists of allied operations The Fall of Phnom Penh

2060-422: The 1st Division grew each day and the evacuation of its sick and wounded by helicopter was no longer possible. The last reserves of the high command, constituted by hastily taking the battalions of the former Provincial Guard, were rushed to the north, only to be completely dispersed by the Khmer Rouge after several hours of combat. A great breach was opened in the northern defenses, with no hope of closing it. To

2163-409: The 7th Division was in an increasingly difficult position; its front had been cut in several places, particularly in the region of Toul Leap which had changed hands several times. The 3rd Division, located on Route 4 in the vicinity of Bek Chan ( 11°30′36″N 104°44′53″E  /  11.51°N 104.748°E  / 11.51; 104.748 ), some 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) west of Pochentong,

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2266-409: The CPK during the 1970s, the testimony of refugees reveals that the most salient social division was between the politically suspect " new people ", those driven out of the towns after the communist victory, and the more reliable "old people", the peasants who had remained in the countryside. The working class was a negligible factor because of the evacuation of the urban areas and the idling of most of

2369-434: The CPK's existence. It was also around that time that it was confirmed that Pol Pot was the same person as Saloth Sar, who had long been cited as the CPK's general secretary. The Khmer Rouge government did away with all former Cambodian traditional administrative divisions. Instead of provinces, Democratic Kampuchea was divided into geographic zones, derived from divisions established by the Khmer Rouge when they fought against

2472-778: The Cabinet realized that the Khmer Rouge did not want to accept the offer. Meanwhile the Khmer Rouge had occupied the east bank of the Mekong following the withdrawal of the Parachute Brigade, while General Dien Del ’s 2nd Division held the Monivong Bridge . KAF T-28Ds flew their last combat sortie by bombing the KAF control centre and hangars at Pochentong upon its capture by the Khmer Rouge. After virtually expending their ordnance reserves, 97 KAF aircraft escaped from airbases and auxiliary airfields throughout Cambodia, with

2575-766: The Central Zone, there seem to have been more executions than there were victims of starvation. Little reliable information emerged on conditions in the Northeastern Zone, one of the most isolated parts of Cambodia. On the surface, society in Democratic Kampuchea was strictly egalitarian . The Khmer language , like many in Southeast Asia, has a complex system of usages to define speakers' rank and social status. These usages were abandoned, and people were forbidden to speak any language other than Khmer . Neologisms were introduced, and everyday vocabulary

2678-601: The Hotel Monorom ( 11°34′12″N 104°55′05″E  /  11.57°N 104.918°E  / 11.57; 104.918 ). Its first action was to order the immediate execution of Lon Non and other leading government figures. Captured FANK officers were taken to the Hotel Monoram to write their biographies and then to the Olympic Stadium, where they were executed. On the morning of 18 April, Sak and

2781-682: The KPRA. The KPRA met only once, a three-day session in April 1976. However, members of the KPRA were never elected, as the Central Committee of the CPK appointed the chairman and other high officials both to it and to the State Praesidium. Plans for elections of members were discussed, but the 250 members of the KPRA were in fact appointed by the upper echelon of CPK. All power belonged to the Standing Committee of CPK,

2884-672: The Khmer Republic was limited by the Case–Church Amendment , BirdAir , a company under contract to the US Government, controlled the airlift with a mixed fleet of C-130 and DC-8 planes, flying 20 times a day into Pochentong from U-Tapao Royal Thai Navy Airfield . On 5 March, Khmer Rouge artillery at Toul Leap ( 11°34′26″N 104°45′25″E  /  11.574°N 104.757°E  / 11.574; 104.757 ), north-west of Phnom Penh, shelled Pochentong Airport, but FANK troops recaptured Toul Leap on 15 March and ended

2987-752: The Khmer Rouge abolished the old provinces ( ខេត្ត khet ) and replaced them with seven zones ( ភូមិភាគ phoumipheak ); the Northern Zone, Northeastern Zone, Northwestern Zone, Central Zone, Eastern Zone, Western Zone, and Southwestern Zone. There were also two other regional-level units: the Kracheh Special Region Number 505 and, until 1977, the Siemreab Special Region Number 106. The zones were divided into regions ( តំបន់ damban ) that were given numbers. Number One, appropriately, encompassed

3090-690: The Khmer Rouge established the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea (CGDK) with two non-communist guerrilla factions, broadening the exiled government of Democratic Kampuchea. The exiled government renamed itself the National Government of Cambodia in 1990, in the run-up to the UN-sponsored 1991 Paris Peace Agreements . In 1970, Premier Lon Nol and the National Assembly deposed Norodom Sihanouk as

3193-429: The Khmer Rouge military forces numbered only 68,000, with a further 14,000 party members. Elizabeth Becker asserts that lacking the numbers necessary to openly control Cambodia, emptying Phnom Penh of those of its population who were indifferent or openly hostile to them was essential for securing Khmer Rouge control. Koy Thuon , a Khmer Rouge deputy front commander, organized the "Committee for Wiping Out Enemies" at

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3296-546: The Khmer Rouge, and cadres administered it with strict discipline, random executions were relatively rare, and "new people" were not persecuted if they had a cooperative attitude. In the Western Zone and in the Northwestern Zone, conditions were harsh. Starvation was general in the latter zone because cadres sent rice to Phnom Penh rather than distributing it to the local population. In the Northern Zone and in

3399-518: The Khmer Rouge. By 14 April, the military situation was becoming increasingly precarious. That morning, the Cabinet met at Sak's office at the General Staff Headquarters ( 11°34′01″N 104°55′30″E  /  11.567°N 104.925°E  / 11.567; 104.925 ). At 10:25 a KAF pilot dropped four 250-pound bombs from his T-28 light attack plane. Two of the bombs exploded about 20 yards (18 m) from Sak's office, killing seven officers and NCOs and wounding twenty others. Sak declared

3502-527: The Mekong. On 27 January, seven vessels limped into Phnom Penh, the survivors of a 16-ship convoy that had come under attack during the 100 kilometres (62 mi) journey from the South Vietnamese border. On 3 February, a convoy heading downriver hit naval mines laid by the Khmer Rouge at Phú Mỹ , approximately 74 kilometres (46 mi) from Phnom Penh. The Khmer National Navy (MNK) had mine-sweeping capability, but due to Khmer Rouge control of

3605-510: The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Industry, were controlled and exploited by powerful Khmer Rouge families. Administering the diplomatic corps was regarded as an especially profitable fiefdom. According to Craig Etcheson, an authority on Democratic Kampuchea, members of the revolutionary army lived in self-contained colonies, and they had a "distinctive warrior-caste ethos." Armed forces units personally loyal to Pol Pot, known as

3708-484: The Olympic Stadium where they were later executed. The Khmer Rouge held a press conference at the Ministry of Information where a number of prisoners, including Lon Non and Hem Keth Dara, were being held. A car carrying Long Boret arrived and he joined the prisoners. After midday the Khmer Rouge ordered the evacuation of the city for three days, evicting expatriates and Cambodians from the Hotel Le Phnom , which

3811-516: The Phnom Penh area and a string of towns along the Mekong River that provided the crucial supply route for food and munitions coming upriver from South Vietnam . As part of their 1975 dry season offensive, rather than renewing their frontal attacks on Phnom Penh, the Khmer Rouge set out to cut the crucial Mekong supply route. On 12 January 1975, the Khmer Rouge attacked Neak Luong , a key Khmer National Armed Forces (FANK) defensive outpost on

3914-399: The RAK had 230 battalions in 35 to 40 regiments and in 12 to 14 brigades. The command structure in units was based on three-person committees in which the political commissar ranked higher than the military commander and his deputy. Cambodia was divided into zones and special sectors by the RAK, the boundaries of which changed slightly over the years. Within these areas, the RAK's first task

4017-401: The RAK had 230 battalions in 35 to 40 regiments and in 12 to 14 brigades. The command structure in units was based on three-person committees in which the political commissar ranked higher than the military commander and his deputy. Cambodia was divided into zones and special sectors by the RAK, the boundaries of which changed slightly over the years. Within these areas, the RAK's first task was

4120-467: The Red Cross had sought to establish as a neutral zone, and emptying the city's hospitals, which contained approximately 20,000 wounded who were unlikely to survive the journey to the countryside. Approximately 800 expatriates and 600 Cambodians took refuge at the French embassy ( 11°34′59″N 104°54′58″E  /  11.583°N 104.916°E  / 11.583; 104.916 ). At this time

4223-462: The Samlot region of the Northwestern Zone (including Battambang Province), where the insurrection against Sihanouk had erupted in early 1967. With this exception, the damban appear to have been numbered arbitrarily. The damban were divided into districts ( ស្រុក srok ), communes ( ឃុំ khum ), and villages ( ភូមិ phum ), the latter usually containing several hundred people. This pattern

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4326-532: The Supreme Committee and the Cabinet. This Council made decisions including political and military measures, channeling the ever-increasing stream of refugees into schools, pagodas, their feeding, the reshuffling of the cabinet, reinforcing the troops in Phnom Penh by flying in a few battalions from different provinces through the Mean Chey airport and the formation of an Ad Hoc Committee chaired by Long Boret to prepare peace overtures for either Prince Sihanouk or

4429-468: The Supreme Committee had its first session and unanimously elected Sak Sutsakhan president, becoming both the head of the government and interim Chief of State. Sak decided to make a last peace offer to Prince Sihanouk, transferring the Republic and its armed forces to him, but not surrendering to the Khmer Rouge. Late that night, Sak called a meeting of the Council of Ministers, this time consisting of both

4532-635: The Supreme Committee: Lieutenant general Sak Sutsakhan , the FANK Chief of Staff, Major General Thongvan Fanmuong , MNK Rear admiral Vong Sarendy , KAF commander Brigadier general Ea Chhong, Long Boret, Hang Thun Hak , Vice Prime Minister and Op Kim Ang, representative of the Social Republican Party . The military situation had deteriorated sharply during the day. In the north, the defensive line

4635-487: The aged and the disabled, and they set up stockpiles of food outside the city for the refugees; however, the supplies were inadequate to sustain the hundreds of thousands of people on the road. Even seriously injured hospital patients, many without any means of conveyance, were summarily forced to leave regardless of their condition. The foreign community, about 800 people, was quarantined in the French embassy compound, and by

4738-432: The armed forces; and fifty, for worker and other representatives. The legislature was to be popularly elected for a five-year term. Its first and only election was held on 20 March 1976. " New People " apparently were not allowed to participate. The executive branch of government also was chosen by the KPRA. It consisted of a state presidium "responsible for representing the state of Democratic Kampuchea inside and outside

4841-532: The base was surrounded and about to be overrun. As Khmer Rouge forces entered the command post Sarendy committed suicide. By 08:00 the rest of the Cabinet, the deputies and the senators left the session, leaving Long Boret and Sak. General Thach Reng arrived to plead with them to leave with him, as he still had his men of the Special Forces and seven UH-1 helicopters at his disposal at the Olympic Stadium . At approximately 08:30 Sak and his family boarded

4944-453: The capital from all directions. The authorities, both civil and military, were swamped and did not know where to house them. Schools, pagodas and public gardens were occupied by the refugees; authorities had no way to determine who was friend and who was Khmer Rouge. On 11 April in Peking , the US Government requested the immediate return of Prince Norodom Sihanouk , the figurehead leader of

5047-553: The capital was by helicopter. At 04:00 the members of the Government met in the garden in front of the Wat Botum Vaddey ( 11°33′32″N 104°55′55″E  /  11.559°N 104.932°E  / 11.559; 104.932 ) for evacuation, but the helicopters did not show up. Dawn was breaking over the eastern horizon. The Government members returned to Premier Long Boret's house at 05:30 and decided to resist to

5150-414: The capital. The brigade tried to move west, but was only able to get 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) down Route 4. Meanwhile, refugees continued to pour into the city. On 16 April, the morning Cabinet meeting was devoted entirely to the mechanics of sending a peace offer to Peking as quickly as possible. Long Boret drafted the offer calling for an immediate ceasefire and a transfer of power to FUNK. The offer

5253-487: The city welcoming the arrival of the Khmer Rouge. MONATIO was apparently a creation of Lon Non, in an attempt to share power with the Khmer Rouge. Initially tolerated by the Khmer Rouge, MONATIO members were later rounded up and executed. Several hours later the Khmer Rouge began entering central Phnom Penh from all directions and stationed themselves at the major crossroads where they disarmed FANK soldiers and collected weapons. The disarmed soldiers were then marched to

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5356-523: The city were clogged with evacuees. Similar evacuations occurred throughout the nation. The conditions of the evacuation and the treatment of the people involved often depended on which military units and commanders were conducting the specific operations. Pol Pot's brother – Chhay , who worked as a Republican journalist in the capital – was reported to have died during the evacuation of Phnom Penh . Even Phnom Penh's hospitals were emptied of their patients. The Khmer Rouge provided transportation for some of

5459-508: The communist party. The Khmer Rouge abolished the Royal Government of National Union of Kampuchea ( GRUNK , established in 1970) and promulgated the Constitution of Democratic Kampuchea on 5 January 1976. The Khmer Rouge continued to use Sihanouk as a figurehead for the government until 2 April 1976 when Sihanouk resigned as head of state. Sihanouk remained under comfortable, but insecure, house arrest in Phnom Penh, until late in

5562-479: The corruption and "parasitism" of city life would be completely uprooted. In addition, Pol Pot wanted to break up the "enemy spy organisations" that allegedly were based in the urban areas. Finally, it seems that Pol Pot and his hard-line associates on the CPK Political Bureau used the forced evacuations to gain control of the city's population and to weaken the position of their factional rivals within

5665-427: The country and displaced Cambodians while making available to the Khmer Rouge the weapons of war. The Khmer Rouge leveraged on the devastation caused by the war to recruit members and used this past violence to justify the similarly, if not more, violent and radical policies of the regime. The birth of Democratic Kampuchea and its propensity for violence must be understood against this backdrop of war that likely played

5768-471: The country's few factories. The one important working class group in pre-revolutionary Cambodia—labourers on large rubber plantations—traditionally had consisted mostly of Vietnamese immigrants and thus was politically suspect. The number of people, including refugees, living in the urban areas on the eve of the communist victory probably was somewhat more than 3 million, out of the total population of roughly 8 million. As mentioned, despite their rural origins,

5871-503: The country. "New people" were subjected to unending political indoctrination and could be executed without trial. The situation of the "old people" under Khmer Rouge rule was more ambiguous. Refugee interviews reveal cases in which villagers were treated as harshly as the "new people", enduring forced labour, indoctrination, the separation of children from parents, and executions; however, they were generally allowed to remain in their native villages. Because of their age-old resentment of

5974-421: The country." It served for a five-year term, and its president was head of state. Khieu Samphan was the only person to serve in this office, which he assumed after Sihanouk's resignation. The judicial system was composed of "people's courts", the judges for which were appointed by the KPRA, as was the executive branch. The constitution did not mention regional or local government institutions. After assuming power,

6077-643: The countryside, the capital Phnom Penh finally fell on 17 April 1975 to the Khmer Rouge. Thus, prior to the Khmer Rouge's takeover of Phnom Penh in 1975 and the start of the Zero Years, Cambodia had already been involved in the Third Indochina War . Tensions between Cambodia and Vietnam were growing due to differences in communist ideology and the incursion of Vietnamese military presence within Cambodian borders. The context of war destabilised

6180-457: The death in Phnom Penh itself. After 06:00, the Minister of Information, Thong Lim Huong, brought a cable that just arrived from Peking advising that the peace appeal had been rejected by Sihanouk. At the same time, they branded the seven members of the Supreme Committee as chief traitors, in addition to the seven who had taken power in 1970. Heavy fighting had been taking place since 04:00 in

6283-754: The demands of the FANK. The general logistic situation for FANK was increasingly critical and the resupply of ammunition for the infantry could only be carried out sporadically. Premier Lon Nol resigned on 1 April. The departure ceremony at the Chamcar Mon Palace was attended by Khmer only, the diplomatic corps having not been invited. From the grounds of Chamcar Mon, helicopters took Lon Nol, his family and party to Pochentong, where Lon Nol met American ambassador John Gunther Dean before boarding an Air Cambodge flight to U-Tapao in Thailand and into exile. Saukam Khoy became acting President, and it

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6386-498: The end of 1975. A year after the Khmer Rouge takeover, Sihanouk resigned in mid-April 1976 (made retroactive to 2 April 1976) and was placed under house arrest, where he remained until 1979, and the Khmer Rouge remained in sole control. In deportations that became markers of the beginning of their rule, the Khmer Rouge demanded and then forced the people to leave the cities and live in the countryside. Phnom Penh —populated by 2.5 million people —was soon nearly empty. The roads out of

6489-425: The end of the month the foreigners were taken by truck to the Thai border. Khmer women who were married to foreigners were allowed to accompany their husbands, but Khmer men were not permitted to leave with their foreign wives. Western historians claim that the motives were political, based on deep-rooted resentment of the cities . The Khmer Rouge was determined to turn the country into a nation of peasants in which

6592-460: The establishment of Democratic Kampuchea, the 68,000-member Khmer Rouge-dominated KPNLAF ( Khmer People's National Liberation Armed Forces ) force, which completed its conquest of Phnom Penh, Cambodia in April 1975, was renamed the RAK ( Kampuchea Revolutionary Army ). This name dated back to the peasant uprising that broke out in the Samlout District of Battambang province in 1967. Under its long-time commander and then Minister of Defense Son Sen ,

6695-510: The grassroots elite had adequate, if not luxurious, supplies of food. One refugee wrote that "pretty new bamboo houses" were built for Khmer Rouge cadres along the river in Phnom Penh. Members of the Central Committee could go to China for medical treatment, and the highest echelons of the party had access to imported luxury products. They also had a tendency to nepotism similar of the Sihanouk-era elite. Pol Pot's wife, Khieu Ponnary ,

6798-553: The hardest physical labour, and worked in the most inhospitable, fever-ridden parts of the country, such as forests, upland areas, and swamps. "New people" were segregated from "old people", enjoyed little or no privacy, and received the smallest rice rations. When the country experienced food shortages in 1977, the "new people" suffered the most. The medical care available to them was primitive or nonexistent. Families often were separated because people were divided into work brigades according to age and sex and sent to different parts of

6901-444: The head of state. Sihanouk, opposing the new government, entered into an alliance with the Khmer Rouge against them. Taking advantage of Vietnamese occupation of eastern Cambodia, massive United States carpet bombing ranging across the country, and Sihanouk's reputation, the Khmer Rouge were able to present themselves as a peace-oriented party in a coalition that represented the majority of the people. Thus, with large popular support in

7004-898: The ill-fated Khmer Republic led by General Lon Nol. There were seven zones, namely the Northwest, the North, the Northeast, the East, the Southwest, the West and the center, plus two Special Regions, i.e. the Kratie Special Region no 505 and (before mid-1977) the Siemreap Special Region no 106. The regions were subdivided into smaller areas or tâmbán . These were known by numbers, which were assigned without

7107-422: The membership of which comprised the Secretary and Prime Minister Pol Pot , his Deputy Secretary Nuon Chea and seven others. It was known also as the "Centre", the "Organisation" or " Angkar ", and its daily work was conducted from Office 870 in Phnom Penh. For almost two years after the takeover, the Khmer Rouge continued to refer to itself as simply Angkar. It was only in a March 1977 speech that Pol Pot revealed

7210-426: The north of the city around the main power station ( 11°35′24″N 104°54′54″E  /  11.59°N 104.915°E  / 11.59; 104.915 ). By dawn, the firing ceased as the FANK forces gave way to the Khmer Rouge and retreated along Monivong Boulevard into the city center. Admiral Vong Sarendy had returned to the naval base which was under attack by the Khmer Rouge. He called Sak later advising that

7313-690: The peremptory execution of former Khmer National Armed Forces (FANK) officers and of their families, without trial or fanfare to eliminate Khmer Rouge enemies. The RAK's next priority was to consolidate into a national army the separate forces that were operating more or less autonomously in the various zones. The Khmer Rouge units were commanded by zonal secretaries who were simultaneously party and military officers, some of whom were said to have manifested " warlord characteristics". Troops from one zone were frequently sent to another zone to enforce discipline. These efforts to discipline zonal secretaries and their dissident or ideologically impure cadres gave rise to

7416-556: The period of 1975 to 1979, mainly consisting of Khmer Rouge operatives. In 1979 during the Cambodian–Vietnamese War it was reformed into the National Army of Democratic Kampuchea to continue to fight against the People's Army of Vietnam and the new Kampuchean People's Revolutionary Armed Forces . The Revolutionary Navy of Kampuchea ( Khmer : កងទ័ពជើងទឹករំដោះកម្ពុជា , LNK) under the new Khmer Rouge regime had

7519-636: The promise to "maintain close and friendly relations with all countries sharing a common border" bore little resemblance to reality. Governmental institutions were outlined very briefly in the constitution. The legislature, the Kampuchean People's Representative Assembly (KPRA), contained 250 members "representing workers, peasants, and other working people and the Kampuchean Revolutionary army." One hundred and fifty KPRA seats were allocated for peasant representatives; fifty, for

7622-517: The purges that were to decimate RAK ranks, to undermine the morale of the victorious army, and to generate the seeds of rebellion. In this way, the Khmer Rouge used the RAK to sustain and fuel its violent campaign. According to Pol Pot, Cambodia was made up of four classes : peasants , proletariat , bourgeoisie , and feudalists . Post-revolutionary society, as defined by the 1976 constitution of Democratic Kampuchea, consisted of workers, peasants, and "all other Kampuchean working people." No allowance

7725-466: The purges that were to decimate RAK ranks, to undermine the morale of the victorious army, and to generate the seeds of rebellion. In this way, the Khmer Rouge used the LAK to sustain and fuel its violent campaign. The Air Force of the Revolutionary Army of Kampuchea was formed in 1977 and disband in 1979. The Revolutionary Army of Kampuchea was the official name of the army of Democratic Kampuchea during

7828-463: The refugees were considered "new people"—that is, people unsympathetic to Democratic Kampuchea. Some doubtless passed as "old people" after returning to their native villages, but the Khmer Rouge seem to have been extremely vigilant in recording and keeping track of the movements of families and of individuals. The lowest unit of social control, the krom (group), consisted of ten to fifteen nuclear families whose activities were closely supervised by

7931-507: The remaining members of the Khmer Republic Government and assorted military personnel boarded a KAF C-123 and flew to U-Tapao and into exile. The same day the Khmer Rouge ordered all Cambodians in the French embassy, other than women married to Frenchmen, to leave the embassy or they would take it over; they rejected any right of asylum. Among those evicted was Prince Sisowath Sirik Matak , one of those responsible for

8034-767: The removal of Sihanouk from power in 1970 and who had been branded one of the seven original traitors marked for execution by the FUNK. Also evicted were Princess Mam Manivan Phanivong , one of Sihanouk's wives; Khy-Taing Lim, the Minister of Finance; and Loeung Nal, the Minister of Health. Long Boret was executed on the grounds of the Cercle Sportif in Phnom Penh (now the location of the US embassy) on or about 21 April. Khmer Rouge Radio subsequently reported that he had been beheaded but other reports indicate that he and Sisowath Sirik Matak were executed by firing squad or that he

8137-477: The riverbanks, mine-sweeping was impossible or at best, extremely costly. The MNK had lost a quarter of its ships, and 70 percent of its sailors had been killed or wounded. By 17 February, the Khmer Republic abandoned attempts to reopen the Mekong supply line. All subsequent supplies for Phnom Penh would have to come in by air to Pochentong Airport . The United States quickly mobilised an airlift of food, fuel and ammunition into Phnom Penh, but as US support for

8240-458: The shelling. Khmer Rouge forces continued to close in to the north and west of the city and were soon able to fire on Pochentong again. On 22 March, rockets hit two supply aircraft, forcing the American embassy to announce the following day a suspension of the airlift until the security situation improved. Realizing that the Khmer Republic would soon collapse without supplies, the embassy reversed

8343-479: The suspension on 24 March and increased the number of aircraft available for the airlift. The hope among the Khmer Government and the embassy was that the Khmer Rouge offensive could be held back until the start of the rainy season in May when fighting typically abated. By late March, the FANK maintained a defensive perimeter some 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) from central Phnom Penh. In the northwest,

8446-722: The troops of the Phnom Penh Military Region. The MNK naval base on the Chrouy Changvar peninsula ( 11°34′59″N 104°54′58″E  /  11.583°N 104.916°E  / 11.583; 104.916 ) and the Khmer Air Force (KAF) base at Pochentong were defended by their own forces. The key position of Neak Luong on the east bank of the Mekong was completely isolated. The KAF and the MNK were overstretched and undersupplied and could not satisfy

8549-523: The urban and rural elites, many of the poorest peasants probably were sympathetic to Khmer Rouge's goals. In the early 1980s, visiting Western journalists found that the issue of peasant support for the Khmer Rouge was an extremely sensitive subject that officials of the People's Republic of Kampuchea were not inclined to discuss. Although the Southwestern Zone was one original centre of power of

8652-570: The violence that they themselves perpetrated under the Khmer Rouge regime. Phnom Penh fell on 17 April 1975. Sihanouk was given the symbolic position of Head of State for the new government of Democratic Kampuchea and, in September 1975, returned to Phnom Penh from exile in Beijing. After a trip abroad, during which he visited several communist countries and recommended the recognition of Democratic Kampuchea, Sihanouk returned again to Cambodia at

8755-670: The war with Vietnam he departed for the United States where he made Democratic Kampuchea's case before the Security Council. He eventually relocated to China. The "rights and duties of the individual" were briefly defined in Article 12. They included none of what are commonly regarded as guarantees of political human rights except the statement that "men and women are equal in every respect." The document declared, however, that "all workers" and "all peasants" were "masters" of their factories and fields. An assertion that "there

8858-403: The west, the troops of Brigadier General Norodom Chantaraingsey 's 3rd Division, despite reinforcements, were unable to join with their own elements at Kompong Speu and retake the position at Toul Leap. A computation error which caused FANK artillery fire to land on 3rd Division elements during the operation badly affected the unit's morale. Throughout this period, civilian refugees fled toward

8961-521: The white flag as a sign of peace. Sak's helicopter arrived at Oddar Meanchey at 13:30, as the collapse of the Republic was imminent. Any chance of reestablishing the Government evaporated and the assembled officers decided to seek exile in Thailand. As the Khmer Rouge entered the capital, a small group of soldiers and armed students, styled as the MONATIO and led by Hem Keth Dara, began driving around

9064-507: Was a further menace to the capital. From 3–4 April, all FANK positions on Route 1 above Neak Luong held by the FANK 1st Division fell one after the other; any reinforcement, whether by road or via the Mekong, was impossible. North of the capital, in the 7th Division area, Khmer Rouge attacks came daily and despite regular air support there was no improvement in the situation there. Several counterattacks by FANK, carried out to retake lost positions, were unsuccessful. The losses suffered by

9167-548: Was altered to encourage a more collectivist mentality. People were encouraged to call each other "friend", or "comrade" (in Khmer, មតដ mitt ), and to avoid traditional signs of deference such as bowing or folding the hands in salutation. They were also encouraged to talk about themselves in the plural "we" rather than the singular "I". Aspects of life from the Khmer Republic such as art, television, mail, books, movies, music, and personal vehicles were prohibited. The language

9270-509: Was appointed head of the Calmette Hospital although she had not graduated from secondary school. A niece of Ieng Sary was given a job as English translator for Radio Phnom Penh although her fluency in the language was relative. Family ties were important, both because of the culture and because of the leadership's intense secretiveness and distrust of outsiders, especially of pro-Vietnamese communists. Different ministries, such as

9373-402: Was completely halted. The 15th began with the Khmer Rouge pressing in from north and west. Pochentong and the dike running east–west to the north of Phnom Penh, both of which formed the last ring of defense around the capital, were overrun by Khmer Rouge assaults. The intervention of the Parachute Brigade, brought back from the east of the Mekong, had no effect on the situation to the west of

9476-482: Was cut at several points by the Khmer Rouge, in spite of the fierce resistance by FANK units. Pochentong Airport was in imminent danger of being taken; the small military airport of Mean Chey had to be designated as an emergency landing place for the planes and helicopters bringing ammunition and supplies. 13 April was the Cambodian New Year and the Khmer Rouge continued to bombard Phnom Penh. At 09:00

9579-460: Was cut off from its own command post at Kompong Speu . In the south, the 1st Division handled the defense, along with the 15th Brigade of Brigadier General Lon Non ; it was the calmest part of the front at that time. In the region of Takhmau , Route 1 and the Bassac River , the 1st Division was subject to continued Khmer Rouge pressure. East of the capital were the Parachute Brigade and

9682-474: Was decided that a general assembly should be convoked, consisting of the highest functionaries and military leaders. From 14:00 the general assembly sat in the Chamcar Mon Palace. It finally adopted a unanimous resolution asking for the transfer of power to the military and condemning Saukham Khoy for not handing over his office in a legitimate way. At 23:00 the general assembly elected the members of

9785-505: Was head of the Association of Democratic Khmer Women and her younger sister, Khieu Thirith , served as minister of social action. These two women were considered among the half-dozen most powerful personalities in Democratic Kampuchea. Son Sen's wife, Yun Yat , served as minister for culture, education and learning. Several of Pol Pot's nephews and nieces were given jobs in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. One of Ieng Sary 's daughters

9888-436: Was hoped that with Lon Nol's departure peace negotiations could progress. The rapidly worsening situation of March was capped on the night of 1 April by the fall of Neak Luong, despite ferocious resistance and following a three-month siege. This development opened the southern approach to the capital and freed up 6000 Khmer Rouge soldiers to join the forces besieging Phnom Penh. The capture of six 105-mm howitzers at Neak Luong

9991-415: Was made for a transitional stage such as China's New Democracy in which "patriotic" landlord or bourgeois elements were permitted to play a role in socialist construction. Sihanouk writes that in 1975 he, Khieu Samphan , and Khieu Thirith went to visit Zhou Enlai , who was gravely ill. Zhou warned them not to attempt to achieve communism in a single step, as China had attempted in the late 1950s with

10094-402: Was mainly defunct for the time that Democratic Kampuchea existed. Many aircraft were captured from Khmer Air Force including many western types. During the Mayaguez incident 5 T-28 Trojan aircraft were destroyed. All aircraft were destroyed or captured in 1979 during the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia. • Democratic Kampuchea Democratic Kampuchea was the official name of

10197-543: Was roughly similar to that which existed under Sihanouk and the Khmer Republic, but inhabitants of the villages were organized into groups ( ក្រុម krom ) composed of ten to fifteen families. On each level, administration was directed by a three-person committee ( kanak , or kena ). CPK members occupied committee posts at the higher levels. Subdistrict and village committees were often staffed by local poor peasants, and, very rarely, by "new people." Cooperatives ( សហករណ៍ sahakor ), similar in jurisdictional area to

10300-627: Was sent to Peking via the Red Cross and the Agence France-Presse . The military situation was becoming worse, the Shell oil depot ( 11°36′25″N 104°55′01″E  /  11.607°N 104.917°E  / 11.607; 104.917 ) north of the city was set ablaze by gunfire, while fire swept shacks to the south of the city. All afternoon the Cabinet waited for the answer from Peking. By 23:00 an answer had still not arrived and

10403-498: Was the capture of Phnom Penh , capital of the Khmer Republic (in present-day Cambodia ), by the Khmer Rouge on 17 April 1975, effectively ending the Cambodian Civil War . At the beginning of April 1975, Phnom Penh, one of the last remaining strongholds of the Khmer Republic, was surrounded by the Khmer Rouge and totally dependent on aerial resupply through Pochentong Airport . With a Khmer Rouge victory imminent,

10506-695: Was the peremptory execution of former Khmer National Armed Forces (FANK) officers and of their families, without trial or fanfare to eliminate Khmer Rouge enemies. The RAK's next priority was to consolidate into a national army the separate forces that were operating more or less autonomously in the various zones. The Khmer Rouge units were commanded by zonal secretaries who were simultaneously party and military officers, some of whom were said to have manifested " warlord characteristics". Troops from one zone frequently were sent to another zone to enforce discipline. These efforts to discipline zonal secretaries and their dissident or ideologically impure cadres gave rise to

10609-483: Was transformed in other ways. The Khmer Rouge invented new terms. People were told they must "forge" ( លត់ដំ lot dam ) a new revolutionary character, that they were the "instruments" ( ឧបករណ៍ opokar ) of the Angkar, and that nostalgia for pre-revolutionary times ( ឈឺសតិអារម្មណ៍ chheu satek arom , or "memory sickness") could result in their receiving Angkar's "invitation" to be deindustrialised and to live in

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